版权信息

书名：葛传椝英语学习系列（套装共6册）

作者：葛传椝

责任编辑：陆亚平 金宇

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微信公众号：数字译文

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总目录

葛传椝英语惯用法

葛传槼英文学习法

葛传椝向学习英语者讲话

葛传椝英语写作

葛传槼英文随笔

葛传椝英文书信序言选编

版权信息

书名：葛传槼英语惯用法词典

作者：葛传槼

ISBN：9787532758111

责任编辑：张磊　陆亚平

关注微博：@数字译文

微信公众号：数字译文

联系我们：hi@shtph.com

问题反馈：complain@shtph.com

合作电话：021-53594508

前言

要学好英语，必须掌握英语惯用法。无论听、说、读、写、译和应付“托福”、GRE、GMAT、“雅思”等各种英语考试，都要熟练地掌握英语惯用法。

本词典除了英语常用词汇在英语惯用法中的正确用法和错误用法的详细说明以外，还有大量说明英国用法和美国用法的不同之处、各种表现方式的细微区别和普通用法与不普通用法之间的差异等等的例解，必要时加以详尽的说明。本词典不仅可供查阅，同时还是一本学习英语的读物，可供读者经常阅读，甚至逐条精读，以纠正一味“不求甚解”、始终似懂非懂、一知半解的不良学习方法，从而帮助英语学习者养成“必求甚解”的良好习惯，掌握学好英语的真正有效的学习方法。

本书以我国英语界泰斗、英语惯用法权威葛传椝先生所著的《英语惯用法词典》（新修订本简体字重排本）为蓝本对原书中一些过于陈旧的汉译作了相应的改动。

A

a, an

1.a和an用法的区别，一般说来，是在以辅音开首的词前面用a，在以元音开首的词前面用an。不过要注意，这里说的是辅音和元音，不是辅音字母和元音字母。如hour以辅音字母h开首，但读音作［ˈaʊə］，是以元音开首的，所以前面该用an，不用a。又如one以元音字母o开首，但读音作［wʌn］，是以辅音开首的，所以前面该用a，不用an。又如M. A.（=Master of Arts，文科硕士）里的M是辅音字母，但读音作［em］（M. A. 读［ˈemˈeɪ］或［emˈeɪ］），所以前面该用an，不用a。MS（=manuscript，手稿）前面往往用a而不用an，并不因为M是辅音字母，却因为读音往往作［ˈmænjʊskrɪpt］。又如8并不是词，无所谓辅音或元音，但读音作［eɪt］，所以前面该用an，不用a。&只是一个符号，因为它的名称是ampersand，读音作［ˈæmpəsænd］，所以前面该用an。

据有些语法书说，以［h］音开首而没有重音的音节前面该用an，如an historian，不作a historian。这规则现在可说不成立了（虽然还有人——尤其是英国人——遵守着），现在尽可用a，用an反嫌不自然。例如：

a habitual smile, a heroic act, a historian, a hotel, a hypothesis

有些英国人，在以［juː］或［jʊ］音开首的词（如eulogy, euphonic, European, university, united和usual）前面，用an而不用a，在以［h］音开首的词（如hero, history, hospital, hundred和hymn）前面也用an而不用a，在one前面也用an而不用a，这种人似乎现在比以前少了。

2.哪个名词前面可以用a（或an），哪个名词前面不可用a（或an）呢？一般说来，可数名词前面可以用a（或an），不可数名词前面不可用a（或an），如可以说a healthy boy，却不可说a health，可以说a chair，却不可说a furniture。但事实并不这样简单。所谓“可数”和“不可数”，要看那个词的正确意思而定，不可根据它的普通汉译。如不可说a fun, an information，却可以说a pastime, a knowledge。又如dance, hurry, interest, kiss等词前面都可以用a（或an）。又如with child（有孕的），in class（在教室里），take horse（上马），send word（通知）等习语里都不可用a（或an）。但at a loss（不知所措的），with a view to（以…为目的），on an average（作为平均数），take a fancy to（喜欢）等习语里的a（或an）都是少不得的。这些都应该从习惯，不是几条规则所能包括得了的。一般说来，有复数形式的名词前面可以用a（或an），无复数形式的名词前面不可用a（或an）。如boy和laugh有复数形式boys和laughs，所以可以说a boy和a laugh，completion和laughter无复数形式，所以不可说a completion和a laughter。但有些在习惯上无复数形式的名词，前面却往往也用a（或an）。这大概有下面四种情况：

（1）多少有些抽象性的。例如：

I have a great admiration for Gorky.

He has received a good education.

She has a fondness for roses.

You seem to have a hatred of dogs.

I am in a hurry.

There is a bustle going on in the house.

We need not make a fuss about the matter.

The arrival of the visitors caused a great stir.

He speaks with a lisp.

She talks with a stammer.

We had a fine catch yesterday. （我们昨天捉到了许多鱼。）

We had a plentiful kill today. （我们今天打到了许多猎物。）

I hope you will give me a lead. （我希望你给我开个头。）

He has a good knowledge of Russian.

You must avoid such a waste of time.

The book has a wealth of pictures.

（2）a（或an）...指“一个…的泉源”。例如：

A good pupil is a credit to his teachers.

A lazy boy is a discredit to his parents.

A lazy boy is a dishonour to his class.

A patriot is an honour to his country.

Such cruelty is a reproach to modern society.

Terrorism is a shame to civilization.

（3）a（或an）...指“一次…”，那名词本来是动词。例如：

After a run (或a climb，或a swim) I had a wash (或a rest，或a feed，或a smoke，或a read).

（4）a...ing指“一次…”。例如：

Instead of giving the peasant a hearing, the heartless landlord gave him a good beating (或a good hiding，或a good licking，或a good thrashing) as well as a good scolding.

3.a（或an）在下面几种情况里可以用在复数形式前面：

（1）在有些习语里。例如：

a few (books), a very few (books), a good few (books), a good many (books), a great many (books), a many (books)

（2）在表示时间或款项的短语前面。例如：

a further five minutes, a mere two hours, a very busy six weeks, a whole three years, a pleasant spring holidays, an additional ¥60

（3）在若干在形式上是复数而在意思上是单数的单词前面。例如：

a barracks, a bellows, a gallows, a headquarters, an innings, a links, a means, a scissors, a shambles, a tongs

（4）在下列美国口语中。例如：

a good ways, a great ways, a long ways

4.a（或an）有时有（1）“一个而并不是那所要的一个”或（2）“任何一个”的意思。例如：

I was expecting to hear from my father. I got a letter indeed, but it was from a friend.(1)

I wanted to read a book, I did not care whether it was a history, a novel, or a biography.(2)

在这种用法里，a（或an）该特别重读。

5.a（或an）通常不用在人名、地名或其他专有名词的前面，但有例外：

（1）指有某姓或某名的某人。例如：

a Smith（姓Smith的某人）

a John Smith（名叫John Smith的某人）

（2）指在某时的某人、某地等。例如：

He is now a different John Smith from what he was three years ago.

He was met at the door by a contented Mary, not an angry Mary.

Fifty years ago we little dreamt of such a Shanghai as we have today.

Our children will find it hard to imagine a semi-feudal, semi-colonial China.

（3）指跟某人、某地等相仿的人、地等。例如：

He talks like a Johnson.（Johnson指英国18世纪的大文豪Samuel Johnson，很健谈，多妙论。）

The humorist considers himself a (second) Mark Twain.

Do you think it possible for the North Pole ever to have a Shanghai?

We may look upon the romantic tragedy as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet.

（4）指某人的作品。例如：

A new Michael Gold（当代美国作家）has appeared.

A new Shakespeare（莎士比亚全集新版）is in preparation.

I found a Picasso（毕加索画的画）on the wall.

（5）指某人所发明、设计或制造的机器等。例如：

a Remington（美国人Philo Remington所设计制造的打字机）

a Merriam-Webster（美国G. & C. Merriam Company出版，根据Webster原著编的词典）

（6）指“…的图或像”。例如：

a West Lake（一幅西湖图），a Cupid（一幅爱神图或一个爱神像）

（7）指“好比…那回事”。例如：

a Dunkirk（敦刻尔克式撤退：1940年5、6月间英军从法国北部港口城市Dunkirk大败撤退）

a Munich（慕尼黑事件：1938年9月30日德、英、法、意四国在德国南部慕尼黑城达成协议，允许当时的纳粹德国吞并捷克斯洛伐克的领土苏台德区，以图避免战争）

6.a（或an）有时用在表示性质的抽象名词的前面。例如：

The room was furnished with a simplicity that is almost elegance.

（这间房子的陈设有一种近似文雅的朴素。）

He answered my questions with an accuracy not to be expected of an ordinary schoolboy.（他回答了我的问题，准确得不像出自一个普通小学生之口。）

The bird disappeared with a startling suddenness.（那只鸟惊人地忽然不见了。）

在这种用法里，抽象名词后面通常有一个形容词从句（如第一句）或形容词短语（如第二句），否则它的前面有形容词（如第三句）。

7.a（或an）用在物质名词前面指（1）“一种…”或（2）“一份…”或“一客…”。例如：

a green tea, an old wine (1)

a coffee, a tea, an ice（英：一客冰淇淋，美：一客冷饮），a whisky and soda (2)

8.a（或an）通常不可用在only的前面，也不可用在属于最高级的词的前面，如不可说an only house, a best essay, a greatest poet, a longest street，但尽可说an only son（一个独生子），a best seller（一本畅销书），a best man（一个男傧相），a first night（某剧的第一夜表演）。因为这些已经成为习惯了。

a用在副词most前面是很普通的，如a most happy life和a most learned man。但该注意这里的most并不真正属于最高级，它的意思跟very相仿。

9.在一个名词被用来指它的本身的时候，往往不用a（或an）。例如：

Apple is a noun.

He is dubbed 'poet'.（人家给他“诗人”的诨名。）

We should not call every school 'college'.（我们不该把每个学校都叫作“学院”。）

'Rogue' is too mild a term for him, he is an arrant ruffian.（对他来说，“流氓”这名称是太轻了，他是一个十足的恶棍。）

下面第一句里的a可有可无，第二句里的a不可省：

He is dubbed (a) poet.

We should not call every school a college.

注意poet和college都没有引号，跟上面的各句不同。

10.许多语法书里说，kind of和sort of后面的名词的前面不该用a（或an），但事实上并非绝对不可用。例如：

What kind (或sort) of tree is this?

What kind (或sort) of（a）man is he?

第一句里不用a，因为kind或sort明白地作“种类”解。第二句里可以用a，因为kind或sort并不明白地作“种类”解。what kind (或sort) of (a) man是“怎么样的一个人”的意思。

其实在指“种类”的场合，不但kind of和sort of后面的名词的前面不用a（或an），其他相似的短语后面也是这样。例如：

a kind of car, kinds of car, a sort of car, sorts of car,

a brand of car, brands of car, a class of car, classes of car,

a form of car, forms of car, a make of car, makes of car,

a style of car, styles of car, a type of car, types of car,

a variety of car, varieties of car

11.part of前面用a也有，不用a也有，但意思略有不同。例如：

part of it（它的一部分：不一定一半以下，也不一定一半以上）

a part of it（它的一小部分：一半以下）

但great part of it和a great part of it是没有区别的。不一定一半以下，也不一定一半以上。

12.a（或an）不用在a change of后面的名词的前面。例如：

a change of address, a change of name, a change of scene

13.a（或an）不用在临时被用来作为不可数名词的前面。例如：

five hundred miles of railway, a stretch of road, an acre of garden, an expanse of lake

14.下面各种表达方式里的no都是形容词，等于not a：

no small value（很大的价值），no mean city（名城），

no such man（没有这样的人），no other person than...（不是别人，却是…）。所以不可说：

a no small value, a no mean city, no such a man, no other a person than...

a no mean city是不可说的，但a no meaner city是可以说的，no meaner里的no是副词，修饰meaner，并不等于not a，所以前面用a。比较：

This is no (形容词) mean city. （这是一个名城。）

This is a no (副词) meaner city (than that). （这是一个［跟那个］同样有名的城。）

There is no (形容词) meaner city (than that). （没有［比那个］更无名的城。）

There is a no (副词) meaner city (than that). （有一个［跟那个］同样有名的城。）

15.在指职位、头衔、等级等的单词前面大都不用a（或an）。例如：

They asked me to act as (an) interpreter.

I served them fairly well in the capacity of (an) interpreter.

I served them fairly well in my capacity as (an) interpreter.

She has obtained a position as (或of) (a) typist.

He has left his situation as (或of) (a) gardener.

He is (a) professor of philosophy at that university.

He has the degree of Doctor of Literature.

He soon rose to the rank of colonel.

The title of model worker has been conferred on the young man.

John Keats, English poet, was born in 1795.

注意在As a physician, he does not deserve much praise等句子里的as等于considered as，那a是不可少的。

16.在若干动词后面用作表语的名词的前面习惯不用a（或an）。例如：

He commenced schoolmaster in 1956. （commence［d］的这种用法现在不很普通）

He turned soldier at twenty-one.

The boy was bound apprentice to a carpenter.

17.在若干独立短语里不用a（或an）。例如：

The old man was sitting in a chair, pipe in mouth.

The huntsman entered the forest, gun in hand.

18.在下面各短语和类似的短语里都不用a（或an）：

hard of heart, large of limb, nimble of foot, quick of eye, pale of face

19.下面各句里都不用a（或an），那是因为多少有些感叹的意味：

Lucky dog! （幸运儿！）Lucky beggar! （幸运儿！）You beauty!

You fool! You fool you! You lucky rascal! （你好一个幸运儿！）

'Keep by me, you lovely thing!' the girl said to her cat.

The old man got run over, poor fellow.

Poor man, he never knew what love was like.

20.a（或an）是“一”，one也是“一”，在用法上有下面几点该注意：

（1）固定习语里的a（或an）和one不可调换。如once upon a time（从前有一次）和one day（有一天）里的a和one不可互换。an hour or two（一二小时，若干小时）和one or two hours里的an和one不可互换。to a man（全体地）不可改作to one man。one man one vote（每人投一票）不可改作a man a vote。但“一个…还是两个”可以说one...or two。例如：Do you spell 'traveller' with one '1' or two?注意下面每组里的两句意思相同，但用了a该有on，用了one没有on：

（2）有些习语用a或one都可以。如at a blow和at one blow（一下子地），in a word和in one word（简单地说），be of a mind和be of one mind（同意），a hundred per cent...和one hundred per cent...（十足地…）。

（3）有时用a和用one意思不同。如as a man是“就他的性格而论”，as one man是“大家一致地”，at a time是“每次”（如three at a time），at one time是“从前有一个时期”（如At one time we met every day）。

注意下面每组里的两种表达方式意思不同：

（4）在姓或名前面，用a（或an）或one意思相同。如a Smith和one Smith都是“一个姓Smith的人”。就语法讲，one Smith里的one被看作形容词或代词都讲得通。

（5）在dozen, hundred, thousand和million前面，用a或one意思相同，用a普通些。如a dozen（一打），a hundred（一百），a thousand（一千），a million（一百万），把a改作one，意思不变，但往往有跟“二打、三打”等，“二百、三百”等，“二千、三千”等，“二百万、三百万”等对比的意味。

注意在下面的习语里都用a，不可用one：

a hundred（许多，如a hundred things），

a thousand（许多，如a thousand thanks），

a hundred and one（许多，如a hundred and one points of usage），

a thousand and one（许多，如a thousand and one points of usage），

not a hundred miles away（不远、近），

one in a thousand（极难得的一个）

（6）a（或an）只有“一”的意思，却并不跟“二、三、四、五”等相对，one便可以有这种对比的意味。如I have a pen只说“我有一枝笔”，I have one pen便可有“我并没有两枝、三枝或更多枝笔”的意思。

比较下面两句：

Can a boy do this? （回答可能是No, but a man can。）

Can one boy do this? （回答可能是No, but two boys can。）

列宁著的One Step Forward, Two Steps Backward里的One不可改作A。下面两句里的one也不可改作a：

I have one pen, but my sister has three pens.

I have one pen, but three pencils.

注意上面说a或an不跟“二、三、四、五”等对比，并不说不可跟two, three, four, five等连用。I have a pen, but three pencils里的a该改作one，但I have a pen and three pencils里的a却不必改作one。

（7）注意下面各句的意思不同：

There is a pen on the table. （桌上有一枝钢笔：不是一枝铅笔或一本书。）

There is one pen on the table. （桌上有一枝钢笔：不是两枝、三枝或更多枝钢笔。）

A pen is on the table. （跟第一句意思相同，很少见。）

One pen is on the table. （一枝钢笔在桌上：也许还有其他笔，但在桌上没有。）

（8）说“每一…”计算价钱、款项、速度等，用a（或an），不用one。例如：

¥3.10 a dozen（每打三元一角），¥ 70 a month（每月七十元），

twice a week（每星期两次），ten miles an hour（每小时十英里）

这种用法里的a原来是介词，但现在不妨把它看作冠词。

21.of a（或an）...表明在时间上经常的行为：

We would sit together in the park of a morning.

They often met of an afternoon.

The artist may have frequently been seen strolling along the street of an evening.

His friends used to go to see him in his cottage of a Sunday.

注意：

（1）这种结构现在少用。

（2）只用于经常的事，不用于一次的事，如不可说The old man died of a morning。

22.由a...of a...构成一种习语，如a fool of a man是“一个呆子般的男子”，a gem of a poem是“一首宝石般（精致）的诗”，a mountain of a wave是“一个高山似的浪”。又例如：

his angel of a wife, a beast of a place (一个很脏的地方), her brute of a husband, a devil of a hurry (极度的匆忙), his dome of a forehead, a great elephant of a woman, a jewel of an assistant, a kitten of a girl, a lamb of a temper（像羔羊般驯服的脾气）, a love of a ring (一枚极可爱的戒指), a poem of a hotel (一个像诗一般幽雅的旅馆), that rascal of a landlord, her tyrant of a father

注意a...of a...里的两个名词不可互调，如a boy of a girl是“一个男孩子似的女孩子”，a girl of a boy是“一个女孩子似的男孩子”，意思各不相同。

23.a（或an）通常用在一般形容词的前面，如a beautiful garden，但也有几个例外。a（或an）该用在what、such和many三个形容词的后面。例如：

What a beautiful garden! such a garden, many a garden

假使形容词前面有how, however, as, so或too，那末a（或an）也用在这形容词的后面。例如：

how beautiful a garden, however beautiful a garden, as beautiful a garden as I ever saw, so beautiful a garden, too beautiful a garden

a so beautiful garden和a too beautiful garden这种结构也有，但不很自然。似乎a so beautiful garden比a too beautiful garden更不自然。当代英国作家William Somerset Maugham的On a Chinese Screen的Romance一篇里有somewhat Ouidaesque a fashion，当然极不普通。

假使形容词前面有no less，那末a（或an）用在no less的前面或这形容词的后面都可以。例如：

a no less beautiful garden, no less beautiful a garden前者比后者自然。假使后面加上than yours，than this等，改作a garden no less beautiful than...就更自然些。

假使形容词前面有no more，那末a（或an）就用在no more的前面，如a no more beautiful garden。不过no more beautiful a garden这种结构也有。

假使形容词前面有more或less（不是no more或no less），那末a（或an）就用在more或less的前面，如a more（或less）beautiful garden。上面所说no less里的less是副词，no less a person than...中的less是形容词，作“较不重要”解，a的位置不可改动。

24.a（或an）可以用在quite和rather的前面，也可以用在它们的后面。例如：

a quite big dog, quite a big dog,

a rather big dog, rather a big dog

在口语里quite a（或an）...和rather a（或an）...比a quite...和a rather...普通。

注意big和dog总是连在一起，不该说：

quite big a dog, rather big a dog

25.就普通语法讲，a black and a white dog是“一只黑狗和一只白狗”，a black and white dog是“一只黑白花狗”，a journalist and an author 是“一个新闻记者和一个作家”，a journalist and author是“一个新闻记者兼作家”。

但事实上为了加强语气，也有用两个a（或an），一个a和一个an，或一个an和一个a而指一个人的。例如：

He has become a sadder and a wiser man.

He is a journalist and an author.

也有虽然只用一个a（或an）而指两个人的。例如：

A man and woman are walking arm-in-arm.

A boy and girl are playing together.

但假使具有相对立的意思，便该用两个a（或an），一个a和一个an，或一个an和一个a。例如：

A man and a woman may not always agree on such a question.

明明两件东西而通常配成一件的，只用一个a（或an）。例如：

a knife and fork, a cup and saucer, a needle and thread, a coat and tie, a short beard and moustache, a swimming head and parched throat

26.在两个或两个以上的名词连用的场合，通常不用a（或an）。例如：

We are brother and sister.

He was printer, publisher, and editor before 1949.

This room is study, bedroom, and sitting room all in one.

This article is meant to appear in newspaper or magazine.

Like father, like son. （有其父必有其子。——谚语）

Diamond cut diamond. （旗鼓相当。）

Dog eat dog. （同类相残。）

27.假使把though he is a child里的child放在开首，a便该去掉，作child though he is。child as he is有同样的意思，也不该有a。

28.下面两句里都有a：

A baby never sat so gracefully.

Did a baby ever sit so gracefully?

假使把never或ever放在baby的前面，通常把a去掉。例如：

Never did baby sit so gracefully.

Did ever baby sit so gracefully?

never a...作no...解，不过语气强些，a决不可省。例如：He found never a baby there.这里的never并不指时间。

29.He is a scholar等句子里的a（或an）当然不可省去，但注意下面各句里都不用a（或an）：

He is artist enough to appreciate these pictures.

Surely you are scholar enough to read this old book.

I was fool enough to believe him.

这里artist, scholar和fool前面都不用a（或an），因为后面加上了enough，把这些名词抽象化了。

30.A Tale of Two Cities里有A，但说Dickens's A Tale of Two Cities或Dickens's Tale of Two Cities都可以。the Tale of Two Cities that I bought yesterday里不可在Tale前面加上A。

31.上面所讲到的a（或an）的省略，可说都跟语法有关，都是一般的用法。还有为了节省空间、时间、金钱或精力，或为了引起注意力，而省去a（或an）的，主要有下面各种情况：

（1）报纸标题：

（A）New Book by E. G. Flynn (当代美国进步女作家) Published.

（A）Noted Scientist to Make (a) Report on (an) Important Invention at (a) Local Technical School.

（2）工商业文件：

（A）Copy of the booklet is enclosed.

（A）Duplicate of this letter will be sent to the management.

（3）广告：

（A）Fully furnished flat to let.

（A）Secondhand typewriter wanted.

（4）电报：

（A）Girl born today.

Brother away on (a) visit.

（5）公告：

（A）School Ahead.

(An) Exit.

（6）日记：

Attended (a) lecture on IT technology.

Got (a) long letter from James.

（7）非正式信札：

Hope to send you (a) picture of the Lake soon.

Could you let me have (a) summary of the story?

（8）注释和定义：

Fleet Street: (A) Famous old London street, now the location of many newspaper offices, often used allusively for the English press.

landscape: (A) Piece of land scenery.

32.few和a few不同。few是“很少”，有“几乎没有”的意思。a few是“若干”，有“颇有几个”的意思。但两种表达方式的不同，不在于实际数目的大小，却在于说话者的语意。如一篇作文里有三个错误，要是你说There are few mistakes in it，你在说它“错误很少”，便是说它好。要是你说There are a few mistakes in it，你在说它“有若干错误”，便是说它不好。可以说few, or perhaps none和a few, or perhaps many。注意only a few却等于few，也是“很少”的意思。

little和a little的不同，相当于few和a few的不同。如little trouble是“很少麻烦”或“几乎没有麻烦”，a little trouble是“若干麻烦”或“颇有些麻烦”。

33.下面各种表达方式里都有half a（或half an）：

half a mile, half a month, half an inch, half an hour, half a bottle, half a cup, half a dozen, half a million

在这种用法里，把half看作形容词或看作名词后面省去of都可以。但不论half是形容词还是名词，a总是冠词，所以下面各种表达方式里的a或an照理都该去掉：

that half a mile, this half a month, another half an inch, the next half an hour, my half a dozen

不过这个多余的a（或an）事实上很常见，因为half a...或half an...用得很多，好似成为一个单位了。甚至有人说a half an hour。

上面所举的half a mile, half a month等表达方式里的half a（或half an）英美通用。但在美国也往往用a half。例如：

a half mile, a half month, a half inch, a half hour

a half在英国也用，但不用在表示距离、时间、数量等的词的前面。如不说a half mile, a half month等，却说a half length, a half share, a half conviction等。

...and a half和...and a half...两种表达方式意思相同，如two miles and a half和two and a half miles都是“两英里半”。这两种表达方式是英美通用的。即使在英国也并没有two miles and half a mile, two and half a mile或two and half a miles的结构。

把two miles and a half跟two and a half miles比较起来，前者好些，因为a half miles读起来似乎很不自然。就时间讲，先有前者，后有后者，后者是从miles这种写法产生出来的。同样地，a foot and a quarter比one and a quarter feet好些。

上面说过，that half a mile等表达方式里的a照理该去掉。下面各种表达方式里的a照理也该去掉：

those two miles and a half,

those two and a half miles,

the foot and a quarter,

the one and a quarter feet

但习惯上这种多用的a可说是不可少的，省去了反而觉得不自然。

A. B.

A. B. （=Bachelor of Arts，文学士）是美国拼写形式，相当于英国拼写形式的B. A.。

abashed

abashed是表语形容词，不可说very abashed，该说much abashed或very much abashed。

abbreviate

下面两句都可以说：

United Nations is abbreviated to UN.

UN is abbreviated from United Nations.

ABC

ABC指某科的初步知识，如ABC of English grammar。这意思是从英语开首字母ABC来的，并不是缩写，所以不该写作A. B. C.，但事实上很多写作A. B. C.，如英国Oxford University Press出版的An A. B. C. of English Usage。

abdomen

参见belly

abed

abed 现在不很通用，最好改用in bed。

ability

1.ability指体力或智力，后面通常接不定式，很少接of和动名词，如通常说ability to do it, ability to lift a great stone和ability to write correct English，很少说ability of doing it等，但可以说reading ability, writing ability, driving (驾驶) ability等，也可以说his ability in reading and writing, his ability in drawing等。

2.单独用ability，除了可以从上下文看出指体力者以外，都指智力，如下面的ability都指智力：

man of ability（有才的人），great ability（大才），

in point of ability（就才能讲），He lacks ability. （他缺少才能。）

复数形式abilities只指智力，不指体力，如his abilities, manifold abilities 等都指智力。

3.ability to do it, the ability to do it, an ability to do it和his（或your等）ability to do it都可以说，第一种形式最不普通。

able

1.able后面的不定式通常不属于被动语态，如通常不说The mistake is able to be corrected，最好改作The mistake is capable of being corrected。

2.able指能力，不一定意味着实行，如“经过了两个月的步行，他们到达了目的地”通常不说After a two-month tramp they were able to reach their destination，而用下面的任何一种：

After a two-month tramp they reached their destination.

After a two-month tramp they succeeded in reaching their destination.

After a two-month tramp they managed to reach their destination.

aboard

aboard在英国通常指“上船”或“在船上”，在美国往往指“上车”或“在车上”，“上飞机”或“在飞机上”。

abound

1.abound的主语，也许是指大量存在的东西的名词，也许是指盛产某东西的地方的名词，如下面两句的意思相同：

Fish abound in this stream.

This stream abounds in fish.

2.abound in（指以盛产某东西的地方作主语的）和abound with略有区别，abound in除了“盛产…”的意思以外，往往有“那东西是特有的或固有的”的含意。如This stream abounds in fish含有“以产鱼著称”的意思，This stream abounds with fish只说“盛产鱼”罢了。又如He abounds in courage作“他天性勇敢”解，不可把in改作with。

about

1.about在用作“不久就要…”解的时候后面通常接不定式，如about to start。但也有接动名词的，如about starting。用不定式比较普通。

about在用作“不久就要…”解的时候不可再加表示时间的词，如不可说about to start next morning或about starng at once。

2.下面各种表达方式里的about都作“大约”解：

about ten, about a hundred, about half, about a quarter注意ten, a hundred, half和a quarter都是明确的数或量，原来并没有“多少不定”的意思。在有“多少不定”的意思的词语前面不该用about，如不可说about more than ten, about less than half, about several, about some 或about a few等。

虽然about three or four和about a dozen or so等表达方式也有人用，但最好删去about。

3.下面各句里可以有at，也可以没有at，意思并没有区别。有了at, about是副词，没有at, about是介词：

I went (at) about five (o'clock).

I went (at) about noon.

I went (at) about midnight.

I went (at) about Christmas.

这里at用的少，不用的多。同样地，下面两句里的on和in也用的少，不用的多：

I went (on) about 18 January.

I went (in) about January.

at about five (o'clock), at about noon等不可改作about at five (o'clock), about at noon等。

above

1.above用作形容词作“上面的”解，如the above list, the above statement, the above facts和the above topic。当然从修辞学上说，用得太多了不好，可以用above-mentioned, foregoing, preceding等调剂一下。

2.above有时也用作名词，如from above和the above。the above当作单数或复数都可以，看所指的东西是单数还是复数而定，如The above is a true story和The above are the essentials。

3.above和over在意思上略有不同。above不一定有“垂直在上”的含意，over却有。如你在第一层楼，那末第二层楼是above你，但只有第二层楼的一小部分是over你。又如校长的职位是above教务长的职位，但甲校的校长只是over甲校的教务长，并不over乙校的教务长。

abreast

abreast后面接of或with都可以，接of普通些，有时也把它用作介词，后面不接介词。例如：

abreast of the times, abreast with the times, abreast the times

abridge(d)

abridged dictionary指“把大词典删节而成的小词典”，不指“被删节的大词典”，参见revise(d) 2。注意a dictionary abridged from The Great Oxford里用from。

abroad

1.abroad有“到外国去”和“在外国”的意思，但没有“从外国来”的意思，“从外国来”该说from abroad。

2.abroad是副词，但可以在名词后面用作形容词，如a long stay abroad, his travels abroad和conditions abroad。

3.在美国abroad大都指“到欧洲去”或“在欧洲”。

absence

“不在上海”该说absence from Shanghai, absence in Shanghai是“在上海”。说得明白些，absence in Shanghai在事实上等于presence in Shanghai，不过absence in Shanghai有“不在它处而在上海”的意思。城里人到了乡下，从城里的立场说，是absence from the city，也就是absence in the country，在校的学生回家去了，在校里说起来，是absence from school，也就是absence at home。

说到不会动的东西，absence in...作“不在…里”或“在…里没有”解，如the absence of this word in that dictionary是“在那本词典里没有这个词”，习惯用in，不用from。

absent

说某人 absent from Shanghai是说他“不在上海”，说某人absent in Shanghai是说他“（不在它处而）在上海”。

说到不会动的东西，absent in...却作“不在…里”或“在…里没有”解，如This word is absent in that dictionary是“在那本词典里没有这个词”。习惯上用in，不用from。但Prejudice is absent from his mind等句子里习惯用from，因为成见虽然不是动物，却会产生和消灭。参见absence

absorbed

1.He is absorbed in the study of international affairs等句子里的in可以改作with，但不及用in普通。

2.关于an absorbed stare（聚精会神的直视）等，参见much 3(5) E

abstain

1.abstain是不及物动词，后面接from，如abstain from tobacco（不抽烟）和abstain from voting（不投票）。后面不可接不定式，如不可说abstain to vote。

2.abstain和refrain意思相仿，后面也都接from，但语气略有不同。abstain语气比refrain重些，有“故意避免”的意思，往往指习惯的行动，如abstain from tobacco有“绝不抽烟”的意思。refrain有“欲发而止”的意思，往往指一时的行动，如refrain from laughter有“欲笑而不笑”的意思。

abundance

1.abundance用于可数的和不可数的名词都可以，如abundance of good things（许多美味品）和abundance of food（许多食物）。前面有时有an，但通常没有。

2.(an) abundance of...用在可数名词前的时候，那名词当然是复数形式（如things，不作thing），但那动词用单数或复数形式都可以。例如：(An) abundance of good things are (或is) kept there.动词用复数形式的普通些。

abundant

abundant在用作“富有（某物）的”解的时候，后面习惯接in，如abundant in natural wealth。偶尔接with，但很少见。

academy

academy在美国指中学，现在不及一百多年前普遍。在英格兰，有时也用academy指学校，但现在很少，而且并不用在校名里，如a young ladies' academy（这并不是校名）。在苏格兰却有把Academy用作中学校名的，如the Edinburgh Academy和the Glasgow Academy（注意有the）。academy指军官学校是英美通用的。

accede

accede是不及物动词，不论用在何种意思后面都接to，如accede to the office（就职），accede to the party（入党）和accede to their request（应允他们的请求）。

accent(ed)

1.accent有“口音”或“特殊的语言”的意思。说某人讲什么语言有某种口音，通常用with，偶尔用in，如He speaks English with an American accent和She talked to me in a thick country accent。

2.He speaks English with an accent和He speaks English without an accent里的accent指“外地或外国的口音”或“跟那正当的语音语调不同的腔调”。accented有时作“有口音的”解。例如：His English is slightly accented, but perfectly idiomatic.

accept

1.accept和receive不同，accept是“接受”，receive是“收到”。accept a present是“接受一个礼物”，不再退回了，receive a present是“收到一个礼物”，也许预备退回。accept an invitation是“接受一个邀请”，是应允被邀而去的，receive an invitation是“收到一个邀请”，不一定应允被邀而去。

2.accept和accept of从前差不多可以互相替用。现在accept of用得很少，用了往往有“正式”或“垂恩”的含意，而且只用在说接受present, gift, favour, love, hospitality等，不用在说接受theory, advice, apology, challenge, offer, invitation, ruling等。

3.accept往往单独用作“接受邀请”，“接受条件”等解，如I am sorry I cannot accept和If you accept, please let me know immediately。

4.声明接受或不接受邀请，通常用现在时态，如I am pleased to accept your invitation和I am sorry I cannot (或am unable to，或am not able to) accept your invitation，不用I shall be pleased to accept your invitation或I am sorry I shall be unable (或shall not be able) to accept your invitation。

acceptation

相当于accept的名词现在是acceptance，不是acceptation。acceptation现在只用作“（词语或概念的）通用意义”解。例如：The word 'sympathetic' is not used in English with the French acceptation, which makes it synonymous with 'lovable'.

accident

1.accident通常指偶然发生的不幸事件，incident通常指任何不很重要的事件。如被电车撞倒是accident，在电车上碰到多年不见的老朋友是incident。在外交和政治上往往用incident指可能引起战事的“事件”，如border incident。

2.accident单独用指“偶然”，不指“不幸”，如She was twenty when accident brought her to the notice of the great author和That was merely a matter of accident。by accident作“偶然地”解，并没有“不幸”的意思。（by accident的反义表达方式是by design或on purpose。）

3.说“某人或某物遭到的不幸事件”，在指人或物的词的前面用to，如There was an accident to the little boy和Owing to an accident to the machines one department was closed down。

4.He has met with an accident作“他死了”解，She had an accident 作“她未结婚而生了孩子”解。这都是婉转的说法。

5.accident后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：His absence was due to the accident that the letter asking him to come had gone astray.

6.accident有时指“偶然成功的人或事”，如a political accident是“一个不靠本领而适逢其会地成功的政界人物”。Her Spanish is an accident of living with a Spanish family for a year是“她的西班牙语是因为跟一个西班牙家庭住了一年而偶然学得的”。

acclaim

acclaim（欢呼）后面接宾语和表语。例如：We acclaimed them the winners.在宾语后偶尔加上as，或加上to be，但都不普通。

accommodation

复数形式 accommodations 现在在英国可说是不用的，但在美国很普通，如office accommodations（办公室所需的一切设备）和accommodations at a hotel（旅馆里的膳宿）。

accompany

1.accompany是比较正式的词，在口语里通常不用它而用see，如I'll see you to the door和May I see you home?

2.accompany是及物动词，所以可以说I shall accompany him，不可说I shall accompany with him。

3.可以说I shall accompany him to Shanghai和I shall accompany him to the station。不可在宾语后面接不定式，如不可说I shall accompany him to visit Shanghai和I shall accompany him to go to the station。

4.accompanied用作被动语态，除了作combined解以外，现在后面接by，不接with，如The laughter was accompanied with tears和He was accompanied by his wife。当然可以说The singer was accompanied with a flute，但这里的with跟write with a pen, cut with a knife等表达方式里的with相同，是“又当别论”的。

accomplishment

accomplishment作“才艺”解，含有“适于社交”的意思，如会说漂亮英语是一种accomplishment，精通英国文学却不叫做accomplishment，如跳舞、弹琴、唱歌都是accomplishment。

accord

1.in accord with跟in accordance with同义，但远不及in accordance with普通。

2.of his（或your等）own accord（出于自愿地，自发地）和on his（或your等）own account（为了自己的利益地，自己负责地）很容易混用：注意一用of，一用on。

3.accord后面可以接双宾语，如We shall accord him praise和The diplomat was accorded great honour。

accordance

1.in accordance with和according to不同。说“依照法律”、“依照章程”、“依照规则”、“依照惯例”等，用in accordance with语气重些，用according to往往语气轻些。例如：Society develops in accordance with (或according to) certain regular laws. 说“依据某书说”、“依据某人说”、“依据某报告”、“依据某学说”等，只可用according to，不可用in accordance with。例如：Operate according to the instructions in the manual. （按手册上的指示操作）说“依据…而不同”，只可用according to，如Judge him according to his actions（依据他的行动对他作出评估）和We pay him according to his contribution（我们根据他的贡献付酬）。

2.in accordance with引导状语短语或形容词短语都可以，如The sentence has been rewritten in accordance with modern usage和The sentence is quite in accordance with modern usage。according to引导形容词短语比较少见，如上面第一句里的in accordance with改作according to也很自然，第二句里的in accordance with改作according to便不很自然，但并不错。可是作“依据…”解的according to不可引导形容词短语，如不可说This information is according to an expert。

according

参见accordance

account

1.on his（或your等）own account和of his（或your等）own accord不可混用。参见accord 2

2.on account of（因为）里用on，现在很少用upon。

3.注意On no account (决不) should we neglect our work里用should we，不用we should。

4.He is of no account和He is a person of no account（他不是重要人物）都是正常的英语，He is no account和He is a no-account person都是美国口语。

5.account后面可以接宾语和表语，如I account him wise和I account him a wise man。在宾语后面有时加上to be，有时加上as，但都不普通。

accounting

accounting（会计学）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的accountancy。

accrue(d)

The interest accrued (产生［而积累］的利息) is a small amount里的accrued是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

accuse(d)

1.accuse的宾语该是指被控的人的词，宾语后面接of和指所控的罪或过失的词。例如：They accused him of murder. 和He accused you of negligence.

2.accuse后面不可接以that引导的从句，如不可说He accused (her) that she had stolen his pen，也不可说She was accused that...或It was accused that...。

3.accuse him of...和charge him with...意思相仿，注意一用of，一用with。

4.the accused是“被告”。例如：The accused was a young man. 偶尔用an accused指“一个被告”。例如：An accused was released yesterday. 也可以说three accused（三个被告）。

accustom(ed)

1.accustom用于主动语态和被动语态都可以。例如：

I have accustomed myself to it.

Necessity has accustomed me to it.

I am accustomed to it.

I have got accustomed to it.

但用在被动语态的多。注意各句里都用to。

2.accustomed 后面接不定式也有。例如：I am accustomed to do hard work. 接to和动名词也很普通，跟接不定式意思相同。例如：I am accustomed to doing hard work. 大概说简单的行为多用to和动名词，说复杂些的行为多用不定式。例如：

I am accustomed to riding.

I am accustomed to ride for an hour every morning.

I am accustomed to speaking English.

I am accustomed to speak English in public.

ache

1.ache是持续的痛，不指一时的刺痛。an ache,ache和aches都可以用。

2.She ached all down her back和Her whole back ached都可以说。

acknowledge

1.下面四句意思相同：

I acknowledge it as true.

I acknowledge it to be true.

I acknowledge that it is true.

I acknowledge the truth of it.

下面两句里的as可有可无：

I acknowledge myself (as) defeated.

I acknowledge myself (as) an offender.

注意myself是反身代词。

2.下面三句意思相同：

I acknowledge your letter.

I acknowledge receipt of your letter.

I acknowledge the receipt of your letter.

在信的开首习惯用第二句，有时用第三句，但很少用第一句。在它处习惯用第一句。例如：Your letter reached me two months ago. I am sorry that I forgot to acknowledge it.

acknowledg(e)ment

1.下面两句意思相同：

Grateful acknowledg(e)ment is made (或due) to the following for permission to use copyright matter.

Grateful acknowledg(e)ments are made（或due） to the following for permission to use copyright matter.

2.We have for acknowledg(e)ment your letter of 5 September里的for acknowledg(e)ment是状语短语，修饰have, letter是have的宾语。

acoustics

acoustics作“声学”解的时候，动词用单数形式。例如：Acoustics is the science of sound. 作“（剧院等的）音响情况”解的时候，动词用复数形式。例如：The acoustics of this theatre are excellent.

acquaint

1.acquaint是“使…认识”，不是“认识”，后面接with。“我认识他”该说I am acquainted with him。be acquainted with含有“仅仅认识、并不亲近”的意思。

2.acquaint虽然作“使…认识”解，“我要使他认识她”却不可说I want to acquaint him with her，照习惯该说I want to make (或get) him acquainted with her。

3.make (或get) him (或you等) acquainted with后面接指事物的词也可以。例如：I want to make (或get) him acquainted with some new words. （我将使他认识几个新词。）把make或get改作bring从前普通，现在不大通用。

4.He wrote to acquaint me with the situation（他写信告诉我那情况）和He wrote to acquaint me how the work was going on等句子里的acquaint现在在美国是普通的，但在英国不很普通，通常改用tell或inform。改用了tell或inform，第一句里的with该改作about。

acquaintance

1.下面三句意思相同：

I have made acquaintance with the artist.

I have made the acquaintance of the artist.

I have made the artist's acquaintance.

注意：（1）第一句没有the，用with，第二句有the，用of。（2）第一句最不普通。

下面四句意思相同（第一句最普通）：

We made acquaintance last year.

We made acquaintance with each other (或one another) last year.

We made each other's (或one another's) acquaintance last year.

We made the acquaintance of each other (或one another) last year.

2.acquaintance从前也用作集合名词，指若干相识者，如his friends and acquaintance，这用法现在很不普通，现在最好说his friends and acquaintances，但he has a large acquaintance（他有许多相识者）现在还是正常的英语。

3.a slight acquaintance (仅仅相识), an intimate acquaintance和a nodding acquaintance（点头之交）三种表达方式里的acquaintance都指对于人或事物的认识，并不指“相识的人”，如I have a slight (或an intimate，或a nodding) acquaintance with him (或the subject)和He has a slight acquaintance with astronomy。

acquaintanceship

acquaintanceship跟acquaintance（相识的人）的关系，等于friendship跟friend的关系。但事实上在可以用acquaintanceship的场合也可以用acquaintance，所以acquaintanceship是多余的。

acquire

acquire后面有时接双宾语，作“使…得到…”解。例如：His character acquired him a good name. （他的品格使他得到好名声。）

acquirement

1.说“学识”习惯用复数形式，如intellectual acquirements和literary acquirements。

2.acquirement和acquisition不同。两个单词都有“得到”和“所得到的东西”两个意思，但acquirement总是指精神上的，acquisition却指物质上和精神上的都可以。例如：

the acquirement of knowledge, his literary acquirements,

the acquisition of property, the acquisition of skill,

a great acquisition to the hospital, his mental acquisitions

acquisition

1.acquisition往往作“被得到的可贵的物或人”解，如Your services are an acquisition to the staff和The young assistant is an acquisition。

2.参见acquirement 2

across

He lives across (the street) from my house（他住在我的房子的对面）等句子里在across后面习惯用from。

act(ion)

1.act和action的区别，下面几点该注意：

（1）act指一时而简单的动作，action指持续而复杂的动作。如你看见有人倒在地上，扶他起来，这是act。要是不但扶他起来，而且替他叫车，送他到家等，那是action。

（2）在act of cruelty, act of folly, act of kindness, act of madness, act of mercy等表达方式（都是后面接of和抽象名词）里只用act，不用action。

（3）cruel act(ion), foolish act(ion), kind act(ion)等表达方式（都是前面用形容词）里用action比用act普通些。

（4）act比action具体，action比act抽象。如in word and act里的word和act都是具体的，in speech and action里的speech和action都是抽象的。但谚语Actions speak louder than words里用actions，不用acts。

有许多地方，或者只可用act，或者只可用action。例如：

in the (very) act of...ing（正在做…的事）

act of God（天灾）

take action（有所举动、采取行动）

the action of the machine（这机器的作用）

2.act the hero（装出英雄气概），act the child（做出儿童模样），act the policeman（做出警察一般的行动）等表达方式里都用the，不用a，偶然有不用the的，但很少。

3.The boys sometimes act being soldiers（男孩们有时装扮成士兵做游戏）里的being是act的宾语。

4.下面第一句里用natural而不用naturally，第二句里用wild而不用wildly，因为着重在那个人当时的情况：

At first he was a little shy in class, but now he acts more natural.

The girl has begun to act wild again, as though she were going mad.

有时act＋形容词作“假装得…似的”解。例如：

Even elephants have been known to act dead.

activism

“积极性”用activism或activeness都可以。

activist

activist（积极分子）有时用作形容词，如an activist thinker。

activity

复数形式activities指“活动（范围）”，如social activities, business activities, school activities, human activities和recreational activities（文娱活动）。social activity, business activity等也可以说，但很少见a social activity, a business activity等。

actor

actor指男演员，女演员是actress。但在不着重女性的场合有时也用actor指女演员。例如：Here we mention her as a successful dramatist rather than as a successful actor.

actually

actually往往有“说来奇怪，但竟然这样”的意思。如I actually saw him yesterday有“你别以为我昨天不会看见他，我却竟然看见了他”的意思。又如大家以为某人决不会讲英语，你却竟然听他讲过，你就说He actually spoke English。

AD（或A. D.）

1.AD（=拉丁语Anno Domini［在我们的主的年］，纪元后）用在年份前或年份后都可以，如AD 146和146 AD。

2.AD作in the year of our Lord解，所以用了它不可用in或in the year。但事实上用in是常见的。

3.AD只用于年份，不可用于世纪，例如不可用the second century AD，该用the second century after Christ。

4.说The People's Republic of China was established AD 1949（或1949 AD）当然不错。但事实上不用AD，因为除了有跟“纪元前”混用的场合以外，习惯不用AD。

adapt(ed)

1.adapted play是“把某剧本改编而成的剧本”，不是“被改编的原剧本”，参见revise(d) 2。注意a play adapted from the French 里用from。

2.adapted作“适当的”解的时候后面接for或to都有，英国人多用for，美国人多用to，如books adapted for (或to) home reading。

add

1.add是“把…加上去”，不是“增加”。例如：They have decided to add ¥20 to his wages. “增加”用increase或raise。例如：They have decided to increase (或raise) his wages to ¥100 a month. 但add to作“增加”解，如That will add to my pleasure和That may add to his difficulties。

2.add(s) up to （1.总合起来成为2.意味着）似乎是最近一二十年新出现的习语，偶尔省去up。例如：

All these facts add up to a picture of happiness.

What it all adds up to is that you have learnt a good lesson.

Everything you say adds up to justice.

addendum

1.addendum的复数形式是addenda，偶尔作addendums。

2.addendum和appendix不同，addendum是“补遗”，appendix是“附录”。

3.addendum是一个补遗，也许包括许多项。但有时也指补遗里的一项，所以一个包括许多项的补遗可以叫做addendum，也可以叫做addenda。（an addenda是美国用法。）

addict

1.addict是“使…沉溺”，不是“沉溺于”。“他以前一贯沉溺于赌博”该说He used to addict himself to gambling或He used to be addicted to gambling，不可说He used to addict gambling。习惯上多用被动语态。

2.addict后面接to和名词或to和动名词，不可接不定式，如不可说He used to addict himself to gamble和He used to be addicted to gamble。addicted to drink是可以说的，注意这里的drink是名词，不是动词，习惯上多用被动语态。

addition

in addition to（加在…上，不但…）里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以该说in addition to doing this，不可说in addition to do this。

address

1.address现在只用作及物动词，作“向…讲话”和“写信给…”解，后面不可加to，如可以说address the audience或address the newspaper editor，不可说address to the audience或address to the newspaper editor。addressed to是可以用的，但这里的addressed是用在被动语态的过去分词。例如：This letter is addressed to a newspaper editor.

2.address the letter和address the envelope都可以说。

3.She addressed herself to carrying out the plan里的carrying是动名词，不可改作carry。

4.address作“地址”解的时候，前面习惯用at。例如：You must write to him at his new address.

5.信面上的所谓address有时包括姓名，有时不包括姓名。

6.address，lecture和speech不同。address指正式的演说或讲话，如毕业典礼上的校长演说。lecture指学术演讲，如对于外语学习法的演讲。speech是最普通的名称，如小组会上的发言。

7.在英国，address（演说）前面通常用give或deliver，但在美国通常用make。不论在英国或美国，speech前面通常用make，lecture前面通常用give或deliver。

adequate

下面两句意思相同：

Our fuel supply is adequate to heat the house this winter.

Our fuel supply is adequate for heating the house this winter.

adjust

下面两句里的反身代词可以省去：

He adjusts (himself) to circumstances readily.

I soon adjusted (myself) to my new work.

administrate

administrate作administer解，在美国比较常用，在英国极少用。

administration

在美国往往用the Administration指政府（就是总统和他的内阁），相当于英国的the Government。往往把总统的姓加在前面，如the Bush Administration。这相当于英国的把首相的姓加在Government前面，如the Blair Government。

admirable

可以说I had a cup of admirable wine last night。但不可说This wine is not admirable, Is this wine admirable? I want a cup of admirable wine或Please give me some admirable wine。参见most 4

admiration

1.admiration后面通常接for，有时接of，如his admiration for (或of) the book。in admiration of中必须用of。

2.admiration通常不用复数形式。但前面往往用a（中间加上形容词）。例如：We have a deep admiration for the Great Wall.

admire

1.admire后面接名词，不可接以that引导的从句，如可以说I admire his learning，不可说I admire that he is learned。I admire his being learned是可以说的，但不很自然。

2.I admire his learning和I admire him for his learning都可以说。

admission

admission现在比admittance普通。除了在No admittance except on business（闲人莫入）和No admittance（非请莫入）两种表达方式以外，admittance很少用。

admit

1.admit是“承认”，admit of是“有…的余地”，如I admit the truth of the statement和The statement admits of no doubt。人只可以admit什么，不可以admit of什么，所以不可说I admit of no doubt。

2.admit（承认）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He admits being ignorant of it，不可说He admits to be ignorant of it。

在admit和动名词的中间有时加上to，如He admits to being ignorant of it。

3.admit（承认）有时在它的宾语后面接表语。例如：He admitted himself a failure.

admittable

admittable现在极少用，该改用admissible。

admittance

参见admission

admittedly

admittedly（被人承认地）有时有“固然”的含意，有时没有，有这含意的时候后面有以but引导的从句。例如：

He is admittedly a talented actor.

Admittedly there has been some improvement, but the work is still unsatisfactory.

admitting

admitting有时没有它所依附着的名词。例如：Admitting that he is always sincere, he sometimes does not judge rightly. 假使在第二个he前面加上we must remember，那末Admitting便依附着we了。

advance(d)

1.advance和advancement都是相当于动词advance 的名词，但advance表达不及物的意思，advancement表达及物的意思，如the advance of knowledge是“知识的进步”，the advancement of knowledge是“知识的被人推进”。advance比advancement普通，如下面各种表达方式里都用advance，不用advancement：

the advance from gramophone to CD player, the advance of the army, the advance of evening, the advance of old age, the advance in rank, the advance in science

2.advanced和progressive不同。advanced是“高级的”，progressive是“向前进的”。如an advanced course in English是“一个高级的英语课程”（是高级英语），a progressive course in English是“一个循序渐进的英语课程”（也许从英语初步开始）。又如advanced ideas是“（比同时代的一般人的思想）先进的思想”，progressive ideas是“（赞成或提倡在政治上）进步的思想”。说“先进的”必须用advanced。

advancement

参见advance(d) 1

advantage

1.the advantages of e-mail over telegram里用over。

2.You have the advantage of me in experience（在经验方面你比我强）里的of改作over也可以。

adventure

1.He loves adventure（抽象名词）和He loves adventures都对。可以说He seeks adventures for adventure's sake。

2.adventure用作动词极不普通，最好不说adventure an opinion，该把adventure改作venture。

(ad)venturesome

adventuresome远不及venturesome普通。

(ad)venturous

adventurous比venturous普通。

advert

advert后面接to，作“谈到”解。现在远不及refer普通，如I shall advert to the matter again when a more suitable occasion arises里的advert最好改作refer。

advertise

advertise是“广告”，advertise for是“用广告征求”，如The shop advertises its wares和We have advertised for a secondhand motor-car。但advertise不一定有“预备出卖”的意思，如He did his best to advertise himself是“他努力使人家注意他”，并没有“推销自己”的意思。

advertisement

1.advertisement有时用作抽象名词，如Advertisement helps to sell goods。

2.一二百年以前书的开首的Advertisement是对读者的说明，跟现在的“广告”不同。

advice

1.单数形式advice和复数形式advices在公文和商业文件里都用作“报告”或“消息”解，如According to advice(s) from our agent, business is improving。在一般文字里该避免。letter of advice是“报告信”或“通知信”，如报告寄货或通知汇款。

2.说“劝告”advice前面不可加an，也没有复数形式。说“一项劝告”该说a piece of advice或a bit of advice，“多项劝告”是pieces of advice或bits of advice。用复数形式advices作“劝告”解是古语，现在不用。

3.take advice是“征求他人的意见”，take medical advice是“请医生诊视”，take legal advice是“请律师”，take the advice是“听从这劝告”，take his (或your等) advice有时是“听从他（或你等）的劝告”，有时是“征求他（或你等）的意见”。

4.his advice to read poetry是“他劝人读诗歌”，his advice on reading poetry是“他对于读诗歌的劝告”。

5.advice后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：His father's advice that he (should) drop the habit of smoking should be observed.

advisable

It is advisable that he (should) arrive at eight o'clock every morning里用arrive（虚拟现在式）或should arrive，不用arrives。

advise

1.advise him是“劝告他”，advise with him是“跟他商量”，现在不很普通。

2.advise有时用作“劝人采用…”解，如I will not advise such a course of action和The doctor advised artificial respiration。advise against作“劝人不采用…”解。例如：I advise against such a course of action. advise后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He advises trying once more，trying不可改用to try。

3.说“劝某人…”，在指人的词的后面用不定式。例如：He advised her to read carefully. 说“劝某人不…”，在指人的词的后面用not和不定式或against和动名词都可以，如He advised her not to read carelessly和He advised her against reading carelessly或He advised her against careless reading。

4.advised（劝告）后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里的动词通常用虚拟现在式。例如：I advised that he write (不用wrote) the report very carefully. advised和that的中间加上him也可以，但不很普通。

5.下面两句都可以说：

He advised me what to do.

Will you advise me which to buy?

把me省去也可以，但不很普通。

6.advise在公文和商业文件里往往用作“通知”或“报告”解。例如：

We will advise you in a day or two.

They have advised us of the arrival of the goods. (of偶尔省去)

They have advised the arrival of the goods.

We are pleased to advise you that things are improving.

这用法在一般文字里该避免。

7.You would be well advised to...（不定式）作I think you should...解，是英国公文里的陈套语。

advisedly

advisedly是“在审慎考虑以后地”，有“别以为偶然或贸然”的意思。例如：

When Tom called her a slattern, he used the offending word advisedly.

Everything in this difficult situation has been done advisedly.

adviser

adviser in English studies（英语研究指导员）和adviser on economic affairs（经济顾问）里的in和on都不可改作of。至于在什么场合用in，在什么场合用on，似乎没有一定。

advocate

1.advocate是及物动词，后面不可加介词，如不可说He advocates for reform。

2.advocate后面很少接以that引导的从句，如很少说He advocates that due attention (should) be paid to reform。

3.advocate后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说We advocate stopping the practice，stopping不可改用to stop。

aerodrome

aerodrome（飞机场）和airdrome同义，英国人多用aerodrome，美国人多用airdrome。现在一般用airfield和airport。

aeroplane

aeroplane（飞机）和airplane同义，英国人多用aeroplane，美国人多用airplane。airplane在英国也在渐渐多用起来。

affair

1.affair有时用作love-affair解。例如：He has had an affair with the girl.

2.复数形式affairs往往用作“情形”或“事态”解，并不指“多件事”，如He asked me how affairs stood（他问我情形怎样）和They are going to investigate affairs（他们将调查事态）。注意affairs前面没有the。

3.foreign affairs（外交［事务］），his financial affairs（他的经济情况），your own affairs（他自己的事情）等表达方式里用复数形式affairs。即使在foreign affairs expert等表达方式里也用复数形式。

affect(ed)

1.affect作“发生影响于…”解，这影响也许是好的，也许是不好的，但往往指不好的。假使它的宾语是health或指身体某部分的词，那影响总是不好的。如This may affect your health（这个也许将有害于你的健康）和My throat is always affected by bad weather。有时affected的意思不够明确，如The progress of the building has been affected by the storm里用affected不及用hindered, delayed, stopped等明确。

2.affected作“做作、不自然”解，语气比unnatural重。例如：His style is too formal and unnatural, and even affected.

affectation

affectation（假装、装模作样）和affection（爱好）现在截然不同，不可通用。No-one feels much affection for a person who shows affectation是“对于显露矫饰的人，没有人感到多大的好感”。

affection

1.注意下面各句都有a（或an）：

We have a deep affection for our mother country.

He has a real affection for her.

She has an extraordinary affection for her cat.

An affection has sprung up between the young man and the young woman.

2.在his, your等词后面习惯用复数形式，如I wonder who is the object of his affections。a man of deep affections等表达方式里也用复数形式。

3.affection比love语气轻些，可以说His was a home where there was no love and little affection。

affectionate

affectionate和dear不同，affectionate是“爱的”，dear是“被爱的”，如He is affectionate to me是“他爱我”， He is dear to me是“他被我爱”，就是“我爱他”。

affirmative(ly)

He answered（或replied）in the affirmative里的in the affirmative不可改作affirmatively。但He answered (或replied) in the affirmative不及He agreed, He assented, He consented, He accepted等普通。

afford

1.afford（给）可以带有双宾语。例如：It affords me great satisfaction to be able to help him.

2.can afford to...表示“做得到…”，“忍得住…”等意思。例如：

He can afford to keep a motor-car. （1.他做得到备一辆汽车。2.他备得起一辆汽车。）

She can hardly afford to wait for another hour. （她几乎做不到再等一小时［因为时间局促］。）

3.I did not think I could afford to lose my post. （我想我失去这个职位受不了［因为我靠它生活，或者因为我喜欢这种工作，或者因为颜面攸关，或者因为我不肯甘心失业，或者另有原因］。）

affront(ed)

关于an affronted look（一个感觉被侮辱的神情）等，参见much 3(5)E

afraid

1.much afraid, very much afraid和very afraid都作“很怕”解。但very afraid不妥，因为afraid是表语形容词。very much afraid最普通。相当于afraid的定语形容词是frightened。

2.afraid后面接不定式、of或以that或lest引导的从句都可以。从句开首的that通常省去。例如：I am afraid (that) we shall be late.

3.afraid后面接不定式作“怕…”或“不敢…”解，afraid后接of和动名词通常作“恐怕将…”解，但也往往作“怕…”或“不敢…”解。如afraid to die是“怕死”或“不敢死”，afraid of dying通常是“恐怕将死”，但也往往作“怕死”或“不敢死”解。afraid to see him是“怕见他”或“不敢见他”，afraid of seeing him通常是“（不要见他而）恐怕不免见他”，但也往往作“怕见他”或“不敢见他”解。假定你很怕伤风，该说afraid to catch cold或afraid of catching cold，假定你衣服穿得太少，恐怕就要伤风，该说afraid of catching cold。

4.I am afraid of you是“我怕你。”I am afraid for you是“我替你担心（恐怕你将受害）”。

5.I am afraid有时用作I am sorry解。例如：I am afraid I cannot tell you.但不可单用I am afraid代替I am sorry。

after

1.可以说He arrived after four weeks和He arrived four weeks after（作“他在四个星期后到达了”解），但不可说He will (或would) arrive after four weeks和He will (或would) arrive four weeks after。

从某时说到多少时间以后，不该用after，该用in。所以该说He will (或would) arrive in four weeks。但说He will arrive four weeks from now和He would arrive four weeks from then也可以。

假使说“某个时刻（point of time）或日期或事件以后”，尽可用after。例如：He will (或would) arrive after four o'clock (或after 5 July，或after the ceremony).

2.说“某事件的若干时间以后”该说“若干时间after事件”，不可说after若干时间of事件，如可以说two hours after his arrival和two years after her graduation，不可说after two hours of his arrival和after ten years of her graduation。

two hours after his arrival是“他到达两小时以后”，the two hours after his arrival是“他到达以后的两小时”，for two hours after his arrival 是“在他到达以后的两小时全段时间里”，in two hours after his arrival跟没有in意思相同，within two hours after his arrival是“在他到达以后的两小时中的某时刻”。

注意下面第一句里没有the或for，第二句里有the，第三句里有for，第四句（跟第一句意思相同）里有in，第五句里有within：

Two hours after his arrival, I called on him.

During the two hours after his arrival, nearly a hundred people called on him.

For two hours after his arrival, nearly a hundred people called on him.

In two hours after his arrival, I called on him.

Within two hours after his arrival, I called on him.

3.“若干时间after日期或月份”通常把那日期或月份除外，如five days after 3 July指从7月4日算起的5天以后，就是7月9日，five months after July指从8月算起的5个月以后，就是明年的1月。但并不一定这样，所以five days after 3 July也许指7月8日，five months after July也许在指12月。可能被人误解的时候该避免这种结构。

4.可以说After his graduation he went abroad和After his graduation he will go abroad，但不可说After his graduation he has been abroad。从过去的某时或某事说到现在，不该用after，该用since。

这里所讲的after是介词。用作连接词也是这样，所以可以说He went abroad after he graduated，但不可说He has been abroad after he graduated，这里也该把after改作since。

5.half after four, five minutes after eight等是美国英语，相当于英国英语half past four, five minutes past eight等。在英国方言里也有half after four等。

6.以after引导的状语从句里用现在时态，不用将来时态，如I shall start after he comes。不该把comes改作will come。

7.下面各句都可以说，意思相同。有人以为第二句和第四句不好。

Having graduated, he went to Canada.

After having graduated, he went to Canada.

After graduating, he went to Canada.

After he had graduated, he went to Canada.

After he graduated, he went to Canada.

When he had graduated, he went to Canada.

8.after通常指时间先后的次序，behind通常指位置，如August comes after July里用after，A garden lies behind the house里用behind。下面各句里的after都该改作behind。

Don't stand after the door.

The cat is sitting after the sofa.

Something has got after the bush.

但往往after和behind可以通用，如Please shut the door after (或behind) you和He came in after（或behind）her。

9.be after作“追求、希求”解。例如：He is after you. （他正在找你。）和He is always after me to teach him the violin. （他老是要我教他小提琴。）注意第二句里用不定式。

10.after all有“虽然这样”的意思。例如：In coming home we got caught in the rain and became wet through and through, after all I don't mind as we had a fine time. 不可说In coming home we got caught in the rain and became wet through and through, after all I wish I hadn't joined in the outing。

afternoon

1.afternoon（下午）是after和noon两个词合成的名词，“在下午”该说in the afternoon或during the afternoon。

2.this afternoon（今天下午）, yesterday afternoon（昨天下午），tomorrow afternoon（明天下午），every afternoon（每天下午）等表达方式前面不可有in或on，如I shall see him this afternoon里没有in或on。

3.after noon用作状语短语（如We left after noon today）比较少见。但shortly after noon（午后不久），immediately after noon（午后立即）等是普通的。

4.复数形式afternoons有时用作副词，作“在每天下午”解。例如：She helps me with English grammar afternoons. （她每天下午帮助我学习英语语法。）这主要是美国用法。

afterward(s)

1.在英国通常用afterwards，在美国两种形式都普通。

2.two years afterward(s)是“两年以后”，for two years afterward(s) 是“在以后的两年里”。

again

1.again and again和time and again是“屡次地”或“频繁地”，now and again是“有时”或“偶尔”，only now and again是“难得地”。

2.比较下面两句：

These shoes cost me as much again as the last pair I bought.

（这双鞋子价钱比我最近买的那双贵一倍［就是加上百分之一百］。）

These shoes cost me half as much again as the last pair I bought.

（这双鞋子价钱比我最近买的那双贵一半［就是加上百分之五十］。）

against

1.fight, strive, struggle等词后面接against和接with意思相仿，但用against着重在困难中抵抗，如We fight for the weak against the strong。

2.against是介词，但有时把它的宾语省去。例如：

He had intended to come but somehow decided against (=against it).

After I made my suggestion, the verdict of all the members except John was in its favour, but his was against (=against it).

age(d)

1.下面各句意思相同：

I am twenty years of age.

I am aged twenty.

I am aged twenty years.

My age is twenty.

My age is twenty years.

另外也可说I am twenty years old和I am twenty，但不可说I am twenty of age, I am twenty years of my age, My age is twenty years old，或I am aged twenty years old。

（I am aged twenty years有时可能作“我［在容貌上或精神上好似］老了二十年”解。）

2.age前面可以用at，in或of，但意思不同：

He died at the age of ninety.

He died in his old age.

He died in an age of general unrest.

He is of my age.

第一句里的age指“年龄”，前面用at。第二句里的age指“人生的一段时间”，前面用in。第三句里的age指“时代”，前面用in。第四句里的of my age（跟我同年的）是形容词短语，前面用of。

3.at the age of...里用the，不可用an。

4.advanced age是“高龄”，old age是“老年时期”，所以可以说He died at an advanced age和He died in his old age，但不可说He died at an old age和He died in his advanced age。但虽然不说at an old age，却可以说at an extremely old age和at a good old age。

5.when I was of your age, a boy of about my age, a man of twice my age, of what age he is等表达方式里的of往往省去。I don't know what age he is和What age do you think he is? 不及I don't know how old he is和How old do you think he is? 普通。What age are you? 不合习惯，该改作How old are you?

6.old age是“老年”，middle age是“中年”（从四十岁左右到六十岁左右）。old age和middle age前面没有the。说“少年”通常用youth，不说young age。单用age指old age现在很少见。

7.不可说My age is young或His age is old，该说I am young和He is old。

8.middle age是“中年”，the Middle Ages（有时写作the middle ages）是“中世纪”（没有一定的年限）。两种表达方式不可混用。相当于middle age的形容词是middle-aged，相当于the Middle Ages的形容词是medi(a)eval。

9.old age不可用作“古代”解。“古代”该说ancient times。

10.of an age是“同年龄的”，如He and I are of an age, 但You are of an age to understand such things是“你到了了解这种事的年龄了”，of the age是“当代的”，of age是“成年的”。

11.假定你从生下来到现在，共有十八年零几个月，那末可说eighteen，但实际已到了第十九年，所以也可说in my nineteenth year，而且离十九岁不远了，所以也可说coming nineteen, going nineteen或rising nineteen。

12.for ages和for an age都作“经过很长时间”解。例如：

He kept me waiting for ages. （他使我等待了好久。）

He kept me waiting for an age.

agenda

1.agenda（议程）原来是复数形式，它的单数形式是agendum。但下面两点该注意：

（1）往往用agenda指各件事的全体，把它看作单数。例如：The agenda has not yet been prepared. （这种用法里的复数形式是agendas。）

（2）说“议程里的某项”很少用agendum，通常用item。例如：item (No) 5 (of the agenda)

2.the first item of the agenda, the first item on the agenda和the first item in the agenda都可以说。

agent

agent有时指secret agent（秘密使者，特务，间谍）。

aggression

the aggression of...（指某国等）是“…国侵略它国”，如the aggression of Nazi Germany（纳粹德国的侵略），说“…国被它国侵略”该说aggression on（或upon，或against）...，如Japanese aggression on （或upon，或against）Korea（本对朝鲜的侵略）。

aggressive

“侵略（性）的外交政策”该说aggressive foreign policy，“侵略战争”该说aggressive war，但说“侵略国”，aggressive nation不及aggressor nation普通。

ago

1.一般说来，用了ago不可用完成时态，如可以说She saw him a week ago，不可说She has seen him a week ago。但用了助动词或用在分词、动名词或不定式的形式里便可以用完成时态。例如：

She must have seen him a week ago.

She may have seen him a week ago.

She cannot have seen him a week ago.

Having seen him a week ago, she is always thinking of him.

She speaks of having seen him a week ago.

She seems to have seen him a week ago.

即使不用助动词，也不用在分词、动名词或不定式的形式里，偶尔也有用完成时态而用ago的。例如：I have long ago given up that habit. 这里语气重在“早已…”。

2.说现在的多少时间以前，该用ago，如He started five minutes ago 和He returned home twenty years ago。说过去某时的多少时间以前，该用before，如He told me he had seen her a few minutes before。不过英美也有人用ago的，往往用ago语气比较生动。说将来某时的多少时间以前，也该用before。例如：When you call at the shop again this afternoon, you may be told that the book has been sold only a few minutes before. 说任何某时（不是现在、过去或将来的某时）的多少时间以前，也该用before。例如：He often forgets what he has heard only a few minutes before. （这三种场合里的before改作previously或earlier也可以，但不及before普通。）

3.It is five years ago that he returned home和It was five years ago that he returned home都可以说。用is着重“到现在已有5年”的意思，假使在ago后面加上now，这意思更明显。不可说It was five years ago now that he returned home。

4.as long ago as 1864等表达方式里在第二个as后面没有in。可以说as long as forty years ago，不可说as long ago as forty years。

5.She died three years ago next Monday是“她在下一个星期一的3年以前死去”。假定下一个星期一是8月5日，那末她便是3年前的8月5日死的。It happened a fortnight ago tomorrow是“这件事发生在13天以前。”

6.“最近过去的第二个晚上”习惯说two evenings ago，说“最近过去的第三个夏天”习惯说three summers ago。

agony

in agony（在苦恼中）不可改作in agonies。可以说an agony of terror, the agony of shame, agonies of pain，和the agonies of death。用agony或agonies，在agonies前面是否有the，都没有一定。

agree

1.agree作“承认”解，后面可以接以that引导的从句，如I agree (with you) that the book is well worth reading。

2.agree with是“同意”，后面接指人或表示“意见”的词，如I agree with you和I agree with what you say。agree to是“应允”或“同意于”，后面接表示“提议”、“办法”、“计划”等的词，如I agree to the proposal和Does he agree to this arrangement? agree on（或upon）是“（双方）决定”，如They agree (up) on these terms。近年来往往省去agree后面的to或on （或upon），把agree用作及物动词。

3.We are agreed里的agreed（互相同意的）是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词，后面可以接以that引导的从句，如We are agreed that the meeting must be held not later than 8 August。We met at an agreed place at an agreed time和A joint declaration agreed by all the governments concerned will soon be published里的agreed是及物动词的过去分词。

4.They agreed to do it是“他们（听从了别人而）同意做这件事”，They agreed in doing it是“他们对于做这件事互相同意。”

5.下面三句意思相同：

I agree that he call on me every Sunday.

I agree that he shall call on me every Sunday.

I agree that he should call on me every Sunday.

注意第一句里用call（虚拟现在式），不用calls。

下面两句意思相同：

I agreed that he call on me every Sunday.

I agreed that he should call on me every Sunday.

注意第一句里用call，不用called。

比较下面两句（参见1）：

I agree that he call on me every Sunday. （我赞同他每星期日来访。）

I agree that he calls on me every Sunday. （我承认他是每星期日来访的。）

agreeable

下面的第一句比第二句普通：

He is agreeable to come.

He is agreeable to coming.

agricultur(al)ist

在英国agriculturist（农学家）比agriculturalist普通，在美国似乎两种形式都普通。

ahead

I have a very busy day ahead of me里的ahead指“在前”，就是指“以后”。We must decide a week ahead里的ahead指“预先”，就是指“以前”。

aid

1.aid的宾语后面接不定式或in和动名词都可以，如We aid him to do it和We aid him in doing it。

2.aid（帮助物）后面接to，如I hope this book will be a great aid to English composition。要是后面用动名词，接to或for都可以，如various aids to (或for) teaching foreign languages。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He came for our aid. （他来请我们帮助。）

He came to our aid. （他来帮助我们。）

4.What's this in aid of? 和What's all this in aid of? 都是口语，直译作“这（一切）帮助什么？”，就是“你（这样做）的目的是什么？”

aid(e)-de-camp

在英国通常用aide-de-camp，在美国两种形式都用。复数形式是aid(e)s-de-camp，偶尔作aid(e)-de-camps。

ail

1.说出了病名，便不可用ail，如可以说What ails him? 和Something ails him，不可说A cold ails him。

2.ail不可用被动语态，如不可说He is ailed by something。

3.ail作“害病”解通常用现在分词ailing，指“有小病”或“略感不适”，如可以说She is not ill, but merely ailing。

aim

1.aim（不及物动词）在用作“目的在于…”或“使…目的在于…”解的时候，在英国后面通常接at和动名词，在美国通常接不定式。如在英国通常说He aims at mastering English和He aims his efforts at mastering English，在美国通常说He aims to master English和He aims his efforts to master English。但在aiming后面即使在英国也通常接不定式，那是因为不知不觉地避免...ing at...ing。

2.take aim（瞄准）里没有an, take good aim里没有a。

3.Her aim in visiting the school was to see the library等句子里的in不可改作of。She visited the school with the aim of seeing the library等句子里的with不可改作for。

ain't

1.ain't在口语里是am not的简写形式，主要用在疑问句里。例如：Ain't I qualified? 在叙述句里比较少用，如I'm afraid I ain't qualified不及I'm afraid I'm not qualified普通，把ain't用作is not, are not, have not或has not的简写形式不算正当。

2.ain't有时写作an't。

air

1.统说“空气”，air前面没有the（当然在the air we breathe, the air in the room等表达方式里该有the）。说“空中”，air前面该有the。但by air中没有the。例如：We can now travel by air. 假使把by改作through，便该有the。

2.take air是“被传布”，take the air是“在户外散步”或“开始广播”，take to the air是“开始飞行”。

3.in the air是“在空中”，in the open air是“在户外”，如Many birds are flying in the air和I am going out for a walk in the open air。

4.不可说The moon is in the air, There are a few stars in the air或There is not a cloud in the air，该把air改作sky。

5.on the air和over the air相同，都可以用作形容词短语或状语短语，都指无线电广播。例如：

She is on (或over) the air. （她正在广播。）

She is singing on (或over) the air. （她正在广播歌唱。）

The story is on (或over) the air. （1.这故事经常被广播。2.这故事正在被广播。）

The story is told on (或over) the air. （这故事经常被广播讲述。）

The story is being told on (或over) the air. （这故事正在被广播讲述。）各句里的on或over不可改作in。

aircraft

单数和复数同一形式。统指飞机、飞艇、汽球等。

aircraft(s)man

1.aircraft(s)man和airman不同，aircraft(s)man是“（英国）空军技师”，是地上工作人员，并不飞行，airman是“飞行员”。

2.英国皇家空军里的正式名称是aircraftman，不是aircraftsman。

aircraft(s)woman

1.aircraft(s)woman（英国空军女士兵）和airwoman（女飞行员）不同。

2.英国皇家空军里的正式名称是aircraftwoman，不是aircraftswoman。

airdrome

参见aerodrome

airplane

参见aeroplane

akin

akin是表语形容词，所以不可说very akin，该说much akin或very much akin。用very much比用much普通。相当于akin的定语形容词是kindred。

alarm

take alarm是“吃惊”或“受惊”，take the alarm有时是“吃惊”或“受惊”，但通常是“接到警报（而有所动作）”。Coming upon a snake, she took (the) alarm里通常不用the。Hearing an air-raid alert, she took the alarm里该有the。

alert

1.alert（机警的）用作定语形容词现在很普通。例如：an alert man, his alert attention和an alert fancy

2.alert用作动词作“促使…提防”解，有时在它的宾语后面接以that引导的从句。例如：The villagers alerted the traveller that wolves might come out in the night.

alienate

比较下面两句：

I hope nothing will ever alienate him from his brothers. （我希望没有什么事会使他跟他的弟兄们不和好。）

I hope nothing will ever alienate his brothers from him. （我希望没有什么事会使他的弟兄们跟他不和好。）

He is now alienated from her, but she still loves him是讲得通的，He is now alienated from her, but he still loves her却讲不通。

alight

The leaf looks like a bird alighted on the branch里的alighted是不及物动词的过去分词，用作形容词。

alike

1.alike是表语形容词，所以不可说very alike，该说much alike 或very much alike。用very much比用much普通。相当于alike的定语形容词是like。

2.They are both alike里的both是多余的，该删去。

alive

1.alive是表语形容词，所以不可说very alive，该说much alive或very much alive。用very much比用much普通。相当于alive的定语形容词是living或live。

2.the greatest poet alive和the greatest living poet意思相同。the greatest poet living也不算错，但不很自然。the greatest poet now living 最好。

all

1.we all, us all和all of us都可以说，you all, they all, them all, it all, all of you, all of them和all of it也都可以说。用在宾格，现在us all, you all, them all和it all比all of us, all of you, all of them和all of it普通。all we和all you从前也可以说，现在不通用。

2.all不可用于两个人或物，如可以说John, Henry, and Robert have all come，却不可说John and Henry have all come，该把all改作both。但A boaster and a liar are all one（说大话的人和说谎话的人是一样的）等句子里的all不可改作both。

3.all day比all the day普通得多。all night比all the night普通得多。all spring（或summer等），all week, all morning等表达方式在美国也通常不用the，在英国以前通常用the，如all the spring，现在不用the也很普通。

4.说“全部”有各种说法。例如：

all books（一切书），

all such books（一切这样的书），

all (of) the books（这些书的全部），

all (of) these books（这些书的全部），

all (of) those books（那些书的全部），

all (of) his books（他的书的全部）。

但不可说all of books或all of such books。

all the books, all these books, all those books, all his books等主要是英国英语，在all后面加上了of主要是美国英语。

5.all有时作“仅有的（东西）”解，如This is all I have和This is all the sugar I have。这两句直译作“这是我所有的一切”和“这是我所有的糖”；就是说“我仅有这个”和“我仅有这些糖”。That's all there is to it的意思是“只有那个，没有其他了”。

6.all＋名词有时用作形容词短语，如all anxiety（十分焦虑的）和all smiles（满面笑容的）。all anxiety里的anxiety是抽象名词，all smiles里的smiles是类名词。He is all ear(s)（他细心听着）和He is all eye(s)（他细心看着）里用ears或ear和eyes或eye都合乎习惯。He listened with all his ears（倾听）里的all决不可改作both。all ears和all eyes比all ear和all eye普通。

7.All...is not作“一切…不都是”解。All that glisters is not gold （Shakespeare）是“发亮的东西不一定都是金子。”All men are not honest照字面看来好像说“一切人都是不诚实的”，但实际说“一切人不都是诚实的”就是说“有些人诚实，有些人不诚实”；“一切人都是不诚实的”该说All men are dishonest或No man is honest。同样地，All my friends do not smoke 是“我的朋友并不个个都抽烟”，并不是“我的朋友都不抽烟”；None of my friends smoke才是“我的朋友都不抽烟”。I do not know all of them是“我对于他们并不个个都认识”，并不是“我对于他们一个也不认识”；I know none of them或I do not know any of them才是“我对于他们一个也不认识”。这是习惯用法，该特别注意。

但有时这种句子并不是“并不都…”，却是“即使全部的…也不…”，如All his toys cannot make him happy是“即使他的全部玩具也不能使他快乐”，就是说“他虽然有许多玩具，却并不快乐”。

It did not rain all the month可能有两个意思：“并不全月都下雨”或“全月不下雨”。There was no rain all the month只作“全月不下雨”解。

8.all有时意思不明确，如All the angles of a triangle are 180°是“三角形的三角共有180度”；All the angles of a triangle are less than 180°是“三角形的每一只角小于180度”。这种句子该避免，如改作The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°和Each (of the) angle(s) of a triangle is less than 180°较好。

9.All that I can say is this里的that是关系代词。在that后面加上了which，便把that改成了指示代词，语法也通，但不很自然，把that改成what便不通了，all what是绝对不可用的。

10.all right（不该写作all-right, allright或alright，参见alright）往往有“固然”的意思。例如：He got to the destination all right, but he was so very tired that he had to give up the idea of climbing the hills.

11.all the time在英国通常指一定的某段时间。例如：I was looking at it all the time. 但在美国没有这种限制，往往用作always解。例如：He is tactful all the time.在美国有时用all of the time。

12.at all主要用在否定句、疑问句和表示条件的从句里。例如：

I did not go at all.

Did you go at all?

If you go at all, you will be interested.

但用在它处也有。如你原来以为你的朋友决不会到某处去，现在你知道他不但去过，而且是常去的，你可以说I am suprised at his going at all，就是说“即使他只去过一次，我也觉得奇怪了”。又如The question is not whether he works much, but whether he works at all。（问题并不是他工作得是否多，而是他是否工作。）

13.I am not at all tired和I am not tired at all都可以说，意思相同。

14.He was all covered with dust只有一个意思。但They were all covered with dust可能有两个意思：“他们全身都是灰尘。”或“他们全都一身灰尘。”下面各句都只有一个意思：

All were completely（或entirely，或wholly）covered with dust.

All of them were covered with dust.

They all were covered with dust.

They were all of them covered with dust.

15.注意下面各句里的of all...：

She disappeared on her birthday, of all days. （她不在别的日子失踪而偏偏在她的生日失踪。）

I met him in a lavatory, of all places. （我不在其他地方碰到他而偏偏在厕所里碰到他。）

Why did she give the baby a cigarette, of all things? （她为什么不给那婴孩任何其他东西，偏偏给他一支卷烟？）

You, of all people, have little reason to worry. （别人也许有忧虑的理由，你是没有的。）

Well, of all things! （唔，万万想不到［不发生其他事而竟然发生这样的事］！）

all-around

all-around是美国英语，相当于英国英语all-round。

allegation

参见allege

allege

allege有“虽然有人断言或宣称，却未必可靠”的意思，如It is alleged that they will be married soon是“据说他们不久就将结婚”，He came over to China at the alleged age of fifteen是“据说他15岁到中国来”。

allergic

be allergic to作“厌恶”、“极不喜欢”解。He is allergic to eggs, She is allergic to music等句子里的allergic原来是一种误用，但最近一二十年来很普通。

alleyway

alleyway（狭巷）只用在美国，在英国用alley。

allot

allot（分配）可以有双宾语。例如：They allotted the family three rooms.

allow

1.allow（给）可以有双宾语，如He allows his son ¥10 a week和He allows himself no luxuries。

2.allow不及permit积极，allow是“容许”，有“并不禁止”的含意，permit是“允许”或“准许”。Nothing is permitted, everything is allowed的意思是“一切都不（明文）准许，但也并不（明文）禁止”，但两个单词往往通用。例如：Allow (或Permit) me to congratulate you on your success.

3.allow用作“说”或“声称”解，如She allowed [that] he was right。主要用在美国。

4.allow of和admit of意思相同，作“有…的余地”解，如The question allows of no dispute。allow for是“考虑到”或“体谅”，如We must allow for accidents（我们须要考虑到意外）和He has indeed made many mistakes, but you must allow for his inexperience。（他诚然犯了许多错误，但你必须因为他缺乏经验而原谅他。）

allowance

make allowance for和make allowances（复数形式）for相同，都作“考虑到”或“体谅”解，参见allow 4

all-round

all-round（全面的）着重在才能、功用等。例如：all-round development（全面发展）和all-round education（全面教育）

allude

1.allude是不及物动词，后面接to，作“暗指…”、“暗示…”解。例如：He often alludes to his happy childhood.

2.严格地说，allude to是“隐约地说到”或“暗指”，并不是“明白地说到”，如有人说到你的事，却并不指明你，那是allude to，要是指明便是refer to。但很多英美人把allude to用作refer to解，这种用法有人认为是错误的。

allusion

1.allusion后面接to，作“暗指…”解，如his allusion to his happy childhood, allusions to Shakespeare和what he said in allusion toyou。

2.allusion有时统指allusions。例如：The essay is full of classical allusion.

3.很多英美人把allusion用作reference解，这种用法有人认为是错误的。

almighty

Almighty God和the Almighty都指“上帝”。用了God用the或不用the都可以，现在通常不用，不用God必须用the。也有人用God Almighty（没有the）。

almost

1.almost no..., almost nothing和almost never作“几乎没有…”等解，都是美国英语，在英国说scarcely（或hardly）any..., scarcely （或hardly）anything和scarcely（或hardly）ever。无论在英美都不说almost not，而用hardly或scarcely。

2.almost不可被not修饰，如不可说He is not almost so much interested as I thought，该把almost改作nearly。

alms

alms（施舍物）用作单数和复数都有。例如：an alms（单数）和these alms（复数）。即使用作复数，也不可说two alms, three alms等。alms虽然用作单数，却没有复数形式almses。

alone

1.alone, lone, lonely和lonesome的不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）alone是表语形容词，如可以说The man is alone，但不可说an alone man。

（2）lone是定语形容词，如可以说a lone man，但不可说The man is lone。这词现在不普通。

（3）alone是“独自的”，lonely是“（感觉）寂寞的”，一个人也许alone而并不lonely，也会虽不alone而感觉lonely。可以说Though I was alone, I was not lonely（虽然我独自一个人，我却并不感觉寂寞）和Though John was not alone, he was lonely. （虽然约翰并不是独自一个人，他却感觉寂寞）。用在地方，lonely有“不大有人到的”的意思，如a lonely house和a lonely wood。

（4）lonesome跟lonely相仿，但含有“凄凉”的意思。例如：Mary is very lonesome with her husband and children so much away.

2.alone是表语形容词，所以不可说very alone，该说much alone或very much alone。用very much似乎比用much普通。

3.not alone...but (also)现在不很普通，最好改用not only...but (also)。

4.She alone went是“只有她去”（没有别人去），She went alone是“她独自去”。Books alone delight him可能有两个意思：“只有书给他娱乐（其他东西都不能给他娱乐）。”或“只要书便给他娱乐（不需要其他东西）。”

5.leave him alone有时是“听任他独自一个人”，有时是“不干涉他”。let him alone是“不干涉他”。

let alone=to say nothing of（莫说、更不必提及）。例如：The house is uninhabitable in summer, let alone in winter.

aloud

read aloud是“读出声来”，并不是“高声地读”，但cry aloud 是“高声地喊（或哭）”，shout aloud是“高声地喊”。

alphabet

alphabet是一种文字的按次序排列的全部字母。一个字母叫做letter，如英语有26个letters合成1个alphabet。

Alps

Alps（欧洲的阿尔卑斯山脉）前面有the。

already

1.already用在疑问句里往往有惊讶的意味。例如：Are you back already? Have you seen it yet? 是问是否已经见过，Have you seen it already? 是惊讶何以竟然已经见过。

2.already和all ready不可混用。例如：

He is already there. （他已经在那儿了。）

He is all ready there. （他在那儿完全准备好了。）

He is already all ready there. （他已经在那儿完全准备好了。）

They are all ready可能有两个意思。（参见all 14）

alright

alright等于all right，很多英美人认为不正当，但很流行。最好用all right。

also

1.可以说He did not come, and she also did not come，但不可说He did not come, and she did not come also，这里的also该改作either。

2.also是副词，但也用作连接词。例如：I study English, also Russian. 在口语里时常有这种用法，有人认为用在文字里是不好的。可以在also前加上and。

3.注意下面第一句里用is，第二句里用are：

Not only the children but (also) their father is in town.

Not only the man but (also) his children are in town.

alternate(ly)

参见alternative(ly)

alternative(ly)

1.alternative(ly)和alternate(ly)不同。alternative(ly)通常作“两者任择其一的（或地）”或“两不相容的（或地）”解，not alternative(ly)作“并非两不相容的（或地）”或“也许两者都是的（或地）”解。alternate(ly)通常有两个意思：“交替的（或地）”或“一个隔一个的（或地）”。从前alternative(ly)也有alternate(ly)的两个意思，现在却没有了，如alternate work and play, alternate success and failure, on alternatedays和Boys and girls passed alternately中的alternate(ly)不可改作alternative(ly)。The boy and the girl come on alternate days可能有两个意思：“这男孩和这女孩轮流地每天来。”（今天男孩来，明天女孩来。）或“这男孩和这女孩都一天隔一天来。”

2.alternative用作名词，共有四个意思：

（1）“两个或两个以上的选择”，如The only alternative is coffee or （不用and）tea和We have the alternative of coffee, tea, or（不用and）water。

（2）“两个或两个以上的任何一个”，如Either alternative is good, Both alternatives are good, All the alternatives are good, The alternatives are coffee and (不用or) tea和The alternatives are coffee, tea, and (不用or) water。

（3）“一个以外的另一个”（共有两个），例如There is no alternative和The alternative is tea。

（4）“一个或一个以上以外的另一个”（共有至少两个），例如：We may drink either coffee or tea (or water), there is no other alternative和The only alternatives to (注意用to) coffee are tea and (不用or) water. 注意and和or不可对调。

3.The only alternative to going to see him is to write to him里的to是介词，所以它后面的going不可改作go。

although

参见though

altogether

1.altogether作“完全地”和“就大体而论”解，如That was altogether bad和Altogether, I am not sorry for it。altogether并不作“一道”解，如不可说They went altogether，该把altogether改作all together。说“一共”用altogether或all together都可以。例如：There are altogether (或all together) twenty-four children in the class.

2.not altogether是“并不完全”。例如：He felt not altogether satisfied.

alumin(i)um

aluminium（铝）是英国拼写形式，aluminum是美国拼写形式。

alumnus

alumnus是masculine gender的单数形式，它的复数形式是alumni，它的feminine gender的单数形式是alumna，复数形式是alumnae。这些词在美国很常用，在英国很少用。在美国指“（某校的）毕业生或虽未毕业而已经离校的学生”，就是“校友”，在英国有时指“在校学生”。在美国往往把alumni兼指男女。

always

1.always有“每次”或“没有例外”的意思。例如：Rain and storm always comes with typhoon. 假使你每次去看某个朋友，他总是在读书，才是always，假使是十次中有八九次这样，便不该说always，该说almost always。

不过always用在进行时态里却只有“时常”或“往往”的意思，如He is always asking questions是“他时常发问”或“他老是发问”。

2.always用在进行时态里，往往含有“使人不耐烦”的意思，如He is always asking questions有“他老是提问题，真是讨厌”的意思，下面几句都有这种含意：

You are always finding fault with me. （你老是找我的茬儿。）

She was always talking about her husband. （她老是谈着她的丈夫。）

You are always giving me flowers. （你老是送花给我。）

You talk as if I were always being ill. （照你说来，好像我老是害病。）

3.always用在不定时态和进行时态里，全句的意思往往大不相同。例如：

4.“常常不”不可说always not，如不可说She always does not laugh，该说She never laughs。

5.Whenever he meets me he always speaks of his father里的always最好删去，或者把Whenever改作When。

6.He is always here是普通的句子。He always is here!（该把is重读）是“（别以为他不在这儿）他的确常常在这儿！”通常在句尾用惊叹号。

am

I am的简写形式是I'm。I am not的简写形式是I'm not。Am I not?或Am not I?的简写形式是Ain't I?或An't I? 也有人（尤其是英国人）用Aren't I?

a.m.（有时作A.M.）

1.a.m.=拉丁语ante meridiem，作“在上午”解（“在下午”是p.m.），用了它便不该再用morning。如不可说10.45 a.m. in the morning或tomorrow morning at 10.45 a.m.，该说10.45 a.m.（上午10点45分）和tomorrow at 10.45 a.m.。10.45是英国拼写形式，10:45是美国拼写形式。

2.用了a.m.便不该再用o'clock，如不可说10 o'clock a.m.，该说10 a.m.。也不可说half past eight a.m.，(a) quarter to nine a.m.等。通常a.m.前面用数字表示时刻，不用文字，如通常用7.16 a.m.不用seven-sixteen a.m.。

3.不该不说出钟点而用a.m.，如不可说tomorrow a.m.或on the 14th a.m.，该说tomorrow morning和on the morning of the 14th。

4.正午12点钟也算a.m.，写作12 a.m.或12.00 a.m.。但也有人写作12 noon或12.00 m.。m=拉丁语meridiem，正午。

AM

1.AM（=Master of Arts，文科硕士）是美国拼写形式，相当于英国拼写形式MA。

2.参见am

amaze(d)

关于an amazed stare（惊讶的凝视）等，参见much 3 (5) E

ambassador

ambassador（大使）在表示驻在国首都的城市名前面用in或at，在表示驻在国的国名前面用to，如Chinese Ambassador in Moscow，Chinese Ambassador at London和Chinese Ambassador to the United States。

ambition

1.ambition（抱负、大志）后面接for，of和动名词或不定式都可以，如ambition for success，ambition of getting it和ambition to get it。

2.单用ambition（如ambition for success）或前面加上an，the或his （或your等）都可以，但ambition of...ing前总有the或his（或your等）。

3.In his youth he had the ambition of being a pianist和In his youth he had ambitions of being a pianist意思相同。注意第二句里ambitions前面没有the。

ambitious

ambitious后面接of，for或不定式都可以，如ambitious of success, ambitious of getting it, ambitious for success, ambitious for getting it和ambitious to get it。

ameliorate

ameliorate不及improve普通。

amends

amends（赔偿）单数和复数形式相同，如an amends（单数）和these amends（复数）。现在用作单数普通些。即使用作复数，也不可说two amends，three amends等。

amenity

amenities（复数形式）统指一切使人生愉快的有形和无形的大小事物，如公园、好的学校和礼貌等都是。

America(n)

1.严格地说，America是“美洲”，不是“美国”，American是“美洲人”或“美洲的”，不是“美国人”或“美国的”，“美国”是the United States (of America)，“美国人”是citizen of the United States (of America)，“美国的”没有一定的词。 但习惯上America往往指“美国”，American往往指“美国人”或“美国的”。虽然有英美人反对这种用法，可是已成习惯。

2.America虽然可以指美国，但不可用North America，South America，East America和West America指“美国北部”等，该改作the North of the United States等。

3.the Americas指“南北美洲（的各国）”。

amid(st)

1.amid和amidst现在都不普通，在英国amid更不普通，在美国amidst更不普通。

2.amid(st)后面接可数名词或不可数名词都有。例如：He always works amid(st) his books. 和She kept cool amid(st) the panic.

ammunition

在现代英语里ammunition和munition不同，有下面两点该注意：

（1）ammunition用单数形式，munition用复数形式。但在名词的前面munition用单数形式也可以，如munition production和munitions production。

（2）ammunition（弹药）是munitions（军需物）的一部分，刀、剑、枪、炮、制服、粮食等是munitions，不是ammunition。

among(st)

1.among比amongst普通。amongst多用在元音前面，如amongst us。amongst在美国极少用。

2.在三个或三个以上的人或物前面，通常用among而不用between，但用了and通常不用among，如between A, B, and C，通常不作among A, B, and C。

3.He is sitting among his best friends里的He并不是his best friends中的一个。He is among my best friends里的He是my best friends中的一个。

4.among后面有时接不可数名词，如among the furniture和among the turf。这用法在英国比在美国普通。

amorous

现在amorous往往暗示着性欲。“恋爱诗”最好说love poetry，不说amorous poetry。“表示爱慕的一瞥”最好说a loving look，不说an amorous look。

amount

1.amount是不及物动词，后面接to，如The expenses amount to（总计）¥50和That amounts to（等于）a refusal。假使后面该用动名词，很容易误用不定式，该特别注意，如That amounts to saying that he is a genius里的saying不可改作say。

2.amount用作名词，只可用在不可数的东西，不可用在可数的东西，如可以说a large amount of literature，不可说a large amount of books，该把amount改作number。

ample

ample（充足的）可以用在无形的东西上，不可用在有形的东西上，如可以说ample time和ample opportunities，不可说ample tea和ample oranges。往往同一个词，当作无形便可以用ample，当作有形便不可用ample，如The ship has ample water to turn in里的water并不指水的本身，可以用ample，但ample water to drink却不可说。

amuse(ment)

1.amuse往往有“使…发笑”的意思，假使你听一个朋友唱歌唱得很好，不该说Your singing amuses me，这句好像说“你唱得不合腔调，使我发笑”。假使一个朋友告诉你一个意见或计划，你对他说Your idea amuses me，那便是说他荒谬，简直侮辱他了。amusement也是这样，如my amusement at his idea是“我对于他的意见的引为可笑”。

2.关于an amused glance（被逗乐的一瞥）等，参见much 3 (5) E

ancient

ancient通常指上古或太古，在西洋往往指Western Roman Empire灭亡以前（476年以前）。

and

1.记数在百位和十位或个位中间通常用and，如two hundred and forty-eight和seven hundred and four。在千位和十位或个位中间也通常用and，如three thousand and fifty-two和eight thousand and six。但在千位和百位中间不该用and，如six thousand four hundred，不作six thousand and four hundred。

2.许多修辞学书里说句首不可用and，其实句首用and很普通，而且有时语气上需要句首用and。即使用在一段文字的开首也可以。

3.A, B, and C（and前面有逗号）现在似乎比A, B and C（and前面没有逗号）普通。有时省去逗号意思不明白，所以最好不省去。

4.A, B, and C是正常的结构，A, B, C和A and B and C都是为了增加语势而用的结构，如I keep a cat, a dog, a horse和I keep a cat and a dog and a horse这两种结构通常该避免。

注意：Charles keeps a cat, a dog, a horse里有三件东西。假使只有两件，这种结构极不普通，如Charles keeps a cat, a dog极不普通。在事实上，一不留心，往往会写出类似这种结构的句子。如Charles lives in the country, keeps a cat and a dog里用and连接a cat和a dog，但在live in the country和keep a cat and a dog两种表达方式中间没有and，犯了跟a cat, a dog同样的毛病。He seldom drank, never smoked or gambled里该在never前面加上and。

不过对于在定语用法里的形容词，这结构可算普通，如a tall, green tree和a warm, bright day。

下面各句里把逗号代替and。这种用法在美国比在英国普通，最近一二十年才流行，多用在过去时态和短句里。

He turned, went out.

She looked at me, seemed to want to talk to me.

They asked for you, said they had an engagement with you.

5.Come and see me, Go and look at it和Try and do it等句子里的and有许多人说该改作to，因为Come以see me做目的，Go以look at it做目的，Try以do it做目的，每句里的两个动词，都不该当作并列的。这理由很充足，可是在事实上and这样用法很普通。在口语里比用to普通得多。这种结构不但用在come，go和try的后面，也用在learn，mind，send，stay，stop，write（写信）等词的后面。

上面的结构只用在现在时态和不定式里，不用在过去时态、分词或动名词里，如可以说：

Come and see me.

I ask you to come and see me.

I hope you will come and see me.

但不说：

He came and saw me.

He is coming and seeing me.

He has come and seen me.

He insists on coming and seeing me.

第二句是讲不通的。其他三句都讲得通，但He came and saw me跟He came to see me意思不同，He has come and seen me跟He has come to see me意思不同，He insists on coming and seeing me（他坚持要来，而且坚持要见我）跟He insists on coming to see me意思不同。

6.注意and在下面一句里的习惯用法：

Ask him again, and he will tell you (=If you ask him again, he will tell you). Ask属于祈使语气。同样地You push and I will pull里的push也属于祈使语气。下面各句里的and都脱胎于这个用法：

You have only to see him and you will find him interesting.

It is only necessary to see him and you will find him interesting.

Can you lend me your typewriter and I will return it to you in a few days?

Why don't you come this evening and we'll have a chat together?

He asked her to tell him the whole thing and he would advise her.

He told her to go out and he would follow.

上面各句里and后面的动词都属于将来时态。用其他时态的也有。例如：

Hesitate, and the chance is gone.

Alter the expression, and you alter the idea.

Give him tools and he worked well.

Give him tools and he would have worked well.

有时and前面只有名词而没有动词。例如：

Another attempt, and success is assured.

Another attempt, and success would be assured.

Another attempt, and success would have been assured.

7.Come and see me和Give me hope and give me life两句在语法结构上是相同的，可是在涵义上大不相同。第一句等于Come to see me，第二句等于If you give me hope, you (will) give me life。

8.下面各句里的and或and that作“而且…”解：

My fan is a present from a friend, and (that) a recent present.

I have lost one sheet of your letter and (that) the most important sheet.

Something has to be done about it, and (that) without delay.

She apologized, and (that) profusely, for being late.

9.用and连接的两个或两个以上的名词等，往往因为合成一个概念而被看作单数。例如：

The end and aim of the book is explained in the preface.

Going to bed early and getting up early is a good habit.

10.下面两句意思不同：

He did not speak clearly and correctly. （他不曾讲得清楚而正确。［他讲得清楚，但不正确。］）

He did not speak clearly or correctly. （他不曾讲得清楚，也不曾讲得正确。）

11.& (ampersand)代表and，主要用在商业文件等里，在一般文字里最好不用。

12.and/or作and或or解，如A and/or B=A and B, or A or B。主要用在表格和商业文件里，在一般文字里最好不用，如可以改用A or B or both。

A and/or B后面的动词可以用单数，也可以用复数，但意思略有不同。例如：

Henry and/or Peter is to be admitted. （大约只取一人）

Henry and/or Peter are to be admitted. （大约将取两人）

anecdote

anecdote有时统指“一切轶事”，如He is full of anecdote和He has a wealth of personal anecdote。

angle

angle（观点、方面、角度）前面习惯用from。例如：We must consider the question from various angles. 近年来用得太多，如The book is good from every angle里用from every angle不及用in every respect自然。

Anglican

Anglican在英国作“关于Church of England（英国国教）的”解，但在美国往往作“英国的”解，跟English（形容词）意思相同。

angry

1.对人发怒，angry with和angry at都可以说，用with普通些。对事物发怒，angry at和angry about都可以说，但不可说angry with。

2.angry后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：She is angry that he has not answered her letter.

annals

annals是复数形式。单数形式annal极不普通，不该用。

announce

1.announce不可有双宾语，下面两句都不可说：

He announced her his intention of going.

He announced her that he would soon go.

两句里announced后面都该加上to。

2.The work is announced finished是美国用法，在英国在announced后面加上to be。

annoy(ed)

1.annoyed后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：She is annoyed that he has not answered her letter.

2.关于an annoyed voice（一个恼怒的语声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

another

1.another就是an＋other，所以不可说：

the another desk, that another desk,

this another desk, my another desk

各种表达方式里的another都该改作other。

2.another是“另外的任何一个”，在心里至少有三个（除了本身的一个，至少另有两个才可能有“任何一个”）。所以在一共只有两个的时候不可用another，如不可说I have two brothers, one is twenty, and another is fifteen，该把another改作the other。

3.another and better pen是“另外的好些的一枝笔”，another better pen是“另外一枝好些的笔”（指已说过的一枝或多枝好些的笔以外的一枝）。但another, better pen跟another and better pen意思相同，那逗号有and的作用。another and a good pen是“另外的好的一枝笔”。

4.another后面可以接数字和属于复数形式的名词，如another five hours。

5.If you don't like this copy, you may take another (one)里的one可用可不用。

6.another such (book)和such another (book)都可以说。

7.注意He seems quite another person than what he was（他跟以前相比，似判若两人）里用than。

8.one another和each other都作“互相”解。许多语法书里说one another只可用在两个以上，如The five boys help one another; each other只可用在两个，如The two boys help each other。但事实上这区别是不成立的，两种表达方式尽可通用。

9.one another的物主代词形式是one another's，不是one anothers'。但one another's fathers，one another's faces等表达方式里通常用fathers和faces，很少用单数形式。

10.one another不可用作主语，如不可说We know what one another wants，该说We know each what the other wants或Each of us knows what the other wants。假使一共有三个或三个以上的人，该说We know each what the others want或Each of us knows what the others want。

11.Every one of them looked at one another and smiled. 当然是错误的，该把Every one改作All。

answer

1.answer the letter, answer the question和answer him比answer to the letter, answer to the question和answer to him普通。answer the purpose比answer for the purpose普通。answer the description和answer to the description都普通。

2.answer (to) the letter通常跟reply to the letter相同（注意reply后面的to不可省去）。但有时answer有“答复…的内容”的意思，如复信里说I have your letter, but as I am very busy,I cannot answer it at present。明明在复信，还说不能answer。不过有时answer只有“报告收到（信）”的意思而reply to才有“答复…的内容”的意思。例如：I answered your letter by sending a postcard last Monday and have since been waiting for time to reply to it.

3.answer（名词）跟reply对比，往往有“中肯的答复”的意思。例如：Your reply is not an answer.（你的答复不中肯，你答非所问。）

4.He answered her not a word和He answered her nothing里的answered作“把…作为回答”解。He answered her not a word是“他连一个单词都没有回答她”，不是“他对于她的问题里的所有单词连一个也不回答”。

5.answer后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He answered that he could not go. 有时在answer后面另有宾语。例如：He answered me that he would not go.

6.answer有时被用作抽象名词，如The letter is still awaiting answer 和Please let me have a few lines of answer。

7.商业复信的开首往往用In answer to your letter...。在一般通信里该避免。

an't

an't=ain't. 参见ain't

anticipate

1.anticipate和expect意思略有不同。anticipate指可喜的事，有“盼望”的意思，expect不一定指可喜的事，如可以说We anticipate his arrival，不可说We anticipate his death，但可以说We expect his arrival和We expect his death。

就结构讲，anticipate和expect后面都可以接以that引导的从句，如可以说We expect that this will happen和We anticipate that this will happen。但expect后面可以接宾语和不定式，anticipate却不可以，如可以说We expect this to happen，却不可说We anticipate this to happen。

anticipate和expect还有一点不同：expect后面接不定式，anticipate 后面接动名词，如I expect to read the book with great interest和I anticipate reading the book with great interest。

2.有时anticipate含有“有所准备”的意思。例如：She anticipated our arrival by cooking a good dinner.

anxiety

1.anxiety（渴望）后面可以接不定式，如an（或the，或his等）anxiety to follow the example。

2.anxiety（渴望）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should，如I am pleased with your anxiety that your brother shall（或should）behave well和I was pleased with your anxiety that your brother should behave well。

anxious

1.anxious后面接about或concerning作“焦虑的”解。例如：I am anxious about（或concerning）your health. 后面接for或不定式作“急切的”解，如I am anxious for your safety和I am anxious to help you。

2.在anxious（急切的）后面的以that引导的从句里该用shall或should，如I am anxious that he shall（或should）avoid the mistake和I was anxious that he should avoid the mistake。有时用虚拟现在式。例如：I am（或was）anxious that he avoid the mistake.

3.anxious后面可以接for和宾语和不定式。例如：I am anxious for him to try his best.

any

1.在否定句里，用any或every意思大不相同，该特别注意，如I do not know any (one) of them是“我对于他们一个也不认识”；I do not know every one of them是“我对于他们并不个个都认识”。

但I do not know any (one) of them虽然只有一个意思，I do not care to know any (one) of them却可能有两个意思：“我对于他们一个也不想去认识。”或“我对于他们并不任何一个都想去认识。”（哪个我想去认识，哪个我不想去认识，我自己有主张。）这第二个意思跟I do not care to know every one of them相仿。Not any person has read all these books也可能有两个意思：“没有人把这些书都读过。”或“并不是任何人把这些书都读过。”这里第二个意思跟Not every person has read all these books相仿。

2.在否定词后面用any既然是完全否定的意思，所以在要表示一部分的否定便不可用any，却该用some，比较下面各句：

I do not know any of them. （我对于他们一个也不认识。）

I do not know some of them. （我对于他们有几个不认识。）

If you do not know any of these words,... （假使你对于这些词一个也不识，…）

If you do not know some of these words,... （假使你对于这些词有几个不识，…）

3.把any用在主语里而在谓语里用否定词，这种说法是不合习惯的（我只见过一次），如可以说No man can do it，但不可说Any man cannot do it。下面几句都不可说：

Any book is not perfect. （该说No book is perfect。）

Any of his brothers is unmarried. （该说All his brothers are unmarried或None of his brothers are married。）

Any friend of mine knows no French. （该说None of my friends know French。）

Any language cannot be mastered in half a year. （该说No language can be mastered in half a year。）

4.any不可指两个人或物中间的任何一个，如不可说any of my two brothers，该把any改作either。

5.the＋属于最高级的词＋of any...是一个普通而不合理的结构，如He is the most handsome of any man I know和He has the best knowledge of English of any one of my friends。这两句可以改作He is the most handsome of all men I know或He is more handsome than any other man I know和He has the best knowledge of English of all my friends或He has a better knowledge of English than any other of my friends。

6.any用在属于比较级的词的前面，作at all解，如Is that any better? 和I will not do it any more。这种用法是英美通用的。在美国any往往用作at all解而并不用在属于比较级的词的前面，如I cannot help him any和He did not mind this any。any用作at all解，也用在different前面。例如：Is this any different from that?

7.I may leave here any time (that) I want to (leave here)里的that通常是省去的。

anybody

1.anybody不可写作any body。

2.anybody比anyone通俗，口语里多用anybody。

3.anybody属于单数形式。例如：Anybody who comes is welcome. 把anybody当作复数是英美人常有的错误。anybody既然属于单数形式，当然不可说If anybody come, ask them to wait。通常该把them改作him。在需要特别说明“兼指男女”的时候，该用him or her，但通常用him，用了him or her嫌呆笨。同样地，该说If anybody comes, he will be welcome和If anybody comes, ask him to leave his address。

4.anybody有两个恰巧相反的意思，一个是“重要的人”或“有地位的人”，一个是“不重要的人”或“没有地位的人”，很容易引起误解。可是看了全句总是明白的，第一个意思比较普通些，大都用在疑问句、否定句和表示条件的从句里。例如：

Is he anybody?

I don't think she was anybody in those days.

He knows everybody who is anybody.

If he is anybody, we ought to have heard of him.

He knows two or three anybodies作“他只认识两三个不重要的人”解。

5.anybody跟everybody不同，但I do not lend my typewriter to anybody可能有两个意思：“我不把我的打字机借给任何人。”或“我并不把我的打字机对于任何人都借出。”把anybody改作anyone也是这样。参见any 1

6.不可说Anybody cannot do it，该说Nobody can do it。参见any 3

7.Don't anybody talk to me!和Don't talk to me anybody!都是“任何人别和我谈话！”anybody可以说是呼唤语。

anyhow

1.anyhow（无论如何）和anyway在英美都通用，但在英国anyhow普通些，在美国anyway普通些。

2.可以说The problem is worth discussing anyhow you look at it。

anyone

1.anyone作“任何人”解，不作“任何一个”解。说“任何一个”该用any one，如any one of us和any one of these。把any one用作“任何人”解也可以，但现在不很普通。

2.用了anyone，不可用one，one's等词指它，如If anyone comes, ask him to wait里的him不可改作one。

3.参见anybody 2

4.anyone跟everyone不同，any one跟every one不同，参见any 1和anybody 5

5.不可说Anyone cannot do it，该说No one can do it。参见any 3和anybody 6

anything

1.anything不该写作any thing。

2.anything跟everything不同，参见any 1

3.不可说Anything does not disturb me，该说Nothing disturbs me。参见any 3

4.anything有时用来指跟上文某个形容词相似的任何形容词。例如：I do not mean that he is too fond of it, he is not too anything.

5.He used to walk anything from two to five miles an hour里的anything from...to...作“至少…至多…”解，anything改作anywhere也可以。

anyway

参见anyhow

anywhere

1.anywhere跟everywhere不同，参见any 1

2.I will go anywhere the people want me to go里可以在anywhere后面加上where或that。

3.He used to walk anywhere from two to five miles an hour里的anywhere from...to...作“至少…至多…”解，anywhere改作anything也可以。

4.There wasn't anywhere where she could sit alone and think里的anywhere用作名词。

apartheid

apartheid（［尤指南非的］种族隔离）前面没有the。

apartment

从前apartment在英美都指一套房间（suite of rooms），现在在美国指一套房间，在英国指一个房间（room），所以现在美国人所说的an apartment，英国人叫做apartments。英国人所说的flat却相当于美国人所说的apartment。an apartment of four rooms是美国英语。

美国的apartment building或apartment house相当于英国的block of flats。美国的apartment hotel相当于英国的block of service flats。

apologize

1.apologize是不及物动词，说“因某事向某人道歉”该在表示人的词的前面用to，表示事的词的前面用for。例如：I have to apologize to you for not answering promptly.

2.apologize后面接以that引导的从句通常是“道歉着或辩解着说…”。例如：I must apologize (to you) that if I offended you I did not mean to.

apology

1.apology通常不用作抽象名词，如可以说make an apology, make apologies, make his apology（或apologies）等，却不说make apology。但a letter of apology, a word of apology等表达方式里的apology不可改作apologies。in apology for里也必须用单数形式。例如：In a little while she smiled at us again, as though in apology for her show of temper.

2.apology的复数形式apologies在习惯上常用，却并没有“多次道歉”的意思，如make (his) apologies, accept my apologies, with apologies for...等表达方式都没有多次的意思。

apparatus

an apparatus是“一台机器”，apparatuses是“多台机器”。但实际上复数形式很少用，却用单数形式统指机器（像furniture统指家具一般），如We are well provided with wireless apparatus和He has bought a microscope and some other bits of apparatus。

apparel

apparel统指“衣服”，不指“一件衣服”。“一件衣服”该说an article of apparel。这词现在不普通。

apparent(ly)

apparent(ly)往往有“看起来明明这样而其实未必这样”的含意，如The prime minister resigned for the apparent reason that his health was failing，就是说“在表面上因为身体不好而辞职，实际也许另有原因”。往往和real(ly)对比，如apparent rather than real（表面上的而不是真实的）。

appeal

1.appeal在美国通常用作不及物动词，后面接to，appeal to有种种意思。例如：

appeal to the court（向法院上诉），

appeal to history（引证历史），

appeal to the public（向大众呼吁），

appeal to patriotism（引起爱国心），

appeal to force（求助于武力）

I appeal to you to say whether I am not right. （我求你说我是否不对。）

This book appeals to them. （这本书引起他们的兴趣。）

在美国往往用作及物动词，作“将（案件）上诉”解。例如：He appealed the case three times.

2.说“因不服（判决等）而上诉”不论在英美都用appeal（动词或名词）against，如He is going to appeal against the decision（或sentence）和He is going to lodge an appeal against the decision（或sentence）

3.The boy appealed to his mother to tell him what to do和The boy appealed to his mother to know what to do两句里的to tell和to know都是不定式，但to tell是appealed to的表语，是属于his mother的，to know用作表示目的的副词，修饰appealed。

4.“上诉人”是appellant，不是appealer。

appear

1.appear是不及物动词，当然不可说I have read the article on Japanese economy appeared in yesterday's paper。appeared前面该加上that或which。

2.He appears (to be) willing to go with us里的to be可以省去。

3.this appears to me (as) the only way out里的as用的少，不用的多。

appearance

1.说“表面情形”该用复数形式。例如：I believe you are perfectly honest, but appearances are rather against you. （我相信你是完全诚实的，但表面情形却是不利于你的。［就是说就表面情形而论，好像你有不诚实的地方。］）注意appearances前面没有the。

2.to all appearance和to all appearances两种表达方式相同，作“显然”解，第一种形式主要用在英国，第二种形式主要用在美国。例如：To all appearance(s) he is fit for the post.

append

append是“把…附加上去”，不是“附加什么在…上”，如可以说The author has decided to append a glossary to the book，不可说The author has decided to append the book with a glossary。

appendix

1.appendix的复数形式用appendices或appendixes都可以，appendixes普通些。

2.注意an appendix on irregular verbs to the grammar book里用on和to。

3.参见addendum 2

apply

They will apply the money to build(ing) up a little library等句子里用不定式或to和动名词都可以。These principles apply to learning foreign languages里的learning不可改作learn。

appointment

1.作“约会”解时appointment后面接for，如an appointment for tomorrow morning和an appointment for seven o'clock。说明了时刻也有接at的，如an appointment at seven o'clock。说“职位”appointment后面接of或as，那后面的名词前面往往没有a（或an），如an appointment of（或as）(a) treasurer。说“任命或委派职位”appointment后面接to，如his appointment to the professorship。

2.下面两句里的by appointment意思不同：

The dean receives visitors by appointment（预约）.

The dean fills his post by appointment（任命）.

3.appointment（约定）后面有时接不定式。例如：He forgot an appointment to address a meeting that evening.

appreciate

1.appreciate后面接以that引导的从句主要是美国用法。例如：I appreciate that the plan has worked well. 在英国通常在that 前面加上the fact。

2.appreciate后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He appreciates being advised，不可说He appreciates to be advised。

3.I shall appreciate it if you will give me his address里的it最好不要省去。

4.It is appreciated that...和It will be appreciated that...都是公文里的惯用语，有人以为可以省去，如It is appreciated that you have accomplished the task可以改作You have accomplished the task。

appreciation

appreciation of是英美通用的，appreciation for是美国英语。

appreciative

appreciative后面接of。例如：We are appreciative of your suggestions.

apprehend

用作“了解”解时apprehend不及understand普通，用作“恐惧”解时apprehend不及fear普通。

apprentice(ship)

1.apprentice（学徒）和apprenticeship后面都接to。如an apprentice to a carpenter和his apprenticeship to a carpenter。可以说his apprenticeship to journalism。

2.bind...apprentice to...（使…做…的学徒）是习语，总是用apprentice不用apprentices，如He was bound apprentice to a carpenter和They were bound apprentice（不用apprentices）to a carpenter。

3.apprentice（及物动词）后面接to，作bind...apprentice to...解。例如：He was apprenticed to a carpenter.

apprise

apprise不及inform普通。

approval

1.approval后面不可接不定式，如不可说We have obtained his approval to enter his garden，该把to enter改作of our entering。或者把approval改作permission或consent。

2.approval copies available from 1 October to 31 October是“从10月1日到10月31日（该书）样本供人免费审阅，不买可以退货”，注意用approval，不用approved。

approve

approve作“赞成”或“认为良好”解的时候后面现在几乎总有of，如I don't approve of his conduct和Do you approve of her choice?

approximate

approximate作“（虽然并不正确但是）接近正确的”解，a very approximate estimate是“一个几乎完全正确的估计”，不是“一个很约略的估计”（a very rough estimate）。

April

1.April，January，February等词都不可指阴历，指阴历四月通常用the fourth moon，正月是the first moon，二月是the second moon，等等。

2.说“某年某月”，先写月，后写年，中间可以用逗号，但通常不用，如April 2001和April, 2001。说“某年某月某日”，那年份前面通常用逗号，但不用的也有，如24 April, 2001或April 24, 2001，24 April 2001或April 24 2001。April 24 2001里最好用逗号，因为24和2001粗看上去好像是242001。

3.“某月某日”有下面各种写法。注意不论怎样写法，月份和日子中间没有逗号：

① 24 April, ② 24th April, ③ April 24, ④ April 24th,

⑤ April the 24th, ⑥ the 24th April,

⑦ the 24th of April, ⑧ the 24th day of April

①和②在英国比在美国用得多。③和④英美通用。⑤和⑥在英国比在美国用得多。⑦是着重式。⑧只用在正式文件里，不用在一般文字里。当然，在信函的date里不用有the的任何形式。

在英国也有人写作24 IV或24. IV，主要用在正式文件里。

在信函里有时用April twenty-fourth或April twenty-four。在请帖里用April the twenty-fourth或April twenty-fourth。

4.“某月某日，星期几”照英语习惯该先写星期几，后写某月某日，如Friday, 24 April，不作24 April, Friday。逗号可省去。

5.in April of 2001和in the April of 2001都可以说。

6.下面每组里的两句都可以说，意思相同：

apt

apt，liable和likely三个单词意思相仿，但下面几点该注意：

（1）三个单词后面都可以接不定式，作“易于…”、“有…的倾向”解。

（2）在英国apt只用在一般的或习惯的情形，不用在一时的情形，如说I am apt to catch cold if I go out without my overcoat，却不说I am apt to catch cold if I go out tonight without my overcoat，这里不用apt而用likely（am likely也可以改作shall be likely）或liable。在美国apt却也用在一时的情形。

（3）用在一般或习惯的情形，apt通常用在不好的或没趣的事情，如说apt to catch cold, apt to get into trouble, apt to make mistakes等。liable也用在不好的或没趣的事情，但往往后面的不定式所说的是害及那句子的主语的。如Damage is apt to be done里用apt，不用liable，因为to be done不害及damage。但This is liable to be damaged里可以用liable，因为to be damaged是害及This的，又如I am apt to catch cold或I am liable to catch cold都可以说，因为to catch cold是害及I的，但不该说Sleeping out of doors is liable to make one catch cold，因为to make one catch cold不害及sleeping。不过这个区别，英美人也并不一致遵守。

（4）liable用在一般的情形和特殊的情形都可以。

（5）likely用在一般的情形和特殊的情形都可以，用在不好的事情和好的事情也都可以。

（6）likely比apt和liable表达更大的可能性，比较：

Children playing in the street are apt（或liable）to meet with accidents。

Children playing in busy streets are likely to meet with accidents.

aptitude

aptitude除了在前面接an的时候以外，通常是抽象名词，如He has an aptitude for business和He has little aptitude for business。但偶尔也用复数形式。例如：his superior aptitudes and abilities

Arab

1.Arab，Arabian和Arabic三个形容词在现代英语里有这样的区别：Arab是Arabia地方的人的，如Arab girl和Arab philosophy。Arabian是Arabia地方的，如Arabian gulf和Arabian desert。Arabic是Arabia的人的语言或文学的，如Arabic word和Arabic literature。

同一个词，也许可以被Arab或Arabian修饰，但意思不同，如Arab village是Arabia人住的村，也许在Arabia，也许不在Arabia。Arabian village是“在Arabia地方的村”，村上住的也许都是Arabia人，也许不都是Arabia人。“阿拉伯国家”可以说Arab state或Arabian state，Arab country或Arabian country。

2.Arab和Arabian都可以用作名词，指Arabia地方的人，似乎Arab普通些。

Arabian

参见Arab

Arabic

参见Arab 1

arbiter

“仲裁人”的正式名称是arbitrator。arbiter现在主要用作譬喻，如arbiter of our fate。

arbor

Arbor Day（美、加、澳、新等国的植树节）前面没有the。（Arbor Day是内布拉斯加州在1872年4月10日首创，现在各州都有，澳大利亚的南澳大利亚州也有，但日期各处不同，大都在4月的下半月或5月的上半月。）

archipelago

...Archipelago（…群岛）前面有the，如the Malay Archipelago。

aren't

aren't通常被用作are not的简写形式。但在疑问句里往往用作am not的简写形式。例如：Aren't I the same person as I was last year? 这用法可说只在英国流行，在美国几乎是没有的。

Argentine

Argentine是南美洲共和国Argentina的形容词。Argentina的正式名称是the Argentine Republic，简称the Argentine，注意不可作the Argentina或Argentine。

arise

arise现在主要用在无形的东西，说到有形的东西通常用rise。例如：

Jane's anger arises from the misbehaviour of her children.

The sun rises in the east.

arithmetic

arithmetic是“算术”，不是“数学”（mathematics）。不包括代数、几何、三角等。

arm

keep at arm's length是习语，有时照字面解，如The mother kept her baby at arm's length, thinking that he might try to kiss her。有时作“跟…冷淡、疏远”解，注意arm's前面没有an。at arm's length单独用（没有keep）也没有an，作“一臂之远”解，例如：He held the picture at arm's length to show it to me.

armament

armament和armaments意思相同。即使在名词前面两种形式也都可以用，如armament(s) race（军备竞赛）和armament(s) expenditures（军备费用）。

armful

参见-ful

Armistice

Armistice（停战、休战）前面有the。但Armistice Day（第一次世界大战停战纪念日［11月11日］）前面没有the。1954年起在美国称作Veterans' Day。

army

在英国army and navy和navy and army两种形式都用，有些人以为该用第二种形式。

around

around和round都可以用作副词和介词，现在around在英国比从前少用，但在美国却很常用。下面各句都是美国英语：

He turned around.

Like the moon, the arficial satellites（人造卫星）move around the earth.

I went around to the post-office.

He loafed around the city.

They live in the house around the corner.

Around 800 men came.

在英国第一句到第五句里的around都改作round，第六句里的around改作about。

arouse

arouse（唤起、激起）和rouse的不同，跟rise和arise的不同相仿，arouse现在主要用在无形的东西。例如：

That aroused my curiosity.

That aroused my suspicions.

arrange

1.We have arranged (for) the concert, They are arranging (for) a picnic等句子里的for不用的多，用的少。注意concert和picnic都是事，不指东西或人。We have arranged for a new classroom和They are arranging for a guide等句子里的for不可省去。

2.I have arranged for him to go是“他去”，不是“我去”。I have arranged with him to go也许“我去”，也许“他去”，也许“我和他一同去”。I have arranged with him to let me go当然是“他让我去”。在容易被人误解的场合，该避免I have arranged with him to go一类的句子。

3.arrange（安排、预定）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should，如We have arranged that he shall（或should）start work next Monday和We arranged that he should start work next Monday。也可以用虚拟现在式。例如：We (have) arranged that he start work next Monday.

arrangement

1.在用作“办法”或“计划”解时，习惯用复数形式arrangements。例如：The arrangements have been made in good time.

2.arrangement（安排、预定）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should，如We have made an arrangement with him that she shall（或should）start work next Monday和We made an arrangement with him that he should start work next Monday。也可以用虚拟现在式。例如：We (have) made an arrangement with him that he start work next Monday.

arrear

arrears比arrear普通，in arrears也比in arrear普通。但in arrear of（落后于、不及）里的arrear不可改作arrears。例如：In this respect, France is in arrear of the United States.

arrest

1.arrest是“逮捕”，说个人捉住了什么人不可用arrest。如说捉住了一个小偷，该用catch，不可用arrest。

2.The police have made two arrests是“警察逮捕了两个人”，不是“警察们执行了两次逮捕”。注意用made。

arrive(d)

1.arrive的过去分词arrived可以用作形容词，作“已到的”解，如the newly arrived traveller和Arrived at the shop, I asked to see some shirts。但is arrived，are arrived等现在不普通。

2.arrive home里的home是副词，习惯不说arrive at home。当然，在arrive at his home里必须有at。

3.arrive(d)是一时的动作，所以不可说He has arrived for a week，该改作He arrived a week ago或It is a week since he arrived。

art

1.Bachelor of Arts（文学士），Master of Arts（文科硕士），Faculty of Arts（文学院）等表达方式里的Arts是liberal arts的简称，指语言、哲学、历史等，别于专门的或职业的教育，注意用复数形式。liberal arts前面有the。

2.fine arts（美艺术）前面有the。通常包括绘画、建筑和雕塑等，有时也包括诗歌、音乐、舞蹈和戏剧。the arts=the fine arts。

3.the pictorial art（画术），the photographical art（照相术），the healing art（医术）等表达方式里有the。

4.arts college是“文学院”，不是“美术学院”。但英国的Royal Academy of Arts是“美术院”。

artist

artist在单独用的时候往往指画家，但画家自己通常不用artist而用painter。

artiste

artiste是“艺人”，指以歌舞为职业的歌舞家等，指男或女都可以，并不是artist的女性式。

as

1.such children as love their books里的as是关系代词，用作love的主语。such books as are loved by children里的as也是关系代词，用作are loved的主语。这样一讲，便知道such books as are loved by children里的are决不可省去，但这种verb to be很容易被忽略。例如：

such points as are discussed in the book,

such questions as are often asked by schoolboys,

such preparations as are now being made,

such arts as are practised by many

上述各种表达方式里as后面都必须有are。

2.下面各句里的as都是关系代词：

The author was brought up in a small village, as is recounted in some of his stories.

As is announced in today's papers, all the schools will reopen on 1 September.

The boy was run over by a motor-car, as often happened in holidary season.

As is often the case, the girl forgot to bring her dictionary.

Helen was somewhat crazy, as all her acquaintances could see.

As you will find out, all is now settled.

各句里的as都指主句所表达的意思，如第一句里的as指作家在小村里长大这件事。as的这种用法很普通，但也很容易被误认作连接词而加用it。例如：

The author was brought up in a small village, as it is recounted in some of his stories.

As it is announced in today's papers, all the schools will reopen on 1 September.

这it是要不得的。这样用法的关系代词as一定属于单数形式，as are和as were是不可能的。注意English as it is spoken in South England和China as I see her等表达方式里的as是连接词，不是关系代词，所以it和her不可少。

上面第一句和第二句里以as引导的从句都用属于被动语态的动词，那is可以省去，如The author was brought up in a small village, as recounted in some of his stories和As announced in today's papers, all the schools will reopen on 1 September。

3.2里所讲的as是关系代词，下面各句里的斜体as也是关系代词。

Please come as soon as is possible. （is通常省去）

He shows a readiness to work as hard as is necessary on any and every occasion.

She always acts as appears best to her.

We must assume that the accident occurred as is alleged. （is可以省去）

4.English as it is spoken in South England里的it is可以省去，成为English as spoken in South England，作“像英国南方所讲的那种英语”解，跟English spoken in South England（没有as）意思略有不同。又如the name as mentioned in the letter, the results as announced in today's paper和the answer as given below。

注意上述各种表达方式里的名词前面都没有such。假使有了such，便该在那过去分词前面加上verb to be，如such English as is spoken in South England和such a name as is mentioned in the letter。参见1

也得注意并非所有这类短语都可以在前面加上such，在后加上verb to be，如Truth as opposed to falsehood和actual conversation as distinguished from imagined conversation不可改作such truth as is opposed to falsehood和such actual conversation as is distinguished from imagined conversation。

跟as＋过去分词相仿的结构有grammar as against idiom, absolute as distinct from relative（绝对的，别于相对的）等。

本节里所举的as spoken，as mentioned，as announced，as given，as opposed和as distinguished跟2里所举的as recounted形式上相同，但语法上不同，这里各种表达方式等于as it is...或as they are...，但as recounted等于as is recounted。

5.下面各句都可以说，但用her和him比较普通些：

当然，Such a man as he is welcome里的he不可改作him，I recognized the man as him who had called in the morning里的him不可改作he。

6.照一般语法书说，as...as...用在肯定句里，so...as...用在否定句里，如He is as old as she (is)和He is not so old as she (is)。但事实上并不都是这样。在否定句里用as...as...也普通，在口语里更普通。如He is not as old as she (is)。用了as...as...有时暗示着那第二个as后面的人或物有着高程度的那形容词（或副词）所指的性质，如He is not as old as she (is)有时含有“她是老年人”的意思。

在isn't，wasn't，don't，can't等后面，尤其多用as，如He isn't as old as she (is)比He isn't so old as she (is)普通，She doesn't work as quickly as her brother比She doesn't work so quickly as her brother普通。但假使在形容词或副词前面加了quite，却通常用so而不用as，如He isn't quite so old as she (is)比He isn't quite as old as she (is)普通。

not so old as she (is)不可能有“并非跟她同年（而比她年龄大）”的意思，not as old as she (is)才可能有，所以He is not as old as she (is), but much older里的as不可改作so。

7.He is as old as she当然不错，但在口语里往往说He is as old as her。

8.as可以表示原因。例如：As you are busy, you need not go with me. 这样用法的as语气比because轻。它所引导的从句通常在主句前面。要是把以as引导的从句用在主句后面，那从句里所说的事该是对方所知道的，否则句子便不好，如You need not go with me, as you are busy是好句子（因为对方当然知道他自己很忙），但I cannot go with you, as I am busy便不好（因为对方未必知道我很忙）。即使那从句里所说的事是对方所知道的，如果句子比较长，也最好不用在主句后面，如You need not go with me, as you are busy preparing your lessons and writing your exercises in various subjects里该把as从句用在主句前面。

As you are busy, you need not go with me可说相当于You are busy, so you need not go with me, As I am busy, I cannot go with you可说相当于I am busy, so I cannot go with you。注意用了as便不用so，用了so便不用as，不可两个单词都用。在两三百年以前这种两个单词都用的句子是普通的，但现在绝无仅有，不可仿效。As...so...现在并不作“因为…，所以…”解，却作“正像…，…”解。例如：As you like music, so I like poetry. 这句是“正像你喜欢音乐，我喜欢诗歌”，不是“因为你喜欢音乐，所以我喜欢诗歌”。

比较下面三句：

In autocratic countries, as some are very rich, others are very poor.（在独裁统治的国家里，因为有些人很富，所以别人很穷。）

In autocratic countries, some are very rich, so others are very poor.（意思同上句）

In autocratic countries, as some are very rich, so others are very poor. （在独裁统治的国家里，正像有些人很富，别人很穷。）

9.As you are busy, you need not go with me不可改作Just as you are busy, you need not go with me。As you like music, so I like poetry可以改作Just as you like music, I like poetry。

10.beautiful as she is, late as he was, child as he is等表达方式里的as都作“虽然”解。注意那形容词或名词该用在as前面，也要注意那名词前面没有a。

这种结构里as前面不一定用形容词或名词，也有用副词或动词的。例如：

Much as I should like to see you, I am afraid you may find it inconvenient to come in this hot weather.

Search as they would, they could find nobody in the house.

但下面两句里的as并不作“虽然”解：

Realizing as I do that I shall be very much occupied in the afternoon, I must send off all these letters this morning.

Absorbed as he was in a mathematical problem, he did not notice my entering the room.

beautiful as she is当然是从属分句，主句的开首有时有yet。例如：Beautiful as she is, (yet) she is not a pleasant companion.

11.so...as和so...that不可混用，such...as和such...that也不可混用，注意下面各句：

Here is so big a stone as no man can lift.

Here is so big a stone that no man can lift it.

Here is such a big stone as no man can lift.

Here is such a big stone that no man can lift it.

用了as便不用it，用了that便用it。as是关系代词，that是连接词。也许有人要说：as也可以用作连接词，that也可以用作关系代词，那末不是it的用和不用没有关系了么？这道理也讲得通，可是习惯总是习惯，是不可改动的。

12.as用作“当…的时候”解的时候引导的从句里的动词不可作将来时态，如不可说Count the children as they will enter the room，该把will删去。比较下面两句：

Please post this letter for me as you pass the post-office. （当你经过邮局的时候，请替我寄这封信。）

Please post this letter for me as you will pass the post-office. （因为你将经过邮局，请替我寄这封信。）

13.8里说过as在表示原因的时候语气比because轻。Because it is getting late, we must start at once可以改作强势式It is because it is getting late that we must start at once。但As it is getting late, we must start at once不可改作It is as it is getting late that we must start at once。

14.so...as to...（不定式）跟...enough to...（不定式）相当，如Write so carefully as to make every sentence clear和Write carefully enough to make every sentence clear。注意不可用...enough as to...，如不可说Write carefully enough as to make every sentence clear，该把as删去。

15.as from主要用在法律、契约、公告等文件里，作“从…日开始”解。例如：The library will be open to the public as from 6 May, 2001. 和As from 6 May, 2001 the library has been open to the public. 在一般文字里不该用它。如不可说I shall use my bicycle as from Wednesday next，该把as删去。

16.The editor has bronght the material up to date as of May. 2001里的as of主要用在正式文件里。His air as of having forgotten about something important puzzled me里的as of作like that of解，现在比从前少用。

17.as per作“依照”解，是商业文件里的陈套语，如as per your request和as per our records。在一般文字里不该用它。该用according to。

18.He often talks to me as if（或as though，现在as if比as though普通得多）he were my father等于He often talks to me as he would talk if he were my father。were属于虚拟语气，不该改作is，下面两句都有错：

The party goes on as if（或as though）nothing has happened.

They are running about as if（或as though）they are madmen.

has该改作had，are该改作were。

但在It looks as if（或as though）和It seems as if（或as though）后面往往用属于现在时态的动词。例如：It looks（或seems）as if（或as though）a storm will soon come. 不过有些语法家以为这里总该把will改作would。He is running about as if（或as though）he were a madman和He is running about as if（或as though）he was a madman都可以说，不过有些语法家以为总该用were。

He ran about as if（或as though）he were a madman, He ran about as if（或as though）he was a madman和He ran about as if（或as though）he had been a madman都可以说，但用were不及用was普通，用had been很不普通。

19.as for和as to都可以用在句首，作“至于…”解。例如：As for（或As to）his father, I do not know him at all. 但as to可以用在句中，作“关于…”解，as for却不可，如I am in doubt as to his nationality和Nothing as to his past is known两句里的as to都不可改作as for。

as to这样用作“关于…”解很普通，有些英美人不赞成，说它意思模糊，但用得适当，意思并不模糊。不过该注意，在可能用确切些的介词的时候，最好不用as to，如下面各种表达方式里的介词不该改作as to：

my plans for the future, a keen interest in science,

a correct idea of love, his views on education,

her objections to the scheme, their attitude towards us

20.as to往往是多余的，如下面各句里的as to该删去：

I asked him as to what he wanted.

I do not care as to when she will arrive there.

Doubt is expressed as to whether they are safe or not.

An interesting question remains as to where the rare plant is to be found.

21.as to不但往往被多余地使用，而且往往引起语法上的毛病。如An interesting question remains as to where the rare plant is to be found里的as to虽然是多余的，却不算错，但The question remains as to where it is to be found要算错了，因为the question该有一个indirect question做它的同位语。同样地，the doubt as to...也是错的。

It is not quite clear as to where the rare plant is to be found等句子里的as to用得更错，因为句首的It指where the rare plant is to be found这一从句，这从句属于主格，当然不可同时作as to的宾语。

还有用了as to很容易把它后面该用的to忘掉，如下面各句里斜体的to很容易被忘掉（实际是不可省的）：

I want to find out as to whom these papers belong to.

He advised me as to whom I should apply to for help.

No information is obtainable as to to what extent things have improved.

22.as to里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，so as to...和such as to...里的to是不定式的符号，不是介词，比较下面各句：

As to writing English, he cannot do much.

We must work hard so as to serve the people better.

The problem is such as to interest only a few.

23.as for只可以用在句首，通常全句有轻视或消极的意思。例如：

As for that young man, I am ashamed of him.

As for the other books, nobody looks upon them as of much importance.

As for a visit to the city, I am afraid it is out of the question at present.

通常不说：

As for that young man, I am proud of him.

As for the other books, everybody looks upon them as of great importance.

24.as best I（或you等）can和as well as I（或you等）can都作“竭力地”解，注意第一种表达方式里best后面没有as。

25.as it is，as it was和as it were三种表达方式不可混用。as it is和as it was都作“在事实上”或“就实际情形而论”解，第一种表达方式属于现在时态，第二种表达方式属于过去时态，如As it is, we cannot help her和As it was, we could not help her。As it were意思大不相同，作“好像”、“有几分相似”或“未尝不可说”解，were属于虚拟语气，可以用在任何时态的句子里。例如：He is（或was，或has always been）, as it were, friends with his dog.

26.(so far) as concerns，as follows和as regards（这里regards后面不可加上to）三种表达方式里的动词都有s，不可更改。

27.as well as跟and不同，也跟not only...but (also)...不同，A as well as B=not only B but also A，作“不独B，而且A”解。I am a Chinese, but I have foreign friends as well as Chinese friends是通的，I am a Chinese, but I have Chinese friends as well as foreign friends却讲不通。

28.A, B, as well as C是不该用的，如不该说I read French, German, as well as English。“我不仅读英语，而且读法语和德语”该说I read French and German as well as English。

29.as well as是连接词，不是介词，如不可说He advised me as well as answering my question，该把answering改作answered。He is a painter, engineer, and poet as well as being a sculptor里的being该删去。

30.both...as well as...是错误的，绝对不可用。

31.not only...but...as well颇有人用，但不及not only...but also...或not only...but...普通。

32.下面两句意思不同：

I shall not go as well as you. （你将去，但我将不去。）

I, as well as you, shall not go. （你将不去，我也将不去。）

33.as and when是公文里的陈套语，如As and when we get further particulars, we shall let you know。用when就够了。

ascertain

1.ascertain是及物动词，但往往有不带特定宾语的用法，后面没有宾语。例如：I will ascertain (about it).

2.ascertain后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：We must ascertain that everything is as supposed.

3.ascertain不及find out普通。

ash

参见ashes

ashamed

1.ashamed of doing it是“做了它而觉得可耻”。ashamed to do it有时是“做了它而觉得可耻”，有时是“因为觉得可耻而不愿做它”，但虽然有“不愿做它”的意思，并不一定“不做它”。

对于表示没有意志（volition）的动作的动词，说“…了而觉得羞耻”习惯用不定式而不用of和动名词，如I am ashamed to find from your letter that I have not yet replied to your previous one里用to find而不用of finding，那find是没有意志的动作。

2.ashamed of himself和ashamed of doing it都可以说，但不可说ashamed of himself of doing it，第二个of该改作for。

3.ashamed后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I am ashamed that you should think me stupid.

4.ashamed通常是表语形容词，很少用在名词前面。所以该说much ashamed或very much ashamed，不该说very ashamed。用very much比用much普通。

相当于ashamed的定语形容词是没有的，ashamed偶尔这样用，如an ashamed look和an ashamed person。

5.ashamed of him是“为了他感觉羞耻”，ashamed for him是“代他感觉羞耻”。

ash(es)

1.ash和ashes都作“灰”解，复数形式普通些。burn（或reduce）to ashes和lay in ashes（把…烧毁）里的ashes不可改作ash。

2.ash往往指“（尚未散开的一团）灰”，如the ash of a cigar。

3.可以说a few grey ashes。

Asian

不论用作形容词或名词（亚洲人），现在Asian比Asiatic普通得多。我们自己是亚洲人，必须用Asian。

Asiatic

参见Asian

aside

aside from是美国英语，相当于英国英语apart from，作“除…以外”解。

ask

1.ask his name是“问他的名字”，ask his opinion是“问他的意见”，ask the way是“问路”，ask the time是“问时间”，但ask the price有时是“问价”，有时是“讨价”。I asked him the price是“问价”，He asked the price of ¥20是“讨价”。

ask（问）可以有双宾语，如I asked him his name和He asked me my opinion。

2.He asked me something是“他问我一个问题”，He asked me for something是“他向我要些东西”。

3.I asked him a question比I asked a question of him普通。I have a question to ask (of) you里的of可有可无。

4.'Are you sure of it?' he asked（问）(of) me里的of可有可无。I am afraid it is too much to ask（请求）of him里的of不可省去，偶尔用from。

5.ask和ask for都作“请求”解。ask通常用于无形的东西，如ask a favour，ask advice，ask permission和ask clemency。ask for用于有形的或无形的东西都可以，如ask for bread，ask for money，ask for a ticket，ask for help，ask for information，ask for leave，ask for pardon和ask for forgiveness。假使说出了那被请求的人，用了ask该在那宾语后面加上of和指人的词，用了ask for该在ask后面加上指人的词，如ask a favour of him和ask him for bread。ask a favour of him改作ask him a favour也可以，但ask用作“请求”解带有双宾语，那直接宾语只有favour，却不说ask him advice或ask him permission。

6.He asked about you是“他问起你”，He asked after you是“他问起你的健康情况（或生活情况）”，He asked for you是“他问起要见你（或跟你联系）”。

7.He asked me 'Will you go with me?' 是正常的英语。He asked me whether I would go with him也是正常的英语。He asked me, Would I go with him? 不是正常的英语，但这种结构在不很严谨的文字里时常见到。

8.ask（请求）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should或虚拟现在式，如I ask that he shall（或should）call this evening, I ask that he call（不用calls）this evening, I asked that he should call that evening和I asked that he call（不用called）that evening。

asleep

1.asleep是表语形容词，不可用在名词前面，在名词前面该用sleeping，如The baby is asleep和the sleeping baby。

2.形容asleep的程度普通用fast或sound。因为它是表语形容词，所以不该说very asleep。much asleep和very much asleep都可以说，但都不及用fast或sound普通。

aspiration

He has aspirations to be an engineer等句子里习惯用复数形式aspirations。

aspire

aspire是不及物动词，后面习惯接to、after或不定式，如He aspires to excellence, He aspires after perfection和He aspires to be a hero。接at或for也可以，但不很普通。

aspirin

three aspirin，three aspirins和three tablets of aspirin都作“三片阿司匹林药片”解。

ass

1.ass（驴）就是donkey，在动物学上只用ass，普通多用donkey。

2.ass和donkey都借用作“呆子”解。普通用ass，用了donkey便有戏谑的意思，如叫人donkey并不只是说他是呆子，却有“呆得可爱”或“呆不可当”的含意。

3.ass和donkey是“驴”，跟mule（骡）不同。mule是雌马和雄驴所生的。雌驴和雄马所生的叫hinny，但也往往叫做mule。

assassinate

1.assassinate和murder略有不同：assassinate是“暗杀”或“行刺”，往往在公共场所进行，目标通常是公务人员。murder是“谋杀”，通常在秘密场所进行，目标不拘何等人。

2.说“刺客”用assassin。也有assasinator这词，但很不普通。

assemble

1.下面两句意思相同：

We are assembled here to discuss the question.

We have assembled here to discuss the question.

2.assemble together里的together是多余的。

assert 可以说He asserted that he was innocent和He asserted that his sister was innocent，但不可说：

He asserted himself to be innocent.

He asserted to be innocent.

He asserted his sister to be innocent.

该说He declared himself (to be) innocent和He declared his sister (to be) innocent.

asset(s)

assets原来是单数形式，并没有asset这词。但asset现在很普通，它的意思是“可贵的东西”、“优点”、“利益”、“好处”等，如Good health is a great asset和The new teacher is an asset to the school。它的复数形式是assets。例如：Through all her troubles she had the assets of good health and good spirits.

assign(ment)

1.assign用作“指定（功课）”解和assignment用作“被指定的功课”解都是美国用法。

2.下面各句都可以说：

The authorities assigned him an important task.

He was assigned an important task.

An important task was assigned him.

The authorities assigned him to an important task.

He was assigned to an important task.

The authorities assigned an important task to him.

An important task was assigned to him.

3.assignment（被指定的功课）后面接in，如an assignment in physics。

assist

1.assist不论用作及物动词或不及物动词，后面接不定式不及接in和动名词普通，如He assisted (her) to do it不及He assisted (her) in doing it普通。

2.assist不及help通俗，在口语里通常用help。

associate

associate with是“跟…交友”，be associated with是“（被使）跟…（在业务、事务等上）联合”，如He associates with all kinds of people和He is associated with Mr Brown in business。

assume

1.assume和presume略有不同。I assume that you can do it是“我假定你能做它”，assume后面通常有that，I presume you can do it是“我相信你能做它”，presume后通常没有that。

2.assuming不必属于固定的某词，如下面第二句也不算错：

Even assuming a great willingness on the part of all our friends to help, we must not forget that few of them are properly prepared for it.

Even assuming a great willingness on the part of all our friends to help, few of them are properly prepared for it.

assurance

1.除人寿保险以外，说保险通常不用assurance而用insurance。即使说人寿保险，现在用life assurance也不及用life insurance普通。在美国几乎完全不用。参见assure 2

2.assurance（保证，断言）往往用复数形式。例如：

Despite her assurances, I did not believe her.

3.下面三句意思相同：

He needed an assurance that he could reach home safely.

He needed the assurance that he could reach home safely.

He needed assurances that he could reach home safely.

注意第三句里assurances前面没有the。

assure

1.assure是“使…深信”，不是“深信”，如可以说：

I am assured of his honesty.

I am assured that he is honest.

但不可说：

I assure his honesty.

I assure that he is honest.

2.assure his life是“为他保人寿险”，但除了人寿保险以外，说保险通常不用assure而用insure，如insure his house。即使说保人寿险，现在用assure也不及用insure普通。在美国几乎完全不用。

3.下面两句意思相同：

His work assured him a degree of happiness.

His work assured a degree of happiness to him.

但不及下面三句普通：

His work ensured him a degree of happiness.

His work ensured a degree of happiness to him.

His work ensured a degree of happiness for him.

astonish(ed)

1.astonish比surprise强，astound比astonish更强。

2.关于astonished eyes（惊奇的眼睛）等，参见much 3 (5) E

astound

参见astonish

at

1.说到地方，at指较小的，in指较大的，如in China（国家），in Shanghai（大城市），at Jiangwan（江湾镇）。不过大小并没有绝对的区别，广州是大城市，但和广东省比较起来便小了，所以可以说at Guangzhou,guangdong或in guangdong, at Guangzhou。但说到省不可用at，所以江苏虽然比全中国小，却不可说at Jiangsu, China或in China, at Jiangsu，该说in Jiangsu, China。国家和大陆都该用in，不可用at。国际大都市用at和in都有，但在London前通常用in，不用at。

虽然说到很小的地方，假使那说话的人住在那里，那末也不妨把那小地方看得大些，如住在江湾镇的人可以说in Jiangwan。假定你向朋友报告你住在江湾，你说I am now living at Jiangwan，以后便可以用in。例如：I am very happy in Jiangwan.

说到某大城市的某大建筑物，往往在大城市名称的前面用at。例如：the Pantheon at Rome和the Acropolis at Athens。

说到商店、机关、学校等，假使看作一个地点（point）用at，假使看作一个场所（place）用in，如I met him at the post office和I work in the post office。但the barber's（理髮店），Green's（Green所开的店）等前面只用at，不用in。

说到门牌只用at，不用in。例如：He lives at 1184 Fuzhou Road. 路名前面该用in，不用at，如in Fuzhou Road，不可说at Fuzhou Road。但说“在…路口”便可以用at，如Fuzhou Road, at Shanxi Road和at Fuzhou Road and Shanxi Road。

2.说到时间，at (1)指时刻。例如：

at three o'clock, at twenty (minutes) past four, at an early hour, at dawn, at daybreak, at daylight, at sunrise, at noon, at midday, at nightfall, at sunset, at dusk, at twilight, at night, at midnight, at this moment, at any time

（2）指较短的时期。例如：

at night, at New Year, at Easter, at midsummer, at Christmas, at the beginning of the month, at the end of the week, at the weekend, at the present day, at an earlier period

下面各种表达方式现在比较少见：

at day（在破晓时），at morning（在破晓时），at evening（在薄暮）

上面（1）和（2）里都有at night。（1）里的作“在薄暮”解，（2）里的作“在夜里”解，通常指黄昏或上半夜。

3.at five years old和at five miles distant里用at，有人以为该改作at five years of age或at the age of five years和at five miles' distance，可是这种不合理的用法很普通，尽可用得。

4.在信封地址前用at有转交的意思。例如：

Mr A. C. Lee

at 1184 Fuzhou Road

Shanghai

Mr Lee经常不在福州路1184号，请那儿的人收下转交。

athletics

参见-ics

Atlantic

英美人所说both sides of the Atlantic指英美两国。英国人说across the Atlantic指“到美国去”或“在美国那边”，美国人说across the Atlantic指“到英国去”或“在英国那边”。

attach

The receipt is attached hereto里的hereto在商业信函里往往用，实际不必要。The receipt is attached herewith里的herewith竟可以说是错误的。因为attach后面习惯接to，不接with。

attain

attain和attain to有时可以通用，有时不可通用。在end（目的），object（目的），ideal（理想），aspiration（愿望）等词前面，该用attain，不用attain to。在power（权力），prosperity（繁荣），distinction（著名），knowledge（知识），wisdom（智慧）等词前面，在表示年龄的词语（如old age, his twentieth year等）前面用attain或attain to都可以。

attainment

说“学识”习惯用复数形式。例如：He is noted for his scholarly attainments.

attempt

1.an attempt to do it和an attempt at doing it都可以说，用不定式普通些。

2.attempt通常指可数的一次一次的尝试或努力，make an attempt里的an决不可省去。但make little attempt（几乎不尝试），make small attempt（几乎不尝试），和without attempt（不尝试）等表达方式都可用。

3.attempt用作动词，后面接不定式或动名词都可以。如They will attempt to do it和They will attempt doing it。用不定式普通些。

4.attempt很容易犯双重否定的毛病，如不可说The work was attempted to be done quickly，该改作An attempt was made to do the work quickly。

attend

1.说“出席于…”用attend或attend at都可以，用attend普通些。

2.说“侍候”用attend或attend upon（或on）都可以，说医生或护士的侍候病人，用attend普通些。

3.说“注意于”或“从事于”用attend to，如I will attend to the matter soon和The child is now old enough to attend to his own needs。

attention

1.该说I want to call（或draw）his attention to the matter，不可说I want to call（或draw）the matter to his attention。但该说I want to bring the matter to his attention，不可说I want to bring his attention to the matter。I want to call the matter to his attention等句子偶尔也有，但不及I want to bring the matter to his attention普通，不算正当。也有I want to call to your attention that the matter needs to be looked into immediately等句子，在call后面用以that引导的从句做它的宾语，不是正常的用法。

2.不可说pay attention on，该把on改作to。

3.pay attention to作“注意”解，有时也作“向（女子）献殷勤”解，pay his（或your等）attentions to作“向（女子）献殷勤”解。注意第一种表达方式里用单数形式attention，没有his等词，第二种表达方式里用复数形式attentions，有his等词。

4.注意下面第一句里的a charming attention（一个可爱的殷勤行为）和第二句里的attentions：

When he offered to carry the basket for her, she considered it a charming attention.

She loves her children, but takes care not to spoil them with too many attentions.

5.下面两句里的to是介词，所以后面用动名词：

I advise you to pay more attention to recording new uses of old words.

Special attention has been paid to describing the treatment of unusual cases.

6.写信给大机关或大商店，假使需要某人或某部门注意，可以在称呼语后面或后面的下一行或两行加上Attention...或Attention: ...或Attention of...。例如：

Attention Mr J. D. King, Attention Accounting Department,

Attention: Mr J. D. King, Attention: Accounting Department,

Attention of Mr J. D. King. Attention of Accounting Department.

attic

attic是“顶楼”，在英国通常是穷人住的。它跟garret意思相同，在暗示穷困、简陋等意思的时候多用garret。

attire

attire统指“衣服”，不指“一件衣服”。现在不普通。

attitude

说“对于…的态度”，attitude后面接towards或to，如my attitude towards（或to）him和a respectful attitude towards（或to）criticism。my attitude on the question和my attitude towards（或to）the question都可以说，因为用question，所以可以用on。

attract

The scenery attracted her to loiter on the way里的attracted用得不对，该改作tempted。

auction

sell by auction（拍卖）是英国英语，sell at auction是美国英语。put up to auction是英国英语，put up at auction是美国英语。

audience

严格地说，audience是“听众”，不是“观众”，跟它相当的指“观众”的词是没有的。spectators是spectator的复数形式，不能算跟它相当。但事实上audience往往被用作“观众”解。

aught

除了for aught I know（据我所知道）这一表达方式以外，aught现在不通用。

aunt

在英语里“姑母”、“姨母”、“伯母”、“婶婶”和“舅母”都叫aunt。为区别得清楚些，“姑母”、“伯母”和“婶婶”叫paternal aunt，“姨母”和“舅母”叫maternal aunt，但总不及汉语的完备。paternal aunt和maternal aunt这种名称，除了在必须区别的时候以外，习惯上不用。

author

1.author是“著作者”，一篇文章或一本书的作者是author。但在单独用时，总指文学家，就如汉语“作家”这名称。

2.author不指“校订者”、“翻译者”或“编辑者”。

3.有些著作人用the author代I或me。似乎不很自然。

authoress

除了必须指出性别的场合以外，authoress现在很少用。

authority

1.说“主管人员”或“当局者”，习惯用复数形式authorities，前面有the，如the authorities和the local authorities。

2.说“某科权威”，authority后面接on，如He used to be considered an authority on Chinese history和Harold Williams is a well-known authority on (Jonathan) Swift。

3.a well-known Swift authority=a well-known authority on Swift

auto

auto是automobile的简写形式，是美国英语，现在几乎不用。

automatic

automatic一般译作“自动的”，当然不错，但有被误解的可能。其实automatic的“自动”是“自动电话”、“自动手枪”等的“自动”，不是“自动参加”，“自动坦白”等的“自动”。automatic有“机械地、没有意志地、自会动起来的”、“并非自发自愿的（involuntary）”的意思，跟“自动参加（voluntary parcipation），“自动坦白”（voluntary confession）等里的“自动”恰恰相反。

automa(tiza)tion

说生产的“自动化”现在用automation，不用automatization。

automobile

automobile在英国现在远不及motor-car普通，在美国也远不及car普通。在美国在名词前面通常用automobile，如the automobile business。

autumn

1.spring，summer，autumn和winter四个单词译作“春”、“夏”、“秋”、“冬”，从表面看，不能算错，其实不很正确。“春”、“夏”、“秋”、“冬”习惯从“立春”、“立夏”、“立秋”、“立冬”算起，但spring，summer，autumn和winter从天文学上说从“春分”、“夏至”、“秋分”、“冬至”算起，从立春到春分的一段时间是“春”，但不是spring而是winter，从立夏到夏至的一段时间是“夏”，但不是summer而是spring，其余两季也是这样。依照民间通俗用法，在英国把2月、3月和4月当作spring，把5月、6月和7月当作summer，依次类推。在美国把3月、4月和5月当作spring，6月、7月和8月当作summer，依次类推。

2.in autumn和in the autumn都可以说。during the autumn里的the不可省去。Autumn has come等句子里不可加the。spring，summer，winter和fall也是这样。

3.在美国很少用autumn，通常用fall。

avail

1.avail myself（或yourself等）of作“利用”解，下面两句都可以说：

I shall avail myself of your kind offer.

He availed himself of the opportunity.

这两句都属于主动语态，决不可成为被动语态。

下面这种句子却有人用，但不合语法，最好不用：

Your kind offer will be availed of (by me).

The opportunity was availed of (by him).

为什么不合语法呢？因为myself和himself都脱掉了。

所说不合语法的结构在美国比较流行。在美国也有I shall avail（没有myself）of your kind offer等句子。

2.His advice availed (us) nothing（他的劝告［对于我们］没有用）等句子里的nothing是副词。

3.of no avail（完全无用）, of little avail（没有什么用处）等是形容词短语，to no avail（完全无用），to little avail（没有什么用处）等是状语短语。例如：

He tried, but his effort was of no avail.

He tried, but to no avail.

available

1.available有时用在它所修饰的词的后面，如I will send you all particulars available和I hope to see as much as possible in the short time available。

2.近几年来available很常用，比obtainable和procurable普通。

avenge

1.avenge是“为（某人）报仇”或“因（某事）报仇”，不是“向（某人）报仇”。假使你的哥哥被敌人打伤，你要替他报仇，可以说I will avenge my brother，也可以说I will avenge my brother's injury。但不可说I will avenge the enemy。说I will avenge the enemy便是说“我要替敌人报仇”。

2.说“为某人向另一人报仇”该在指另一人的词前面用on或upon。例如：I will avenge my brother on（或upon）the enemy.

3.avenge通常指“为（他人）报仇”，revenge通常指“为（自己）报仇”。avenge有“扶助（弱者）”的意思，revenge有“为…泄愤”的意思。

4.相当于avenge的名词是vengeance，相当于revenge的名词也是revenge。

avenue

1.在英国avenue普通指两旁有树的路，在美国往往指任何宽阔的街道。

2.美国的Fifth Avenue等街道名前面没有the。

average

average在作“寻常的”或“一般的”解的时候，后面的名词用单数形式比用复数形式普通，假使后面的名词是单数形式，前面用the或an都可以，如the（或an）average college student和average college students。

averse

averse（不喜欢的、愿意的）后面现在通常接to，偶尔接from。后面接to和动名词比接不定式普通，如I am averse to hearing this music比I am averse to hear this music普通。

aversion

aversion（厌恶）后面通常接to，偶尔接from，for或towards。后接to和动名词比接不定式普通，参见averse

aviatress

参见aviatrix

aviatrice

参见aviatrix

aviatrix

aviatrix，aviatress和aviatrice都是aviator（飞行员）的女性式，aviatrix最普通。除了在必须指出性别的场合以外，普通用aviator而不用这些词。

avoid

1.avoid后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说You had better avoid reading in the train，不可说You had better avoid to read in the train。

2.avoid作“避免成功”解，企图避免而未能成功便不能说avoid，如不可说I avoided meeting him, but somehow bumped against him，该把avoided改作tried to avoid。

await

1.await和wait的不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）await不及wait普通。

（2）await是及物动词，后面不可加介词，如可以说I await your reply，不可说I await for your reply。

（3）await是及物动词，wait也可以用作及物动词，往往两个单词可以通用。例如：I await（或wait）your decision.

（4）await后面可以接动名词做宾语，但不可接不定式，wait后面可以接不定式做它的状语短语，但不可接动名词，如I shall await hearing from you和I shall wait to hear from you。这两句里的await和wait不可对调。await后面的动名词虽然偶尔在形式上是主动语态而在意思上却是被动的。例如：In revising the dictionary the author found a great deal of material awaiting working up.

（5）wait for可说等于await，如I am waiting for him和I am awaiting him意思相同。但wait for后面接了宾语还可以加上不定式，await却不可，如I am waiting for him to come里的waiting for不可改作awaiting。

awake

awake，awaken，wake和waken这四个单词意思相仿，而且都可以用作及物动词和不及物动词，用法也没有绝对的区别，但下面几点可以参考：

（1）用作“醒”或“使醒”解，wake最普通。

（2）用作“醒悟”和“觉醒”解，awake和awaken普通些。

（3）waken和awaken很少用作不及物动词。

（4）wake后面往往用up，waken后面有时也用up，但awake和awaken后面都不用up。

（5）只有wake有“醒着”的意思，例如：That kept me waking.

awaken

1.参见awake

2.注意I was awakened to the danger里的awakened后面用to。

awakening

注意He was now enjoying an intellectual awakening to a far different life from that which he had hitherto lived里的awakening 后面用to。

award

award在作“授与”解的时候可以有双宾语，如They awarded the prize to him和They awarded him the prize都可以说。

aware

1.aware后面接of或以that引导的从句，如He is aware of our presence和He is aware that we are here。

2.在how，what，when等词的前面，aware后面的of可有可无。例如：I am not aware (of) how long he has lived here.

3.aware是表语形容词，前面不用very，习惯用well。

away

away用在back，behind，below，down，off等词前面作“相去得远地”解是美国英语，如He came to China away back in 1950和This specimen is away below the average。

awful(ly)

在口语里awful也用作副词，作awfully（很）解，但只用在形容词或过去分词前面，不用在动词后面，如I am awfully glad和He was awfully surprised里的awfully可以改作awful。但I dread awfully to see it里的awfully，不可改作awful。

B

babe

“婴孩”现在通常用baby，不用babe。

baby

1.往往用it或which指baby。例如：The baby is crying, I wonder what is the matter with it.

2.baby boy和boy baby，baby girl和girl baby都可以说。baby boy着重在那boy尚在婴孩时代，boy baby着重在那个婴孩是男而不是女。baby girl和girl baby有同样的区别。baby brother，baby sister，baby son，baby daughter等不可改作brother baby等。

3.假使家里只有一个婴孩，往往把baby用作专有名词一般，前面没有the。例如：Look after baby.

bachelor

1.从来不曾结过婚的男子才是bachelor，假使某人的妻子死了，他便成为widower，并不是bachelor。但离婚的男子有时也叫作bachelor。

2.bachelor不指女子。但有bachelor girl这名称，指从来未曾结婚的年轻而自立的女子。

back

1.back and forth是美国英语，相当于英国英语backwards and forwards或to and fro。

2.back of和in back of都作“在…的后面”或“赞助着…”解，是美国英语，有人以为in back of不正当。

3.back pay，back rent，back salary，back taxes等都是美国英语，back作“拖欠着的”解。

4.as far back as the fifteenth century等表达方式里的第二个as后面没有in。

backwards

该说backwards and forwards，不可说forwards and backwards。

bad(ly)

1.在I want it badly, He needs a new coat badly等句子里的badly作“很”解，原来用在口语里，现在用在文字里也很普通。它所形容的词，通常是want，need或require。也可以说The book is badly in need of revision和I shall miss you badly。

2.feel bad和feel badly都作“感觉身体上（或精神上）不舒适”解，有时也作“因为跟他人同情而感觉不愉快”解。许多英美人以为该用bad，不该用badly。照字面讲，feel badly也可以用作“触觉不好”解。

bagful

参见-ful

baggage

1.说“行李”现在在英国通常用luggage，在美国通常用baggage。

2.baggage统指“行李”，不指“一件行李”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式，如可以说a large amount of baggage，不可说many baggages。“一件行李”该说a piece of baggage或an article of baggage。

bail

bail out是“用降落伞从飞机上跳下”。也作bale out。

bake

bake偶尔带有双宾语。例如：The farmer baked the traveller some cakes.

balance

the balance作“其余”解主要用在美国，在英国通常不用它而用the remainder或the rest。

bale

参见bail

Balkans

Balkans（巴尔干半岛）前面有the。注意词尾有s，实际指半岛上的各国，the Balkan Peninsula里的Balkan词尾没有s。

ball

1.说“球类运动”在ball前面不该有a或the，如play ball，不作play a ball或play the ball。play with a ball是“玩一个球”，play with the ball是“玩这个球”。

2.ball指“球类运动”现在可说总是指“棒球运动”（base-ball）。play ball在美国有五个意思：（1）玩棒球，（2）开球，（3）开始行动，（4）合作，（5）公平办事。

3.ball指盛大的舞会，是社交性质的，欧美国家舞场里的跳舞不可叫做ball。ball是正式的舞会，私人的小型舞会叫dance。

4.ball（舞会）前面用at，不用in。

5.“开舞会”说hold a ball或give a ball都可以。但在请帖里通常用held。

ballet

ballet（芭蕾舞）有时用作抽象名词，指“芭蕾舞的艺术”或“芭蕾舞的娱乐”。

ballistics

参见-ics

bandit

bandit有两个复数形式：bandits和banditti。banditti现在很不普通，尤其在注重“各个”而不注重“集团”的场合不该用banditti，如在These mountains were infested with banditti before liberation里还可以用banditti，但在Three bandits were arrested里的bandits不该改作banditti。有时a banditti用作“一队匪徒”解。

bank

1.河的两岸，向下游看在右面的叫right bank，左面的叫left bank，如长江从西向东流，南岸是right bank，北岸是left bank。

2.一条河有两个banks，照理一个湖并没有分得清楚的两个banks，但习惯上说到湖的岸，也用复数形式banks。

3.一条河有两个banks，照理说在一边岸上该说on one of the banks of the river或on a bank of the river，但习惯上却说on the bank of the river，或者就说on the banks（复数形式）of the river。

barbarian

barbarian，barbaric和barbarous都是形容词，但在意思上有区别，barbarian是“属于野蛮民族的”，barbaric往往有“野蛮民族的色彩或风趣”的意思，barbarous往往有“野蛮得可恨或可耻”的意思。如barbarian king是“野蛮民族的王”，barbaric king是“有野蛮民族的色彩的王”（如仪仗极其壮丽的），barbarous king是“野蛮成性的王”。又如a barbarian custom是“一个野蛮民族的风俗”，a barbaric custom是“一个有野蛮民族色彩的风俗”（如粗陋的或俗丽的），a barbarous custom是“一个残忍或不人道的风俗”。

barbaric

参见barbarian

barbarism

主要相当于barbarian。例如：They used to live in barbarism.

barbarity

主要相当于barbarous。例如：The bandits treated their prisoners with barbarity.

barbarous

参见barbarian

barbarousness

=barbarism或barbarity，如the barbarousness of their former mode of life和the barbarousness of the bandits' treatment of their prisoners。

barefoot(ed)

在名词前面用barefooted，如barefooted children。在谓语里，barefoot比barefooted普通，如In the old society such children used to be barefoot和In the old society such children used to go about barefoot里用barefoot比用barefooted普通。

bargain

bargain是“便宜货”，good bargain也是“便宜货”，bad bargain是“买得太贵的东西”。

barn

barn在英国指堆积谷类、柴草等的房子，但在美国也指马棚、牛棚等。

baron

baron是英国五种爵位里最低的，通常译作“男爵”。在美国并没有爵位，也就无所谓baron，但往往用baron指工商巨头、大王，如coal baron，oil baron，beef baron等。现在英国也用。

barracks

1.即使指“一所兵营”通常也用barracks而不用barrack。有时用a barracks。

2.the barracks有时指军队生活。例如：The best years of his life were spent in the barracks.

base

1.base通常指有形的基础，basis通常指无形的基础，如the base of the pillar和the basis of the philosophy。“军事基地”是military base，“基础和上层建筑”是the basis and the superstructure。

2.base的复数形式是bases，读作［ˈbeɪsɪz］，basis的复数形式也是bases，读作［ˈbeɪsiːz］。

base(-)ball

说“棒球运动”在base(-)ball前面不该有a或the，如play base(-)ball，不作play a base(-)ball或play the base(-)ball。play with a base(-)ball是“玩一个棒球”，play with the base(-)ball是“玩这个棒球”。

Basic

Basic或Basic English（基本英语）是英国人C. K. Ogden首创的用850个单词的一种英语，前面没有the，如a story in Basic (English)，不作a story in the Basic (English)。

basis

1.参见base

2.on a whole-time basis，on an international basis等表达方式里的a或an不可省去。on a(n)...basis往往嫌累赘，如They work on a whole-time basis不及They work whole-time简洁。

basket-ball（或basketball，或basket ball）

说“篮球运动”在basket-ball前面不该有a或the，如play basket-ball，不作play a basket-ball或play the basket-ball。play with a basket-ball是“玩一个篮球”，play with the basket-ball是“玩这个篮球”。

basketful

参见-ful

bath

bath通常是名词，bathe通常是动词，但bath也可以用作动词，bathe也可以用作名词，有下面几点该注意：

（1）说“在浴盆里洗澡”在英国通常说take a bath或have a bath，极少用bathe，除了在上下文说明以外，用了bathe总是指在海里或河里洗澡。但在美国用bathe很普通。

（2）说“在海里或河里洗澡”在英国说take a bathe，have a bathe或bathe（动词），不用bath。在美国说bathe（动词）或have a bath，几乎不把bathe用作名词。

（3）说“替（小孩、病人，或猫、狗等）洗澡”在英国用bath（动词），在美国用bathe。

（4）说“洗（脚）”、“洗（腿）”、“洗（眼）”、“洗（伤口）”等用bathe，不用bath，如The nurse is going to bathe the patient's feet里的bathe不可改作bath。

（5）bath和bathe都是类名词，如不可说fond of bath或fond of bathe，该改作fond of taking baths（在浴盆里洗澡）和fond of bathing ［ˈbeɪðɪŋ］。

bathe

参见bath

battle

1.battle用作及物动词作“反抗”解是美国用法。例如：They tried hard to battle the cult.

2.line of battle指“军队或战舰的列阵”，跟“战线”（line或lines）不同。

battle(-)field

battle(-)field前面通常用on，不用in。

BC（或B. C.）

1.BC（=before Christ［在基督前］，纪元前）用在年份后面，如237 BC。

2.用了AD不可用in或in the year（参见AD 2），但用了BC可以用in或in the year，如in 237 BC和in the year 237 BC。

3.AD不可用于世纪（参见AD 3），但BC可以用于世纪，如the second century BC。

be（兼指am，is，are，was等）

1.be是系动词，如在He is a good man里，也是助动词，如在He is respected by all里。但一个词不该同时用作系动词和助动词，所以不可说He is a good man，and respected by all，这里and后面该加上is。

2.下面各句都用There开首：

There is a book on the desk.

There are two books on the desk.

There are a few books on the desk.

There are some books on the desk.

There are many books on the desk.

There are several books on the desk.

A book is on the desk, Two books are on the desk等都比较少见。

3.be＋及物动词的过去分词成为被动语态。例如：The book is read every day. 注意只有及物动词才有被动语态，be＋不及物动词的过去分词仍然属于主动语态，那过去分词有形容词性质，如He is come和He has come意思相仿，不过前者着重“已到了”的状态，后者着重“已到了”的动作罢了。可以跟be用在一起的不及物动词的过去分词现在有gone，come，arrived，returned，fallen，grown等。从前got和become也往往这样用，现在却不普通。

4.比较下面每组里的两句：

5.比较下面每组里的两句：

比较下面三句：

You are insulting him. （你正在侮辱他。）

You are insulting to him. （你对于他是侮辱的。）

You are being insulting to him. （你正在故意对他侮辱。）

6.be（这里只指be这个词）用在以if引导的从句里现在很不普通，通常改用陈述语气，如If it is...。但Though...be...现在仍然普通，这因为Though...is...和Though...be...在意思上略有区别：Though...is...是“…虽然…”，Though ...be...是“…即使…”（其实…未必…），如Though he is too weak to walk much, I will advise him to walk a little every day和Though he be too weak to walk much, I will advise him to walk a little every day。

7.It is recommended that the work not be started until all the necessary preparations have been made里的not be不可改作be not。

8.Are you happy? 不可改作Do you be happy? Aren't you happy? 也不可改作Don't you be happy? 比较下面每组里的两句：

9.Have you been to see him？是“你去看过他吗？”I have already been to see him是“我已经去看过他了。”

10.was或were后面接不定式完成体表示原来将怎样而不曾怎样。例如：He was to have married her. （他原来将跟她结婚［而不曾实行］。）

bean

bean不是物质名词，如该说beans and wheat。

bear

1.除了作“生（孩子）”解以外，bear的过去分词是borne，不是born。作“生（孩子）”解，bear的过去分词有两个，borne和born，但用法不同。下面几点该注意：

（1）用在主动语态，该用borne。例如：She has borne several children.

（2）用在被动语态而后面有by，也该用borne。例如：This is one of the three boys borne by his stepmother.

（3）用在被动语态而后面没有by，该用born。例如：

A son was born to him.

I was born in 1926.

注意第一句里用to。

2.说某次的生孩子通常不用bear，如“昨夜她生了一个男孩子”通常不说She bore a boy last night，却有下面四种说法：

She gave birth to a boy last night.

She was delivered of a boy last night.

She was brought to bed of a boy last night.

She had a boy last night.

注意第二句和第三句里都用of。

但She bore him a daughter a year after their marriage等句子里用bore是合乎习惯的。注意bore有双宾语。

3.下面三句的意思都是“他是天生的演说家”：

He was born an orator.

He is a born orator.

He is an orator born.

4.bear现在很少用作carry解，在口语里更少用。

5.bear可以用作“忍受”解，bear with也作“忍受”解，有下面几点该注意：

（1）对于人bear和bear with都可以用。例如：I cannot bear (with) him.

（2）对于情形bear和bear with也都可以用，但用bear普通些。例如：I cannot bear (with) such a situation.

（3）对于抽象的意思通常用bear。例如：I cannot bear that idea.

（4）只有bear后面可以接不定式和动名词，如I cannot bear to leave him alone和I cannot bear leaving him alone。也只有bear后面可以接宾语和不定式。例如：I cannot bear you to be left alone. 也有人说I cannot bear for you to be left alone。

6.I cannot bear leaving you alone里的leaving在形式和意思上都是主动的。These examples are perhaps too well known to bear being reprinted里的being reprinted在形式上和意思上都是被动的。但That won't bear thinking of（那是不堪一想的）里的thinking在形式上是主动的，在意思上却是被动的，这句跟That won't bear being thought of意思完全相同。His language（或story）won't（或doesn't）bear repeating是“他说的话（或他讲的事）不堪重述。”这句习惯上用repeating，不用being repeated。

7.bear（忍耐）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：She could not bear that her friends should laugh at her so much.

8.在把熊当作打猎的对象时通常用bear而不用bears。例如：They went out to hunt bear.

beard

1.beard指一个人的胡须，不指一根胡须，说一个人的胡须不用复数形式。beard指胡须的全体，不指胡须的物质，所以该说a long beard，不该说long beard。说多人的胡须该用复数形式beards。但有a growth of beard。

2.beard指面孔下部的胡须，通常不包括唇上的髭（moustache），有时也不包括颊上的胡须（whiskers）。

bearer

1.bearer是面交信件的人，就是“来人”，如The bearer is my brother和Allow me to introduce the bearer, Mr L. F. Marden。

2.在不很正式的信件里，往往在bearer前面不用the。例如：Please hand bearer the stick.

beat

by beat of drum（依照着击鼓声）中没有a或the。

beautiful

beautiful不该用在寻常美貌的男子。非常美貌的男子才可以说beautiful，但用beautiful称男子，便是说他没有大丈夫气概，所以最好不用。关于寻常美貌的男子只可说handsome或good-looking。

beauty

(and) the beauty of it is that...作“妙在…”解，是滑稽话。例如：

I wrote the letter with great care and addressed the envelope with great care. And the beauty of it was that when I thought I was posting the letter, I was posting only the envelope.

because

1.The reason is和The reason why...is后面最好用that，不用because（很多用because的）。

2.because比for、as或since语气重。在答复why的时候必须用because，不可用for、as或since。

3.because of通常引导状语短语，很少引导形容词短语，如通常说He stayed at home because of the rain，很少说His stay at home was because of the rain。但在He stayed at home, this was because of the rain里的because of是正常的，这this并不指任何名词，却指stayed at home的意思。

4.Because he is ill is the reason why he cannot come里的Because不算正当，最好改作That。

beckon

He beckoned（招手）me to follow him和He beckoned to me to follow him都可以说。

become

1.become后面不可接不定式，如不可说He became to like reading和She has become to be interested，该把第一句里的became改作began，第二句里的to be删去。

2.become（过去分词）可以用作形容词。例如：

They were looking at an invisible star suddenly become visible.

Mr Smith, now become a teacher, used to live here.

He is become a teacher.

I do not know what is become of him.

但第三句和第四句现在不很普通，通常用has become。

3.become是一时的动作，所以不可说He has become a teacher for five years，该说He became a teacher five years ago或It is five years since he became a teacher。

4.下面各句里的become都用得不错，但不及用be普通：

I want to become a doctor.

I wish to become a doctor.

I desire to become a doctor.

I have aspirations to become a doctor.

I am ambitious to become a doctor.

5.become不及get和grow通俗，尤其在属于比较级的形容词前面。下面各句里的got、grew、getting或growing如改成became或becoming，则句子比较不自然：

I soon got tired.

When it grew dark, we thought of coming back.

They are all getting older.

The sea is growing calmer.

6.become of作“发生于…”或“…成为”解。例如：What has become of him? （他成为怎样了？）这句子的主语总是what。

bed

1.in bed（躺在床上）是习语，不该作on bed，但说躺在某只床上，用on或in都可以，如on（或in）that bed和on（或in）the same bed。

2.go to bed（就寝）是习语，不该作go to the bed，go to my bed，go to this bed等。这里的bed并不一定指“床”，如一个人临时没有床，睡在地上，也可以说go to bed。take to bed，put to bed，get to bed，get into bed，lie in bed和out of bed等表达方式里也没有the。Jack is getting old, and bed is the only place for him一句里的bed前面也没有the。

bedchamber

1.除了说皇家的卧室以外，bedchamber现在很不普通，通常用bedroom。

bed-clothes

bed-clothes是被、褥、枕等，不是睡衣。“睡衣”是night-clothes。

bed(-)side

at his bed-side和by his bed-side都作“（守）在床边”解。

bedtime

bedtime是“就寝的时刻”，不是睡在床上的一段时间，如可以说My bedtime is ten o'clock，不可说My bedtime is from ten o'clock in the evening to six o'clock in the morning。

been

参见be 9

beer

a beer是“一客啤酒”或“一种啤酒”，beers是“多客啤酒”或“多种啤酒”。

before

1.从现在说到若干时间以前，不可用before，该用ago，下面两句里的ago都不可改作before：

I saw him only a few minutes ago.

He visited us five months ago.

从过去或未来的某时说到若干时间以前，该用before。例如：

I called at his office yesterday afternoon, but was told that he had gone home half an hour before.

When you call at his house tomorrow morning, you will probably be told that he has left for the country some days before.

说任何某时（不是现在、过去或将来的某时）的多少时间以前，也该用before。例如：He often tries to use a word or phrase that he has learnt only an hour or two before.

不过从现在说到以前，假使只说“以前”，并不说若干时间以前，便可以用before。例如：

We (have) met them many times before.

We (have) never met them before.

注意这两句里的动词属于完成时态或属于过去时态都可以。

2.下面两句的意思不同：

All day, as three days before, we planted trees. （我们全天种树，正像三天以前一样。）

All day, as for three days before, we planted trees. （我们全天种树，正像以前三天一样。）

3.比较下面每组里的两句：

4.three hours before里的before是副词，before three o'clock里的before是介词。注意three o'clock是一个时刻（point of time），不是一段时间。before不可在一段时间前面用作介词，所以不可说before a week，before ten years等。不可说I saw him before a week或I shall see him before a week，该改作I saw him a week ago和I shall see him within a week。不可说I shall not see him before a week，该改作I shall not see him for a week。I shall not see him within a week不合习惯。

before long（不久以后）这习语好像和这惯例不合，其实这习语里的before原来是连接词，before long等于before a long time has passed。

5.不可说before a few minutes of the accident或before ten years of his death，该改作a few minutes before the accident和ten years before his death。

注意下面第一句里没有the或for，第二句里有the，第三句里有for。参见after 2：

A few minutes before the accident she called on me.

During the few minutes before the accident she had a chat with me.

For a few minutes before the accident she had a chat with me.

6.在before用作连接词作“…以前”解的时候，它所引导的从句里的动词通常不属于将来时态，如通常不说He will arrive before she will start，而说He will arrive before she starts。但在表示长久以后才会发生的事时往往用将来时态，比较下面两句：

It will not be long before they come back.

It will be years before they will come back.

7.before very long（不久以后）比before long表示更长的时间。例如：I hope to hear from him again before long - anyhow, before very long.

8.严格地说，After reading the story, the boy felt, as many others have felt before and since, as if it had been told by himself该改作After reading the story, the boy felt, as many others had felt before and have felt since, as if it had been told by himself。但改后虽然在语法上完美了，读起来却不很自然。

beg

1.beg和beg for都作“请求“解，语气比ask和ask for重。对于boon，favour，leave，pardon，forgiveness和permission等词多用beg，少用beg for。对于施舍物也多用beg，少用beg for。说出了那被请求的人，该在指他（们）或她（们）的词的前面用of。例如：He begged a favour of us.

2.I begged him to help me和I begged of him to help me都可以说。说I begged (that) he would（偶尔用should）help me也可以。但不可说I begged him that he would help me。有时在以that引导的从句里用虚拟现在式。例如：I begged that he help me.

3.beg (leave) to announce，beg (leave) to state，beg (leave) to inform，beg (leave) to enclose等都是商业信函里的陈套语。在一般通信里该避免。

4.说“向…求乞”在beg后面接of或from。例如：He was too proud to beg of（或from）his friends.

beggar

习惯说beggar man，beggar girl等，不说man beggar，girl beggar等。

begin

1.begin后面的动词所表示的意思假使是有意志的，用不定式和动名词都普通，如He will soon begin to write a novel和He will soon begin writing a novel。begin后面的动词所表示的意思假使是没有意志的，通常用不定式，较少用动名词，如She began to like novels at twenty比She began liking novels at twenty普通得多。写作一本小说是有意志的，爱好小说是没有意志的。可是写作一本小说在那作者是有意志的，但在那小说的本身是没有意志的。所以通常说The novel began to be written last year，而不说The novel began being written last year。凡begin后面的动词属于被动语态的，这动词通常作不定式，很少作动名词。关于“有意志”和“没有意志”，再举几个例子在下面：

教英语是有意志的，懂英语是没有意志的；改正错误是有意志的，认识错误是没有意志的。

但注意下面两句：

A cold wind began to blow（或blowing）as we stood at the bus stop.

When Mary heard the report of a gun, her heart began to beat（或beating）furiously.

风和心脏当然都没有意志，但风的吹动或心脏的跳动都可能被当作有意志的动作一般，所以用动名词也很自然。

即使对于表示有意志的动作，在is beginning，was beginning等后面可以说总是用不定式，不用动名词，这显然为了避免...ing的重复。如He is beginning to teach English几乎不可改作He is beginning teaching English。

2.begin是“开始”，begin with是“以…开始”，如I shall begin this book today是“我今天将开始读这本书。”I shall begin with this book today是“我今天将先读这本书（然后读别的）”。

3.begin后面通常不接from，绝对不可接from...to...。通常不说：

The journey begins from Shanghai. （最好把from改作at）

The conference will begin from Monday. （最好把from改作on）

绝对不可说：

The journey begins from Shanghai to Beijing. （该改作The journey begins at Shanghai and ends at Beijing。）

The conference will begin from Monday to Thursday. （该改作The conference will begin on Monday and end on Thursday。）

不过begin at the beginning（从头开始）和begin from the beginning都普通。

4.把begin用在被动语态的时候，该注意勿犯双重被动的毛病，如He began to read the book last Sunday是对的，但The book was begun (by him) to be read last Sunday却不对。It was begun (by him) to read the book last Sunday在语法上不错，但不合习惯，像begin to...这种结构实际是不能成为被动语态的。The book began to be read (by him) last Sunday是可以说的，但这句里用began，是主动语态。

5.把begin用作被动语态，往往不及用作主动语态合乎习惯。例如：

The play begins（通常不用is begun）at eight o'clock.

The dinner began（通常不用was begun）as soon as all the guests arrived.

The argument began（通常不用was begun）over a small matter.

The discussion did not begin（通常不用was not begun）till late in the afternoon.

6.中国学生往往在该用begin的场合不用它。把表示持续动作的动词跟表示时刻（point of time）的词语用在一起是不合习惯的，如rain（下雨）是表示持续动作的动词，three o'clock是表示时刻的词语，所以不可说It rained at three o'clock。在这种场合该用begin。例如：It began to rain at three o'clock.

7.下面各句里的begin原来是美国用法，现在在英国也普通：

I felt I did not begin to understand him. （我觉得我一点也不了解他。）

Your suggestion dose not begin to meet the difficulty. （你的建议一点也不解决这个困难。）

Nothing has begun to interest her so much as folk music. （没有什么东西曾经像民间音乐一样引起她的兴趣。）

8.begin和commence意思相同，但begin普通得多，尤其在口语里极少用commence。19世纪英国小说家George Eliot在某书里有Things never began with Mr..., they always commenced这一句，是讥笑那位先生不肯用通俗的文字。commence只用在正式些的文字里，如commence hostilities和Hostilities commenced late that year。还有两点该注意：1.commence后面通常接动名词，很少接不定式。2.commence多用在有意志的事而很少用在没有意志的事。

9.begin有时用现在式指未来的事，如The show begins next week。

beginner

beginner后面接in，如a beginner in English和a beginner in the art of painting。

beginning

1.from the beginning是“从头便…”，at the beginning是“起初…”，如I was opposed to the plan from the beginning是“我从头便反对这个计划（并不是后来才反对的）”，I was opposed to the plan at the beginning是“我起初反对这计划（后来不反对了）”。

2.at the beginning和in the beginning没有一定的区别。in the beginning现在比at the beginning少用。但说世界的开端必须用in，如In the beginning there were no men nor animals nor plants。begin at the beginning里的at不可改作in。

begrudge

begrudge比grudge语气强些，现在也普通些。

behalf

1.on behalf of是“代表…”，如I am speaking on behalf of my friend。in behalf of是“为…的利益”，如We do it in behalf of the cause of peace。有时“代表…”便是“为…的利益”，所以用on behalf of或in behalf of没有大区别。但该注意在没有“利益”的意思的场合只可用on behalf of，不可用in behalf of。

2.注意on behalf of和in behalf of两种表达方式里都没有the。

behave

1.behave和behave yourself（或himself等）（都没有副词）都作“好好地行动”或“守规矩”解，如You must behave和You must behave yourself。这种用法多指儿童。

2.He is now better behaved里的behaved是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

behaviour

1.behaviour前面通常没有a，也没有复数形式behaviours。

2.behaviour和conduct意思相仿。behaviour偏重在外表方面，conduct偏重在道德方面。如在众人面前守规矩而在暗中不规矩的人，有好的behaviour，却有不好的conduct。指儿童通常用behaviour。

behind

1.behind time作“过了时刻”解，是形容词短语或状语短语，如He is very seldom behind time和He very seldom comes behind time。behind the times（有the，times作复数形式）作“落在时代后面的”解，是形容词短语。例如：Many of the means of production in the country are very much behind the times.

2.参见after 8

being

1.for the time being是习语，作“暂时地”解，being是be的现在分词，用作形容词，作existing解。

2.I am sending you a cheque for ¥30.00, being the rent due on 15 May等句子里的being是商业文件里的习惯用法。不可用在其他文字里，如不可说I am sending you Mrs Gaskell's Cranford, being the book you asked to borrow the other day，该把being去掉，或把being the book改作which。

3.下面各句的开首都可以说省去了being：

Written in simple English, the book is easy to read.

Deeply interested in my work, he often gives me advice.

Asked where he was going, the boy said he was just taking a walk.

Curious, she tore the letter open.

Nearly seventy years old, the author is as busy as ever.

A skilled labourer, he is always ready to help others.

An industrious student, he finds plenty of time for study.

Unquestionably one of the greatest novels ever written, it is still widely read today.

4.下面两句里的being可有可无：

The task (being) completed, they went home.

Her children (being) away at school, she was alone at home.

但下面两句里的being通常不省去：

He being away, she was alone at home.

It being fine, we had a walk together in the park.

注意He和It都是代词。

下面两句里在gun和head后面没有being：

They started for the wood, gun in hand.

He jumped into the water head foremost.

注意gun和head前面都没有his。

5.关于be being typewritten等，参见be 4。关于He is being polite 等，参见be 5

belief

下面第一句里的beyond belief是状语短语，第二句里的beyond belief是形容词短语：

The boy's health has improved beyond belief.

Improvement beyond belief has been effected in the boy's health.

believe

1.I believe him是“我信他的说话不错”，I believe in him是“我信他做人可靠”，就是“我信任他”，或者是“我相信他将来有所成就”。

2.下面三句意思相同：

I believe (that) he is honest.

I believe him to be honest.

I believe him honest.

第二句比较不普通，在口语里更不普通。假使那动词不是be，通常不用不定式而用从句，如通常说As early as 1960 I believed (that) he belonged to a certain clan，不说As early as 1960 I believed him to belong to a certain clan。

但在believe用作被动语态的时候，后面接不定式很普通，例如He is believed to be honest和He was believed to belong to a certain clan。

3.I do not believe (that) he can do it和I believe (that) he cannot do it意思相同，但第二句不很自然。

4.I believe I told you, but I am not sure里的believe作suppose解。Mr Brown, I believe? 是“我想你就是Brown先生，是不是？”

5.make believe是习语，作“假做”解，如He made believe to be ill和He made believe (that) he was ill。这里的believe是不定式，因为前面是make，所以省去to。make没有宾语，是不带特定宾语的用法。

believer

believer后面接in，如a believer in morning exercise。

bellows

bellows是复数形式，没有单数形式。通常用a pair of bellows指“手动吹风器”，bellows或the bellows指“风箱”用作单数或复数都可以，如The bellows is being mended里的is改作are也可以。但也往往用a bellows，把它看作单数。说两个或两个以上的风箱用bellows或pairs of bellows都可以。

belly

belly是“肚”，指内部或外部都可以，如“肚里痛”和“肚上痛”两种表达方式里的“肚”都是belly。abdomen似乎只指内部，通常是科学上的名称。有些人嫌belly太俗气，又嫌abdomen不通俗，却用stomach指“肚”（兼指内外），其实stomach是“胃”不是“肚”，这种用法是不妥的。

belong

1.belong to不可成为被动语态，如The house belongs to my sister不可成为My sister is belonged to by the house，也不可说The club is very much belonged to。

2.belong不可用在进行时态，如不可说He is belonging to the Society for Foreign Languages，该把is belonging改作belongs。

3.belong后面通常接to，但有时也接among，in，on，under，with等，在美国更流行。

beloved

beloved后面接by或of都可以，现在多接by。

below

below, beneath, under和underneath四个介词略有区别，有下面几点该注意：

（1）under最普通，不论指实质上的上下或精神上的上下都可以用。

（2）below跟above相反，指“比…低下”，under跟over相反，指“在…的下面”。如在飞机上看来，地上的一切都是below，但只有那飞机垂直下面的地方是under。又如those below him是“职位比他低的人们”，those under him是“受他管理的人们”。

（3）a man below twenty（一个20岁以下的男人）里的below改作under也可以，an income below ¥100里的below改作under也可以。

（4）beneath除了在下面各句里的用法以外，现在很少用。

In old days, when a gentleman's daughter married a peasant, a worker, or a shop assistant, people would say that she married beneath her (同比她身份低的人结婚).

You must not consider it beneath you (有失你的身份) to ask his help.

He used to regard such matters as beneath his notice (不值得被他注意).

A lazybones is beneath contempt (不值得轻视，极可鄙).

A captain is beneath a major (比陆军少校级别低).

（5）underneath只指实质上的上下，语气比under重些，如under the bed是“在床下“，underneath the bed有“被压在床下”或“被覆在床下”的意思。

beneath

参见below

benefit

benefit用作及物动词是“有益于…”，用作不及物动词是“得益”。说“得益于…”通常用benefit by...或benefit from...，比较少用be（或is, are等）benefited by...。

bent

bent（bend的过去分词）往往用作形容词，作“专心的”解，后面接on或upon和动名词或名词，不接不定式，如可以说He is bent (up)on going to college和He is bent (up)on linguistic studies，不可说He is bent to go to college或He is bent to study languages。

bereave

bereave极少用在主动语态。它有两个过去分词，bereaved 和bereft。对于家人的丧亡通常用bereaved，对于无形的东西的丧失只可用bereft，如He was bereaved（或bereft，但不很普通）of his wife和He was now bereft（不可用bereaved）of hope。注意两句里都用of。the bereaved husband（丧了妻的人），the bereaved father（丧了子或女的父亲），the bereaved（丧了家人的一个或多个人）等表达方式里的bereaved不可改作bereft。

beset

They were beset=They were beset with difficulties (或troubles等).

beside(s)

1.在现代英语里，beside只用作介词，作“在…的旁边”或“跟…没有关系”解。例如：The pioneer is sitting beside the mayor和That is beside the question。besides可以用作介词，作“加在…以上”解，也用作副词，作“而且”解，如There are five members besides Mr and Mrs Winston和I am very tired, besides, I have a cold。把beside和besides混用，不好算错误，但总是不好。

2.besides后面偶尔接没有to的不定式。例如：That afternoon I had nothing to do besides answer letters.

3.besides后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：Besides that he explained the theory, he gave us several examples.（他不但解释那理论，而且给了我们好几个例子。）

best

1.at best和at the best意思相同，都作“就最乐观的一方面看”或“充其量”解。例如：At (the) best, the sick old man will live another year or two. at his best, at her best等表达方式作“在他（或她）的最佳状态”解。例如：He is at his best in writing short essays.

2.不可说a best book, a best boy等。

3.had best跟had better同义，但不很普通。

4.get（有时用have）the best of（胜过，占…的上风）是美国英语，相当于英国英语get the better of。

5.best seller指“畅销书”，有时指这种书的著作人，有时指畅销的唱片等。

6.It is best that he (should) read the book once more里的should可有可无。

betray

betray（显露）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：The mistakes betray that he does not know grammar.

betroth

betroth现在很不普通，通常用engage。

better

1.better往往作“病好了些”解，是“比较不unwell些”，不是“更well些”。例如：I am better today, but not well yet. 假使原来没有病，身体逐渐强壮，通常不用better。

2.I am better today是对的。My cold is better today也有人说，但不很普通。

3.had better是习语，必须要用had，不可用have，后面用没有to的不定式，如You had better go at once和You had better have gone already。第一句是“你最好立刻去”，第二句是“假使你已经去了便好，可惜事实上你并不曾去”。注意第二句里的have决不可省。

4.注意下面两句里都用had better：

I think I had better go.

I thought I had better go.

也注意下面两句里都用had better have：

I think I had better have gone already.

I thought I had better have gone already.

5.不可说It had better to stay here，该说One had better stay here或It is better to stay here。

6.You had better go at once是正常的英语。You better go at once主要是美国口语。

7.Better go at once.=You（或I, He等）had better go at once.是口语。Better to go at once.=It is better to go at once.主要是口语。

8.不可说If you had better go at once, you may do so。该在If后面加上you think。

9.You would better go at once.=You had better go at once.这用法现在比较少用，在英国尤其少用。You'd better go at once里的You'd当作You had或You would都可以。

10.You had better go是“你最好去”，You had better not go是“你最好不去”。You hadn't better go.=You had better not go.这用法不合理。

11.关于better himself和improve himself的区别，参见improve 3

between

1.可以说between two persons，也可以说between one person and another，但不可说between each person或between every person。理由是很明显的，不过这种错误很多。between this person or that当然也不对，该说between this person and that。

2.一般说来，between用在两个人或物前面，不用在三个或三个以上人或物前面。但假使说到三个或三个以上人或物中间的每两个的关系，就可以用between。例如：

The speaker referred to the relations between the three countries.

Switzerland lies between France, Germany, Austria, and Italy.

3.in between里的in是副词，between有时是副词，有时是介词。如She visited them in between（在中间的时间里）和She visited them in between her maternal duties（在她尽母亲责任［照顾子女］的闲暇时间里）。

beverage

beverage远不及drink通俗。

bewail

下面两句意思相同：

She sat bewailing her daughter.

She sat bewailing the death of her daughter.

beware

1.beware现在只用在可用be＋ware的句子里。如可以说I will beware和You need to beware，但不可说I beware或You beware。可以说Beware of thieves，但不可说They beware of thieves。bewaring和bewared都不该用。

2.Beware of thieves等句子里的of有时省去。

3.可以说Beware how you speak to them和Beware what you say before them等。

bewilder(ed)

关于a bewildered frown（一个困惑的蹙额）等，参见much 3 (5) E

Bible

Bible前面有the。a Bible是“一本圣经”。

bicycle

不可说ride bicycle或ride on bicycle，该说ride (on) a bicycle和ride (on) bicycles。

bid

说“叫他去”现在很少说Bid him go或Bid him to go，通常说Tell him to go。

big

big, great和large三个单词并没有绝对的区别，但下面几点可以参考：

（1）big比large通俗些，都指实质上的大，如big dog和large dog。great指精神上的大，如great scholar。large family指“众多的子女们”，great family指“有声望的人家”，但都不指所谓“大家庭”。

（2）说到无形的东西，用great，如great care, great happiness和great learning。不可说large care, large happiness或large learning，也不可说big care, big happiness或big learning。但对于表示大小或分量的词，也可以用large或big，如large（或big）size, large（或big）quantity和large（或big）amount，不过往往用great好些。

（3）big有时也指精神上的大，如big man是“大人物”，不是“大块头”，big fool是“大呆子”，不是“大块头的呆子”。

（4）great有时也指实质上的大，如great dog。但这样用的great有“多么大啊！”，“大得可怕”等意思，如说“我有一只大狗和一只小狗”只可用big或large，但说“我见了那只大狗吃了一惊”便可以用great。也有人用great big，如a great big dog。

（5）“大”的反面便是“小”，说“大”普通有big, large和great三个单词，说“小”普通有little和small两个单词。把“大”和“小”连在一起说，可以说：

great and little, great and small, big and little, large and small

但通常不说large and little和big and small。

bill

bill用作“钞票”解是美国英语。

billiard(s)

1.说“弹子戏”用复数形式billiards，但通常当作单数。例如：Billiards is not exclusively a men's game.

2.billiard ball, billiard room, billiard table等表达方式里用单数形式。

billion

billion在英国指“万亿”（1,000,000,000,000），在美国指“十亿”（1,000,000,000）。在英国“十亿”叫milliard。

binding

说“…装订的书”在binding前面用in，不用of，如an old novel in artistic binding。

biographer

his biographer是“为他作传记的人”。

birth

比较下面三句：

The birth of two boys is reported.

Two boys' birth is reported.

Two births are reported.

复数形式births指两个或两个以上孩子的出生。但在of前面或在物主代词后面用单数形式而不用复数形式。

birthday

birthday现在通常不用来指“出生的日子”，如假定你在1950年8月20日出生，通常不说My birthday was 20 August, 1950。该把birthday改作birthdate或date of birth。但在譬喻的用法里便可以。例如：The birthday of the People's Republic of China was 1 October, 1949.假定你在1950年8月20日出生，你的first birthday是1951年8月20日。

biscuit

1.统指“饼干”用biscuit或biscuits都可以。例如：I like biscuit (或biscuits).

2.biscuit在英国是“饼干”，就是在美国所说的cracker。在美国所说的biscuit是一种趁热吃的软饼，跟英国的scone或muffin相仿。统指这种软饼用biscuit或biscuits都可以。

bit

1.a bit, a little和a little bit意思相同，都是“一些（地）”。但not a bit和not a little bit是“一点也不”，not a little是“很”。比较下面三句：

He was not a bit sorry.（他一点也不抱歉。）

Hs was not a little bit sorry.（他一点也不抱歉。）

He was not a little sorry.（他很抱歉。）

not a bit和not a little bit两种表达方式里的not可以分开，如He did not feel a bit sorry和He did not feel a little bit sorry。not a little里的not不可分开，如不可说He did not feel a little sorry，该说He felt not a little sorry。

bitter(ly)

bitterly cold和bitter cold都可以说。

black(en)

black用作动词作“弄黑”解，但跟blacken不同。black是“有意地使变黑”，如说用黑漆涂在墙上，该用black。blacken是“无意地使变黑”，如说浓烟弄黑了墙，该用blacken。blacken转作“败坏（名誉）”解。例如：Nothing but his own doings blackened his reputation.

blame

1.blame在一般词典里大都注作“责备”、“责怪”等，其实blame him并不就是“责备他”，也不是“向他非难”，不过“在心上怪他”罢了，如你觉得某人有不是的地方，你便是在blame他，但他自己却未必知道。

2.说“某人有过失”或“某人该受责备”，通常说to blame，比较少说to be blamed，如She is certainly to blame比She is certainly to be blamed普通。总说I am to blame，不说I am to be blamed。

3.blame it on him作blame him for it解，有人把这种结构看作不正当。

blank

blank在美国通常是“空白表格”，相当于英国的form，如telegraph blank=telegraph form（电报纸）。

blend

blend together里的together是多余的。

blessed

bless的过去式通常是blessed，很少用blest。过去分词两种形式都用，但在主动语态里通常用blessed，如Nature has blessed him with good health和He is blessed（或blest）with good health。定语形容词通常是blessed，如blessed ignorance和What a blessed thing it is to live and study with you!表语形容词通常是blest。例如：I am indeed blest in having you as my constant companion.

注意He is blessed with good health里blessed跟What a blessed thing it is to live and study with you!里的blessed意思不同。第二句里的blessed作“带幸福来的”解，却不可改作blessing，实际也是“被赐给幸福的”，既然被赐给幸福，就有幸福带给人了。

blessing

1.blessing和bliss意思相仿，但blessing是类名词，bliss是抽象名词。例如：What a blessing it is to live and work in this city!（必须有a）和What bliss it is to live and work in this city!（不可有a）

2.说“不幸中的大幸”只可用blessing，不可用bliss，如What a blessing it is that you were only slightly hurt in the accident里的a blessing不可改作bliss。

blest

参见blessed

blind

1.blind of an eye, blind of one eye和blind in one eye都可以说，blind in an eye未见过。blind in the right eye和blind in the left eye都可以说，blind of the right eye和blind of the left eye未见过。

2.blind的反义词是sighted。

bliss

参见blessing

block

block在英国指高大的房子，便是所谓的“大厦”或“大楼”。在美国指四面有街的一块地，这地上通常有房子，但也许没有房子，也指这样的一个block的每一边，便是两条平行街道之间的一段街。

blood

circulation of the blood等表达方式里的the不可省去。

bloom

不论用作名词或动词，严格地说，bloom和blossom通常有下面所说的区别：bloom指“观赏植物的花”，blossom指“果树的花”。如菊花是bloom，说开花用bloom，梅花是blossom，说开花用blossom，菊花开花是in bloom，梅树开花是in blossom。对于小的果树（如杨梅）通常不用bloom或blossom，也不用in bloom或in blossom，却用flower和in flower。

blossom

参见bloom

blown

1.a rose-bud fresh blown里的blown是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

2.His cap was blown into the brook和His cap blew into the brook意思相同。

blue

in blue是“穿着蓝色衣服”，in the blue通常是“在蓝色的天空里”，有时是“在蓝色的海里”，in the blues是“闷闷不乐”。

board

1.on board of the steamer和on board the steamer都可以说。on board of the ship, on board the ship和on board ship都可以说。注意不可说on board of ship。

2.on board在英国通常指“上船”或“在船上”，在美国往往指“上车”或“在车上”，“上飞机”或“在飞机上”。

boast

1.boast和boast of略有不同。boast是“自夸…”，它的宾语是具体的东西。例如：The village boasts an old tower。boasts of是“因…而自夸”，它的宾语往往是抽象的东西。例如：He boasts of his scholarship. boast of用作“自夸…”解也可以，但不及boast普通。

2.注意He boasts himself more clever than his brother里在more前面没有as。有时有to be。

3.boast后面可接以that引导的从句。例如：He boasts that he is more clever than his brother.

boat

boat通常是小划船、小帆船或小轮船。但旅客们有时也用它指大轮船。例如：We caught the boat at Qingdao.

body

1.body有时用作“人”解，但除了在anybody, everybody, nobody和somebody四个复合词里以外，很不普通。I see a body there和There are some bodies here等句都不该说，假使说I see his body，那便是说“我看见他的肉体”（那个人裸着体）或“我看见他的尸体”了。

2.body指人的身体，但注重在体格，并不注重在健康，如说某人体格强壮，可说He has a strong body，但说某人身体健康，便不该用body。

3.anybody, everybody, nobody和somebody都不可分开，如不可写作any body。every other body主要用在苏格兰，最好不用，改用everybody else。

body(-)guard

body(-)guard可以作“卫队”解，也可以作“卫队中的一员”解，但这第二解不很普通。

boil(ing)

1.boil有时有双宾语。例如：Please boil me an egg.（请替我煮一个蛋。）

2.at boiling point（在沸点）中没有a或the。

book

1.除了在必须说明所读的是“书”而不是其他东西的场合以外，用read便够了，不该说read books。

2.说“账册”用复数形式books。

3.long book是“篇幅长的书”，short book是“篇幅短的书”，不关书的版本的大小。

book(-)maker

1.book(-)maker是利用他人的材料而编书的人，往往含有“只为了赚钱”的意思，不指创作家。

book(-)making

参见book(-)maker

bookshelf

bookshelf是“书架”，“图书馆等中的多层书架”该用bookstack。

bookworm

bookworm是“专心读书的人”，并没有“书呆子”所含的轻视的意思，当面称人bookworm并不是侮辱或取笑他。

boon

1.Cheap editions are a great boon to students里的a great boon不可改作great boons。

2.下面三句意思相同，但第三句不很普通：

This dictionary is a great boon to students of English.

This dictionary is a great boon to the student of English.

This dictionary is a great boon to the study of English.

boot(s)

在美国boot往往指长统靴，就是在英国所说的high boot或Wellington（或wellington）。在英国所说的boot（短统靴），在美国往往叫做shoe。

但“以擦皮鞋为业的人”在美国反而叫bootblack，在英国反而叫shoeblack。英国旅馆里的擦皮鞋仆人却叫boots（是单数形式，如a boots）。近几年来美国用shoeshine, shoeshine boy或shoeshine man。

bore(d)

关于a bored sigh（一声厌倦的叹气）等，参见much 3 (5) E

born(e)

参见bear 1

borrow

1.I wish to borrow some books from him里的from改作of也可以，但现在不及用from普通。

2.单用borrow通常指借钱。

botanic(al)

botanical比botanic普通得多。相当于这两种形式的副词只有一个，就是botanically。

both

1.下面四句意思相同：

Both sisters are here. Both the sisters are here.（比较不普通）

Both of the sisters are here. The sisters are both here.

the both sisters和the both of the sisters也有人说，但都不算正当。

2.Both sisters（或Both the sisters，或Both of the sisters）are not here或The sisters are not both here是“姐妹两人并不都在这里”，就是说“一个在这里，一个不在这里”，并不是“姐妹两人都不在这里”。Neither sister（或Neither of the sisters）is here才是“姐妹两人都不在这里”。

3.both ... and ...是习语，如both boys and girls。论理似乎只能指两项，但事实上并没有这种限制，如尽可说both boys and grils and men and women。

4.both ... and ...里的两个“…”最好是同性质的，如可以说both boys and girls，也可以说both with boys and with girls和with both boys and girls，但最好不说both with boys and girls。同样地，下面各种表达方式都最好不说：

both the dog and cat (该说both the dog and the cat或both dog and cat),

both his hands and feet (该说both his hands and his feet),

both in China and the Soviet Union (该说both in China and in the Soviet Union或in both China and the Soviet Union),

both because of ill health and the cold weather (该说both because of ill health and because of the cold weather, because both of ill health and of the cold weather或because of both ill health and the cold weather)

5.He knows both English and German比He knows English and German both普通。

6.both ... as well as ...是错误的，绝对不可用。

7.下面各句里的both该去掉：

The two boys are both alike.

The two boys are both equally good.

The two boys are both together.

bother

1.下面六句都作“别费心去答复这封信”解：

Don't bother to answer this.

Don't bother about answering this.

Don't bother answering this.

Don't bother yourself to answer this.

Don't bother yourself about answering this.

Don't bother yourself answering this.

第三句和第六句里的answering是现在分词。

2.I didn't have much bother (in) getting him to go with me里的in可有可无。

bound

bound后面接不定式从前在英国作“将不得不…”解，在美国作“决意…”解，如He is bound to come在英国是“他将不得不来”，在美国是“他决意来”。但现在似乎在英美通常都作“一定将…”解，如It is bound to rain是“肯定会下雨”。

bourgeois(e)

bourgeois的单数形式和复数形式为同一形式，兼指男女。bourgeoise是女性形式，极少用。

bourgeoisie

bourgeoisie（资产阶级）前面有the。

boxful

参见-ful

Boxing-day（或Boxing Day）

1.Boxing-day（指12月26日［圣诞节的次日］，假使那天是星期日，便指12月27日）前面没有the。

boy

messenger boy和office boy是正常的英语。boy单独用指所谓“仆欧”或“西崽”，不是正常的英语，是殖民者对于殖民地或半殖民地人民的侮辱名称。

boycott

the boycott of such goods和the boycott against such goods都可以说。

boyhood

boyhood有时指childhood以后的一段时期，如in childhood and early boyhood。

brain

1.说“脑”用brain，说“脑髓”用brains，说“智力”用brain或brains都可以。注意下面几个习语：

suck（或pick）his（或your等）brain(s)（剽窃他［或你等］的脑力劳动成果，用brain或brains都可以），

have no brain(s)（没有智力，用brains普通些），

cudgel my（或your等）brains（绞脑汁，该用brains），

rack my（或your等）brain(s)（绞脑汁，用brain或brains都可以），

have on the brain（痴想，该用brain），

turn his（或your等）brain（使他［或你等］失态，该用brain）

2.much brains（许多智力）和little brains不可改作many brains和few brains。

3.注意He has a marvellous brain等句子里有a。可以说Two brains（两个人的智力）are better than one。

brand

下面各种表达方式都可以说：

a new brand of cigarette, a new brand of cigarettes（比较少见），

some new brands of cigarette, some new brands of cigarettes

brandy

a brandy是“一客白兰地酒”或“一种白兰地酒”，brandies是“多客白兰地酒”或“多种白兰地酒”。

bread

bread是“面包”，不是“一块（loaf）面包”，也不是“一片（slice）面包”。a bread是“一客面包”，breads是“多客面包”。

break

1.说“扯破（衣服）”不该用break，该用tear。

2.下面三句意思相同：

You ought to break this habit.

You ought to break off this habit.

You ought to break yourself of this habit.

3.Her self-control was strained to the breaking point里的the有时省去。

breakfast

breakfast有时指“早餐那件事”，有时指“早餐吃的东西”，不论作哪一个解，都有时指可数的事物，有时指不可数的事物。例如：

I had a quick breakfast this morning.

I took a walk before breakfast this morning.

I had enough money to buy a breakfast.

I ate a few biscuits for breakfast.

breath(e)

下面两句里的breathe和take breath不可对调：

We breathe (呼吸) in order to live.

We paused to take breath (透一口气，休息一下).

breeze

a breeze是“一阵微风”，breezes是“多阵微风”，不可说I should like to have breeze on such a hot day，该在breeze前加上a。但偶尔也有There was not enough breeze that evening等句子。

brethren

参见brother 3

bribe(ry)

bribe是“行贿物”，是可数名词，如many bribes。bribery是“行贿或受贿的行为”，有时统指这种行为（不可数），有时指这种行为的一次（可数），如guilty of bribery和guilty of several briberies。

brick

brick有时是“一块砖”，有时是“制砖材料”，如a house built of bricks和a house built of brick。

bridesman

bridesman（男傧相）现在不普通，说“男傧相”通常用best man。

bring

1.bring是“拿来”，不是“拿去”，如可以说Bring the book to me，不可说Bring the book to him。说“拿去”该用take。不过也得注意，说“拿到对方（例如收信人）”也用bring，因为在对方看来是“拿来”。例如：The young man who brings you this letter is my brother.

2.He took a great interest in his work though he was well aware that it would not bring him in much money里有双宾语，那in是副词，不是介词。

3.注意He was brought up to his father's trade里用to。

bristle

bristle不是物质名词。a bristle是“一根猪鬃”，bristles是“多根猪鬃”。

Britain

Britain是Great Britain的简称，包括England, Wales和Scotland。Great Britain和Northern Ireland合成the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland，简称the United Kingdom。有时也用Great Britain指the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland。Greater（不是Great）Britain指United Kingdom和一切属地，但这名称是非正式的。

Britannia

Britannia, Britannic和Britannica三个单词不可混用。Britannia是(Great) Britain的别名，主要用在诗歌里。Britannic是形容词，作“关于(Great) Britain的”解，现在只用在Her（或His）Britannic Majesty（英［女］王陛下）中。Britannica用在The Encyclopaedia Britannica（大英百科全书）等里。

Britannic

参见Britannia

Britannica

参见Britannia

Briticism

Briticism（只用在英国而不用在美国）是美国英语，相当于英国的Britishism。也有人用Britannicism，但不及Britishism普通。

Britisher

Britisher是“英国人”，通常是Great Britain的人。该词是美国英语，在英国本来不用，现在在美国也几乎不用。

Briton

Briton是Great Britain的人，尤其指Englishman。现在不很通用。英国人通常说I am a British subject，不说I am a Briton。美国人也几乎不用。

broad

1.broad和wide没有绝对的区别，但broad似乎着重在面积的广，wide似乎着重在距离的远。如broad street和wide street都是“宽阔的街道”，但broad street着重在街面的宽大（车马可以自由往来），wide street着重在两边的距离（穿过不便）。又如broad river着重在河面的广阔（有“水光接天”的景色），wide river着重在两岸的远离（渡河费时而费力）。形容人的肩、背和胸都可以用broad而不可用wide，眼和嘴都可以用wide而不可broad。

2.broad discussion是畅所欲言的自由讨论。wide discussion是项目繁多的广泛讨论。

broadcast

broadcast（用无线电广播）的过去式通常是broadcasted，但过去分词通常是broadcast。

broadness

broadness现在只用作“粗俗”解，不用作“广阔”解。说“广阔”该用breadth。

Bronx

Bronx是New York City的五个行政区（borough）中的一个，前面有the。

brother

1.brother指“兄”或“弟”都可以，区别起来，“兄”是elder brother，“弟”是younger brother。但除了在必须分明的时候以外，习惯上不论说“兄”或“弟”只说brother。在美国往往不说elder brother而说older brother，参见elder

2.brother只指同父母、同父或同母的弟兄，不指堂弟兄。

3.brother的复数形式brethren现在只用来指同一教会的教徒或同一会社的成员。

4.the Johnson brothers比the brothers Johnson普通。在招牌上通常用第一种形式而省略the，如Johnson Brothers。

brother-in-law

1.brother-in-law用作“连襟”解很勉强，用作“丈夫的姐姐或妹妹的丈夫”解更勉强。

2.brother-in-law不可用在信的称呼里。该用对方的名字。

brush

You ought to brush up your English（你该温习英语）等句子里的brush up是习语，作“重新研习…，使不荒疏”解，brush是及物动词。在美国往往在up后面加上on，使brush成为不及物动词。

Buckingham Palace

Buckingham Palace（白金汉宫）前面没有the。

Buddha

Buddha（佛陀、佛）在指释迦牟尼（Sakyamuni）的时候前面可以有the，也可以没有the。

buffalo

buffalo的复数形式作buffaloes、buffalos和buffalo都可以。

buffet

We lunched buffet together里的buffet用作副词，作“自助”解。

bug

bug在英国是“臭虫”，在美国指任何小昆虫。“臭虫”在美国通常叫做bed(-)bug。英国人把bug看作“粗俗”的词，很少用它。

build

1.build有时带有双宾语。例如：It is thoughtful of the government to build so many bridges across the river.

2.a man of powerful build（体格）等表达方式里的...build前面习惯没有a。

building

the ... Building用作“…大厦（分租作事务所的）”解是美国英语，相当于英国英语...House（没有the）。

bureau

1.bureau在英国指“写字台”，在美国指“（通常装着镜子的）衣橱”。

2.政府的组织各“部”有若干“司”，“部”在英国叫做ministry，在美国叫做department，“司”在英国叫做department，在美国叫做bureau。说我国政府的“部”和“司”，通常依照英国习惯。

3.我国往往用bureau来译“局”，如“劳动局”译作bureau of labour。这是美国用法，在英国通常用office。

burglar

burglar在一般词典里注作“夜贼”或“夜盗”，其实不一定“夜”，也不一定“贼”或“盗”，“夜贼”或“夜盗”也不一定是burglar。burglar可以有两个意思：“夜里侵入房屋意图犯罪者”和“侵入房屋意图偷窃者”。注意必须“侵入房屋”才是burglar。这词现在不很普通。

burst

burst into tears（忽然哭出来）比burst out crying普通，但burst out laughing（忽然笑出来）比burst into laughter普通。注意不可说burst into crying或burst into laughing。偶尔用burst out into tears, burst out into crying等。

bus

1.bus比omnibus普通得多。

2.美国的bus boy和bus girl是餐馆或公共食堂里打杂的人，职位比waiter和waitress低，跟公共汽车没有关系。

business

1.business原来是busy＋ness，是相当于busy的抽象名词，但现在有busyness是相当于busy的抽象名词。

2.in business是“在经营商业”，是形容词短语或状语短语。on business是“因事或因公（不是玩耍）”，是状语短语。如He is in business, He is engaged in business和He wants to see you on business。比较下面两句：

He is in business there.

He is there on business.

3.go to business是“到办事处去”，go into business是“开始经商”，如He goes to business by bus和He went into business at twenty。

4.Mind your own business的意思是“别管他人的闲事”，就是“（我）不用你干涉”，不是“别让他人管你的事”。

busy

1.现在busy后面直接接动名词，不加任何介词（那动名词成了现在分词）。例如：He is busy writing a report.

2.busy后面只可接动名词，不可接不定式，如可以说He is busy writing a report，不可说He is busy to write a report。

3.busy指人的忙，不指工作的忙，如不可说busy work, busy task, busy matter, busy affair等。

4.busy at work和busily at work都可以说。第一种表达方式里的at work是状语短语，修饰busy。第二种表达方式里的at work是形容词短语，被busily修饰着。

busybody

busybody是“管闲事的人”，不是“忙人”。

but

1.许多修辞学书里说句首不可用but，其实句首用but很普通。即使用在一段文字的开首也可以。

2.though ... but ...和although ... but ...都是错误的，该把but改作yet或删去。

3.but ... however不该用，如不该说But that, however, is quite different，该改作But that is quite different或That, however, is quite different。

4.No man but I saw him和No man but me saw him都可以说，意思也相同，现在在文字里用I普通些，在口语里用me普通些。第一句里的but是连接词，第二句里的but是介词。

5.not ... but ...是习语。例如：It is not black, but white.但该注意这习语很容易用错，如说It is not black, but it is white便大错了。

6.not ... but ...是习语，not so much ... as ...也是习语，not so much ... but ...是错误的（英美人往往有这种错误），如I admire him not so much for his learning as for his character（我羡慕他，与其说为了他的学问，不如说为了他的品格）里的as不可改作but。

7.can but和cannot but意思略有不同。can but作“只能”解，如I can but wait是说“我只能等着（没有别的事可以做）”，有时有“至多不过…”的意思，如I can but lose that money是说“我至多失了那笔款子，并不会有其他不幸的事情发生”。cannot but作“不得不”或“不禁”解，如I cannot but think so是说“我不得不这样想”。

can but和cannot but都是比较正式的短语，在口语里通常不用can but而用can only，不用cannot but而用cannot help ...ing或cannot help but。

8.do nothing but或do anything but后面接没有to的不定式，如I could do nothing but wait和I could not do anything but wait。

9.all but perfect是“几乎完美的”，anything but perfect是“极不完美的”。

10.下面每组里的四句意思相同：

每组里的第一句和第二句里的but是关系代词，第三句和第四句里的but是连接词。

buttock(s)

buttock是臀部的一半，说整个臀部该用buttocks, rump或posterior(s)。

buy

1.buy和purchase意思相同，可以用purchase的场合虽然都可以用buy，但可以用buy的场合却未必可以用purchase。buy指一般的“买”，说买菜、买肉、买书、买珠宝、买房子，都可以用。purchase该用在比较贵重些的东西，如可以用来说买珠宝或买房子，却不可用来说买菜或买肉，可以用来说买一部名贵的古书，却不可用来说买一册教科书。

2.buy有时有双宾语。例如：I bought him a pen.（我买了一枝笔给他。）

3.I hope to buy it of him里的of改作from或off都可以。

4.buy back是“（在卖出去以后）买回来”。例如：He sold his house and later bought it back.

by

1.catch him by the ear, lead her by the hand等表达方式里的the照习惯不可改作his或her。

2.下面两句意思相同：

Books came in by the hundred.

Books came in by hundreds.

注意不可说by the hundreds。

They are paid by the month和Sugar is sold by the catty等句子里的by the month和by the catty等不可改作by months和by catties等。

3.by and by作“不久以后”解，不作“渐渐地”解。

C

cabbage

a cabbage是“一棵卷心菜”，cabbages是“多棵卷心菜”，cabbage是“卷心菜（的物质）”，如a slice of cabbage。

cabin

cabin指“简陋的小屋”，现在只在美国还用。

cadre

cadre正像汉语“干部”一般，原来指“部”，是“一班人”，不是“一个人”，只用在军队，不用在其他场合。但现在也正像“干部”一般，指“一个人”，而且不限于军队。

café

cafe在英国指小餐馆，在欧洲大陆指任何餐馆，尤其指露天的。

cake

统指“糕饼”用cake或cakes都可以。例如：I like cake (或cakes).但是在美国cakes（复数形式）通常指一种趁热吃的麦饼。

calculate

1.calculate用作“以为”解是美国英语。例如：I calculate, you are right.现在比较少用。

2.calculate（计算）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He calculated that he had written to her twenty-four times during the past year.

calculus

calculus（微积分）前面通常有the。

calico

calico在英国指“白色棉布”，就是在美国所说的muslin，在美国指“印花棉布”，就是在英国所说的print。

call

1.call him是“唤醒他”或“高声唤他而叫他来”或“打电话给他”，用在第三解是美国用法。call to him是“高声唤他”，说“高声唤他”不可没有to。call on him是“拜访他”，有时是“请求他”。例如：The chairman called on her to say a few words. call upon him是“请求他”，有时是“拜访他”。call for him可能是“拜访他而跟他一同出去”，也可能是“吩咐别人叫他来”。call him up是“打电话给他”。

2.比较下面各句：

I called on Mr Green yesterday.（我昨天拜访Green先生。）

I called at Mr Green's yesterday.（1.我昨天到Green先生的家。2.我昨天到Green先生的店或办事处。）

I called on the Greens yesterday.（我昨天访问Green全家或夫妇、父子、兄弟等。）

I called at the Greens' yesterday.（1.我昨天到Green家。2.我昨天到Green夫妇、父子、兄弟等的店或办事处。）

3.说“吩咐某人做什么”不可用call，如不可说I will call him to help me，该把call改作tell或ask。call him to help me是“高声唤他来帮助我”。

4.下面三句意思相同：

I called him to come.

I called to him to come.

I called out to him to come.

5.This work calls for a knowledge of geometry里的calls for作“需要”解。用作这个意思的call for的宾语后面有时有不定式。例如：The work is important enough to call for us to exercise great care.

6.His name is Henry和He is called Henry都可以说，但不可说His name is called Henry，name和called不可同时用。

7.The doctor received a call可能是“这医生接到一个邀请（出诊）”，也可能是“这医生接到一个访问（有人来就诊）”。当然也可能是“这医生接到一个电话。”

8.The meeting was called for 8 July是“会议被决定在7月8日召开。”

9.比较下面两句：

What do you call this in English?（这东西在英语里叫什么？）

How do you say this in English?（这个语句在英语里怎样讲？）

不可说How do you call this in English?

camp

in camp, make camp, go to camp, reach camp, put into camp, return to camp等表达方式里通常没有the。

campus

campus（学校场地、校园）是美国英语，有时用来指“学校”。前面用on，不用in，原来必须有the，现在往往没有。

can

1.can用作“（罐头食品的）罐头”解是美国英语，相当于英国的tin。can用作“把…做成罐头食品”解原来也是美国英语，相当于英国的tin，但现在在英国也很普通。

2.cannot是英国拼写形式，can not是美国拼写形式。

3.许多语法书里说表示“许可”该用may，不该用can。其实用can表示“许可”也很普通，如You can go和You may go意思相同，Can I go?和May I go?意思也相同。You can...有时有“我要你…”的意思。

在口语里往往用cannot表示“不许可”。例如：Children, you cannot throw the ball over the wall.

4.请求他人作某事，说Could you ...?比说Can you ...?婉转些。

5.could（虚拟过去式）有时表示愿望或倾向，如I could eat another（我［现在］很想再吃一个）和I could cry for shame。（我［现在］几乎因为羞耻而哭出来了。）

6.can用在否定句和疑问句里往往表示可能，作“会…”解，如He cannot be over fifty（他不会在五十岁以上，他至多不过五十岁）和Can he be still living?（他仍旧活着吗？他现在还会活着吗？）can后面接着完成时态一定表示可能，如He cannot have seen her yesterday（他决不会在昨天见过她）和Can I have said so?（我会曾经这样说么？）注意：He cannot have seen her yesterday和He could not see her yesterday（他昨天不能见她）不同，Can I have said so?和Could I say so?（1.我曾经能够这样说么？2.我［现在］要这样说便能够这样说么？）不同。

7.You cannot be too careful直译作“你不会太小心”，就是说“你不论怎样小心，总不会过分”，也就是说“你愈小心愈好”。下面各句也都是这个意思：

You cannot be over careful.

You cannot be careful enough.

You cannot be sufficiently careful.

You cannot take enough care.

You cannot take sufficient care.

下面各句都跟上面各句相仿：

We cannot recommend this book too strongly.

I cannot see enough of him.

We cannot exaggerate his attainments.

This point cannot be overemphasized.

8.can的过去式是could，说过去的“能够”用could当然不错。例如：I told him I could do it.但单说I could do it很容易被人看作有If I would do it, I could或I could do it, but somehow I don't do it的意思。所以指过去的“能够”通常不用could而用able。例如：I was able to do it.

比较下面各句：

I told him I could do it.（指经常的或一次的能力，并不意味着实行）

I was able to do it.（指经常的或一次的能力，并不意味着实行）

I did it.（指经常的或一次的行为）

I succeeded in doing it.（指一次的行为）

I managed to do it.（指一次的行为）

“他最后精通了英语”不可说At last he could master English，通常也不说At last he was able to master English。而用下面的任何一句：

At last he mastered English.

At last he succeeded in mastering English.

At last he managed to master English.

canal

... Canal（…运河）前面有the，如the Grand Canal（我国的大运河），the Suez Canal和the Panama Canal。

cancer

cancer是类名词，指“癌”，也是抽象名词，指“癌症”。

candidacy

candidacy是美国英语，相当于英国的candidature。

candidate

candidate for President和candidate for Presidency都可以说。candidate for typist和candidate for the position of typist也都可以说。

candidly

candidly有时形容全句或整个从句，作“坦白地说”解，如Candidly I was bored to tears和I have just finished the novel, which, candidly, I do not like。

candy

candy在英国是“冰糖”，也作sugar-candy（在美国往往作rock candy），没有复数形式。在美国指一切“糖果”，相当于英国的sweets，单数形式和复数形式都有。例如：She gave the boy some candy（或candies）。美国的candy store相当于英国的sweet shop。在美国candy统指“糖果”，a candy是“一块糖果”，也作a piece of candy, candies是“多种糖果”，不是“多块糖果”，“多块糖果”是pieces of candy。

cannon

cannon有复数形式cannons，但现在很少用。cannon往往用作“炮”的集合名词，也用作复数，如a crowd of cannon和many cannon。The cannon were still thundering（炮还在隆隆地轰响着）里的were改作was也可以。

cannot

参见can 2和3

capable

1.capable后面接of和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说capable of carrying more，不可说capable to carry more。

2.capable of anything通常作“任何坏事都会做出的”解。

capacity

capacity后面接不定式或接for或of和动名词，如his capacity to make friends, his capacity for making friends和his capacity of making friends。

capital

1.说“某国的首都”在capital后面接of，不接in，如the capital of China。

2.注意Write your name and address in capitals用in。

capitalist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

Capitol

Capitol（美国国会大厦）前面有the。

capturer

capturer现在远不及captor普通。

car

单用car通常指“汽车”，有时指“电车”，在美国有时指“火车的一节车厢”，把the cars指“一列火车”。但by car一定指“乘汽车”。

card

1.“到…的家里留下一张名片给…”该说leave a card on ...。

2.cards（纸牌戏）用作复数。例如：Cards are allowed here.

care

1.care用作“忧愁”解用单数形式或复数形式都可以，用作“小心”解只可用单数形式。

2.take care of在英国只作“当心保护”解，它的宾语总是该被保护的东西，如Take care of your health和We must take care of public property。在美国往往用作“提防”或“对付”解。例如：You must take care of all possible obstacles和Can he take care of this problem?有时竟然有“杀掉”的意思。例如：They had many snakes to take care of in laying out the garden.

3.care of或in care of作“由…收下保管而转给他人”解，如I wrote to Mr Williams (in) care of Mr Cooke（我写信给Williams先生，是请Cooke先生转交的），在信封上习惯写作c/o或。例如：

Mr A. B. Williams

c/o Mr C. D. Cooke

注意c/o...是“由…转交”，不是“转交给…”，A c/o B是“由B转交给A”，不是由A转交给B。

4.I don't care作“我不放在心上”或“不以为意”解，但后面接了不定式便作“我不肯”或“我不愿意”解，如I don't care whether you will go or not是“我不管你去不去”，I don't care to go是“我不肯去”。但I don't care if I...却又作“我愿…”解，如I don't care if I go是“我愿去”。（这句直译作“即使我去，我也不以为意”，就是说“我不妨一去”。）

5.I don't care for（欢喜）novels比I don't care about novels普通。I don't care（肯）to go比I don't care about going语气重些。注意不可说I don't care for going。

6.可以说I don't care for you to see me。（我不要你见我。）

7.care to ...主要用在否定句、疑问句和表示条件的从句里。例如：

I don't care to go. Do you care to go?

If you care to go, I will go with you.

通常不说I care to go。但对于Do you care to go?可以回答说I care to go。也可以说That is all he cares to speak about。

8.I don't care what you say是“不论你说什么，我都不关心”，I don't care about（或for）what you say是“对于你所说的话我不关心”，但也可能跟前句意思相同。

9.Take care what you are doing是“留心你正在做什么（不可做你不该做的事）。”Take care in what you are doing是“对于你正在做的事，（你该）小心去做。”Take care of what you are doing可能有上面两句中任何一句的意思。

10.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

11.take care and ...=take care to ...（不定式），是美国用法。例如：Take care and get it done today.

12.可以说Owing to poor health he lived for some time in care of an old friend，但这里用in care of不及用under the care of普通。

career

1.career是“事业”或“一生的经历”，不是抽象名词，如their careers里必须用复数形式。

2.美国英语career man跟careerist不大相同。career man是“职业外交家”，就是“不是从政界、教育界、企业界等出身的外交家”，也作career diplomat。careerist是“追求名利的人”。

careful

1.He is careful in reading every sentence是“他细心地读每句。”He is careful to read every sentence是“他留心着一定要读每句（一句也不肯遗漏）。”He is careful enough to read every sentence是“他这样地留心，所以每句都读（一句也不遗漏）”。

2.careful后面往往接of。例如：You ought to be careful of your spelling.假使后面接以how, where等词引导的从句，便不用of，如You ought to be careful how you spell和She is always careful where to use a comma and where to use a semicolon。

3.Be careful (that) you don't catch cold里的that可有可无。

4.可以说Be careful of your pronunciation，不可说Be careful of your mis pronunciation。

5.She is always careful what she does是“她时常当心她做什么（避免做不该做的事）”。She is always careful in what she does是“对于她做的事，她时常小心去做”。She is always careful of what she does可能有上面两句中任何一句的意思。

careless

careless有时后面接以how, what等词引导的从句。例如：One should never be careless how one speaks or writes.

Carolina

the Carolinas指美国North Carolina和South Carolina两州（state）。

carpet

可以说a strip of carpet, a piece of thick carpet等。

carry

1.carry和take往往可以通用，如He carried the box to her 和He took the box to her意思相同。但He carried the boy to her是“他抱着、扛着或背着这男孩到她那里”，那男孩并不跟他一同走。He took the boy to her是“他带着这男孩到她那里”，那男孩也许跟他同走，也许不跟他同走。说跟某人一同到那里，假使不是抱着、背着或扛着，不可用carry。美国南方有把carry用作take解的。例如：He will carry his friend to the party this evening.但这决不是正常的英语。

2.carry on和carry out意思不同。carry on是“进行”或“经营”，carry out是“实行”或“完成”，如carry on a business（进行或经营一个事业）和carry out a business plan（实行一个事业上的计划）。

比较下面每组里的两句：

case

1.in case of有时作“假使…发生”解。例如：In case of fire, give the alarm.有时作“防备…”解。例如：Take some brandy with you in case of need. Take an umbrella with you in case of rain可能有两个意思：1.“假使下雨，拿一把伞。”2.“拿一把伞，防备下雨。”in the case of通常作“关于…”解。例如：In the case of his father, we must make an exception.偶尔用作in case of解。

2.in the case of, in ...'s case, in many cases等用得太多，往往可以避免。例如：

In the case of Russian grammar, it has six cases.（可以改作Russian grammar has six cases。）

In the case of my brother（或In my brother's case）, he will graduate next year.（可以改作My brother will graduate next year。）

In many cases the answers are almost perfect.（可以改作Many ［of the］ answers are almost perfect。）

In every case except that of world literature he has got A.（可以改作In every subject except world literature he has got A。）

Some of my friends sing very well, but this is not the case with me.（可以改作Some of my friends sing very well, but I do not。）

3.in case（后面从前往往加上连接词that，现在不加）有下面各种含意：

（1）“假使…”。例如：

In case he comes, let me know.

In case you fail, you must try again.

（2）“防备…”。例如：

You had better be ready in case they arrive before you expect them.

I left the door open in case the cat wanted to get in.

（3）“借以避免…”。例如：

Be quiet in case you (should) wake the baby.

He left his most valuable books with me in case they got (或should get) lost.

（4）“希望…”。例如：

He waited outside in case he could be useful.

I enclose my card in case you wish to see it.

in case有时单独用，表示“防备…”，“借以避免…”，或“希望…”的意思。例如：

They may not arrive before you expect them, but you had better be ready in case.

Noise might not wake the baby, but I advise you to be quiet in case.

He did not know whether he could prove useful in the room, but he waited outside in case.

4.in case引导的从句里不用will或would指将来，如In case he comes, let me know里的comes不可改作will come, I left the door open in case the cat wanted to get in里的wanted不可改作would want。

cash

1.cash有时是“现钱”，包括“硬币”说“纸币”，有时只指“硬币”，不包括“纸币”。cash payment（现金付款）可能是硬币，可能是纸币，可能是硬币和纸币。“硬币付款”该说specie payment。

2.cash也指我国从前所通用的小钱，就是有方孔的铜钱。单数和复数同一形式，如one cash和five cash。

3.cash（兑现）的主语可能是持票人，也可能是银行职员，如I went to the bank to cash a cheque和I asked the clerk to cash my cheque。在第二种用法里cash有时有双宾语。例如：Please cash me this cheque.

casket

casket用作“棺材”解是美国英语。

cast

1.说“投”、“掷”或“丢”，现在通常不用cast，却用throw。

2.cast偶尔有双宾语。例如：The tree cast us a pleasant shade.

casualty

casualty是“死或伤的人”，如“两死三伤”是five casualties。

cat

1.cat属于通性，但通常当作雌猫，用代词she或her。在必须说“雄猫”的场合该用tom(-)cat。

2.Care killed the cat（忧能伤身）是谚语，注意用过去时态killed。

catalogue

catalogue在美国往往指学校的章程或说明书，相当于英国学校里的prospectus和大学里的calendar。

catch

1.说“人感染疾病”该把“人”做catch的主语，不该把“疾病”做catch的主语，如该说I have caught a cold，不该说A cold has caught me。

2.下面两句都作“我的衣袖被一个钉子钩住”解：

My sleeve caught on a nail.

My sleeve got caught on a nail.

第一句里的caught是不及物动词，第二句里的caught是及物动词的过去分词。

cater

cater后面接for或to似乎没有一定的标准，比较下面各句：

They cater for dinners, weddings, and receptions.

This theatre caters for (或to) the workers and peasants.

This theatre caters to (或for) popular taste.

That shop caters exclusively for (或to) women.

That shop caters exclusively to (或for) women's needs.

Catholic

Catholic通常译作“天主教的”和“天主教徒”，Christian通常译作“基督教的”和“基督教徒”。注意：Christian包括天主教在内，Catholic有各种意思，最广泛的意思指一切基督教徒。天主教徒自己称为Catholic，但假使你自己不是天主教徒，说“天主教徒”该用Roman Catholic。

cattle

cattle在英国往往统指“家畜”，在美国只指牛类，都不指“一头…”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式cattles。当作单数或复数都可以，如The cattle has（或have）been sold和Cattle are allowed to graze here。第二句里用are，似乎不可用is。可以说forty cattle, these cattle等。说“一头牛”可说one head of cattle，也可以说one animal。

Caucasus

Caucasus（高加索）前面有the。

cause

1.I have cause for hope和I do not think you have cause to worry等句子里的cause前面没有a或the。

2.cause of ...是“…的根源”，of的宾语不一定指行为或感觉，cause for ...是“…的理由”，for的宾语一定指行为或感觉，如the cause of the accident和the cause of the crime, cause for complaint和cause for rejoicing。cause for前面没有the。

3.cause后面可以接宾语和不定式。例如：The lightning caused the baby to cry.注意cry前面有to。

4.cause后面不可接宾语和形容词，如不可说That caused me happy，该在happy前面加上to be，或把caused改作made。口语里通常用made。

5.cause可以有双宾语。例如：That caused him much inconvenience.

cease

1.cease doing it和cease to do it都是“停止做这事”，但略有区别。只有一次的动作通常用动名词。例如：When he heard the knock, he ceased writing.经常性的动作通常用不定式，例如：He ceased to write at the age of eighty.

2.cease后面接from和动名词跟接动名词没有区别，但不用from比较普通些，如cease writing比cease from writing普通。

3.在日常文字里stop比cease多用，但stop后面只可接动名词，不可接不定式，用了不定式便有另一意思。参见stop 1

celebrate

celebrate用作不及物动词作“欢乐一阵”解，是美国口语。

celebration

只有一次的庆祝也往往用复数形式。例如：The whole town was astir because of the celebrations.

century

last century是“上世纪”（对21世纪来说是20世纪），the last century通常是“最近过去的100年”（对2002年来说是1902-2001年），有时是“上世纪”。next century是“下世纪”，the next century通常是“以后的100年”，有时是“下世纪”。

ceremony

master of ceremonies（司仪者）比master of the ceremonies普通。

certain

1.a certain man, certain persons, a certain Mr Carr等表达方式里的certain作“某”解，是形容词。certain of his friends里的certain作“某某若干”解，是名词或代词，属于复数，不可说a certain of his friends，该说a certain friend of his。

2.a certain hesitation, a certain coldness等表达方式里的a certain作“一些”解。注意hesitation和coldness都是抽象名词。

3.certain和sure有若干相似的地方，但certain比sure语气重些。两个单词后面都可以接of、不定式或以that引导的从句，如I am certain (或sure) of his honesty, I am certain (或sure) to see him tomorrow和I am certain (或sure) that he is honest。但It is certain that ...比It is sure that ...普通得多。

4.He is certain (或sure) to come tomorrow是“他明天一定来”。He is certain (或sure) of coming tomorrow是“他相信他明天一定来”。可以说It is certain (或sure) to be fine tomorrow，不可说It is certain of being fine tomorrow。

5.I am not certain (about) where he lives里的about可有可无。

certificate

1.certificate用作“学校当局所出的证明书（使学生可以免考入大学的）”解是美国英语。

2.certificate in bookkeeping比certificate for bookkeeping普通。

certify

1.We shall certify him of the fact（我们将向他保证这事实）等句子里的certify的用法现在很不普通，最好不用。

2.证明书的第一句往往是This is to certify that ...。

3.certified milk是“有证牛奶或合格牛奶”，certified check（美国英语）是“保付支票”，certified public accountant（美国英语）是“执业会计师”，各种表达方式里的certified都“证明好”。但对于人certify作“诊断…患有精神病”解（是英国用法）。

chair

1.take a chair是“坐在椅上”，take the chair是“（在会上）当主席”。

2.chair of English phonetics是“英语语音学教授的职位”，说chair of professor of English phonetics也可以，但不很普通。

chairman

chairman的女性形式是chairwoman，但有时chairman也指女主席。例如：Miss Hope will be chairman today.

chalk

chalk是物质名词，所以不可说a chalk和some chalks，该说a piece of chalk和some pieces of chalk。但说“各色的chalk”可以用chalks，如a box of chalks。

chamber

chamber现在不普通，通常该用room。chamber比room“文雅”些，有“斗室”、“陋室”、“雅室”等表达方式里的“室”的意味。

chance

1.chance后面接of或for和动名词或接不定式都可以，如a （或the）chance of（或for）doing it和a（或the）chance to do it。

2.chance后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：There is little chance that he will pass the test.

3.The chances are that he will be the first to arrive today是“大约他今天将第一个到”。the和that有时都省去。例如：Chances are he will be the first to arrive today.

4.The chances are ten to one that he will pass the examination和The chances are a hundred to one that he will pass the examination都是“他几乎一定将考试及格”。注意汉语“十分之九”或“百分之九十九”不可直译作The chances are nine to one（或ninety-nine to one）that ...

5.He chanced to be there when I arrived里的chanced不及happened普通。

change

1.change是“换去”，不是“换来”，如帽子旧了，换一顶新的，该说change the old cap (for a new one)，不该说change a new cap。

2.a change of address, a change of name, a change of scene, a change of subject, a change of attitude等表达方式里在名词前没有a或the。

3.change of air（转地疗养）前面通常有a，偶尔没有a。

4.在作“零钱”或“找头”解的时候change前面不可加a，后面不可加s。

changeable

changeable比changeful普通得多。

changeful

参见changeable

channel

英国人所说的the Channel指英法两国中间的the English Channel。

chap

This Frankie chap（这个叫Frankie的人）等是口语用法。

character

1.character和characteristic意思不同。character是“性格”，characteristic是“性格里的特质”。一个人只有一个character，却有多个characteristics，这多个characteristics合成一个character。

2.注意下面第一句里有a，第二句里没有a：

He is of a fine character.

He is a man of fine character.

of ... character在表语用法里习惯有a（或an），在定语用法里习惯没有a（或an）。注意这里的of ... character指人。假使不指人，不论在表语用法或定语用法里都通常有a（或an），如This book is of a literary character和This is a book of a literary character。在定语用法里也有不用a（或an）的。例如：This is a book of literary character.但很不普通。of a（或an）... character用得太多，往往可以避免。例如：

The weather was then of a showery character.（可以改作The weather was then showery。）

They offered us some suggestions of a practical character.（可以改作They offered us some practical suggestions。）

3.a man of character, a person of no character等表达方式里的character作“好的character”解。of character和of no character两种表达方式没有表语用法，如不说He is of (no) character。

4.说“某民族的性格”用the或不用the都可以，如（the）German character。

5.说“汉字”通常用character。注意character指写的或印的字，不指口头说的字，口头说的字该用word。

characteristic

1.参见character 1

2.characteristic（形容词）of ...作“…所特有的”解。例如：This usage is characteristic of colloquial English.

charge

1.charge Joseph with murder和charge murder on（或upon）Joseph都可以说，但第一种形式比第二种形式普通得多。注意charge Joseph with murder和accuse Joseph of murder意思相仿，但用了charge该用with，用了accuse该用of，不可相混。

2.在名词charge后面接以that引导的从句，英美通用。例如：They brought the charge that Joseph had committed murder.在动词charge后面接以that引导的从句在美国很普通，但在英国很不普通。例如：They charged that Joseph had committed murder.

3.charge him with ...ing有时是“说他犯了…”，有时是“把…的任务交给他”，charge him to ...（不定式）是“命令他…”，如He charged Helen with cheating（他说海伦犯了欺骗），He charged her with reading the proofs（他把校对的任务交给她），和He charged Helen never to cheat（他命令海伦永远不得欺骗）。

4.charge在作“索（价）”解的时候可以有双宾语。例如：He charged me ¥50.

5.charge（为了…取费）把表示物品或服务的词做宾语，远不及加上for的普通，如We must charge all the meals（或repairs）里在charge后面加上for普通得多。

6.in charge of通常作“管理…”解。例如：Mrs Lamb is in charge of the children.有时作“被…管理”解。例如：The children are in charge of Mrs Lamb.但说“被…管理”通常用in the charge of或under the charge of。例如：The children are in（或under）the charge of Mrs Lamb.

7.have charge of（管理）和take (over) charge of（开始管理、接办）两种表达方式里都没有the。

charm

1.说女子的“美”，用单数形式charm和复数形式charms略有不同。charm注重在抽象的“美”，相当于attractiveness，如charm of manner和She entertained us with her usual charm。charms着重在各种美态的集合，就是“美貌”。例如：She displayed all her charms。对于男子，只可用charm，不可用charms。

2.I shall be charmed to see you tomorrow等句子里的charmed是客气话，作pleased或glad解。

3.charmed后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I am charmed that I actually got an interview with him.

chase

1.give chase（追）是习语，没有the。the chase是“打猎”，必须有the。

2.chase（动词）作“追”或“赶去”解，但不作“追着”解。I chased him是“我追他，”不一定追着。I chased him out of the garden是“我把他赶出了花园”，果然把他赶出了。要说“我把他赶出”而并不含“果然赶出”的意思，该说I tried to chase him out of the garden。

chat

1.chat通常不用作抽象名词，如I should like to have a chat with you里的a不可省去。用作抽象名词通常含有“话长道短”，“大言不惭”等意思，如They were in excellent spirits and full of chat和Let me have none of your chat。

2.chat有时指“非正式的演讲”，如a chat on Chinese music。

chattel

通常用复数形式chattels。

cheat

下面三句意思相同但第三句比较少见：

The shopkeeper cheated his customer of his money.

The shopkeeper cheated his customer out of his money.

The shopkeeper cheated his customer's money out of him.

注意不可说He cheated his customer's money of him。

check

1.check作“支票”解是美国英语，相当于英国的cheque。参见cheque

2.check up（查核，check是及物动词），check up on（查核，check是不及物动词），check with（跟…符合），check up with（和…符合）和checkup（查核）都是美国英语。例如：

I will check up these statements.（英国用check）

I will check up on these statements.（英国用check）

The reprint checks with the original.（英国用tallies with）

The reprint checks up with the original.（英国用tallies with）

I will make a check(-)up of（或on）these statements.（英国用examination of）

check(-)up指“全身检查”也是美国英语，英国用physical overhaul。

cheer

Be of good cheer!不及Be cheerful!普通。

cheerful

1.cheerful着重内在的愉快，cheery着重外表的愉快，一个cheerful man也许别人看不出他是cheerful，但cheery man别人一望而知他是cheery。用在东西或动作cheerful表示愉快的心情，cheery表示使人感觉愉快，如a few cheerful words和a few cheery words。a few cheering words是“用来鼓舞人心的几句话”。

2.cheerful有时被用作反语，如He must be a cheerful sort of person to speak to you in such a rude manner!里的cheerful表示“可怜”或“可叹”。

cheering

参见cheerful 1

cheerio

cheerio用作good-bye解，只用在熟悉朋友中间。

cheery

参见cheerful 1

cheese

a cheese是“一块奶酪”，cheeses是“多块奶酪”。

cheque

1.cheque（支票）是英国英语，相当于美国的check。

2.small cheque是“小额支票”，large cheque是“大额支票”，都不关那支票本身的大小。

3.cheque后面习惯接for和金额，如a cheque for ¥85。也有人用of，但不及用for普通。

4.cheque后面习惯接on和银行名称，如a cheque on the Bank of China。

5.在商业信函里往往在cheque前面不用a。例如：I enclose cheque for ¥50.

chicken

a chicken是“一只鸡”，chickens是“多只鸡”，chicken是“鸡肉”或“被看作打猎的对象的鸡”。

chilblain

习惯用复数形式chilblains。例如：Chilblains are nasty things.

child

1.往往用it或which指child。例如：I think every child loves its mother. 但父母或保姆通常用he或she而不用it指他们的孩子。

2.with child是习语，作“有孕的”解，注意没有a或the。

3.She is with child by him是“她因为了他而怀孕了”。

4.child有时指“历史不久的东西”。例如：Picturephone is still a child.

5.child wife（很年轻的妻），child genius（天才儿童），child visitor等的复数形式是child wives, child geniuses和child visitors等。child lover可能是“很年轻的爱人”，可能是“爱孩子的人”，复数形式是child lovers, children lovers是“爱孩子们的人们”。

childish

childish和childlike不同。childish用于孩子作“孩子所特有的”或“宜于孩子的”解，如childish face和childish sports。childish用于成人作“孩子般地无意识的”解，如childish talk和childish idea。childlike只用于成人，不用于孩子，作“孩子般地天真的”解，如childlike innocence和childlike earnestness。成人的childish enthusiasm是一种缺点，成人的childlike enthusiasm是一种优点，孩子的childish enthusiasm是当然的，孩子不会有childlike enthusiasm。

childlike

参见childish

chill

参见chilly 1

chilling

参见chilly 3

chilly

1.chill（形容词）现在远不及chilly普通，语气比chilly重些。

2.chilly和cool都作“微冷的”解，但chilly含有“使人不快”的意思，cool含有“使人愉快”的意思，如It is getting chilly是“天气转冷了（我们该当心别着凉）。”It is getting cool是“天气转凉了（我们觉得舒适）”。

3.chilling比chilly语气重，有“寒气逼人”的意思，如It is simply chilling是“天气冷得使人吃不消了”。

china, China

1.说“瓷器”该用china（用小写字母开首），不用China。a china是“一种瓷器”，chinas是“多种瓷器”。

2.china跟porcelain相同，但比porcelain通俗。有时被用来指任何crockery（或earthenware），就是兼指陶器和瓷器，那是不正确的。

3.China可以用作形容词，Chinese也可以用作形容词。下面几点该注意：

（1）若干名称里习惯用China而不用Chinese，若干名称里习惯用Chinese而不用China，若干名称里用China和Chinese都可以，如China clay（高岭土），Chinese varnish（漆），和China（或Chinese）ink（墨）。一切该把词典做根据。

（2）在同一个名词前面，有时用了China或Chinese便有不同的意思，如China correspondent是“在中国的通讯员”（未必是中国人），Chinese correspondent是“中国籍的通讯员”（未必在中国），China edition是“专销到中国的版本”（未必是中文本），Chinese edition是“中文版本”，China English是“用于中国的英语”（关于中国事物的），Chinese English是“中国式的英语”（中国人所特有的一种不纯粹的英语）。

Chinaman

复数形式是Chinamen。Chinaman从前很普通，并没有轻视的意味，但现在不很普通，而且通常有轻视的意味。Chinamen通常指少数的中国人，不指大多数的中国人，如可以说four Chinamen或four Chinese，但通常说four thousand Chinese而不说four thousand Chinamen。the Chinese（中国人的全体）比the Chinamen普通得多。我们中国人该只用Chinese，不用Chinaman和Chinamen。

Chinatown

Chinatown是“唐人街，中国城”，并不是在中国的任何城市。中国决不会有Chinatown。

chit-book（或chit book）

chit-book是“回单簿”，说“用回单簿（送信件等）”该说by chit-book。例如：I shall send you the goods by chit-book.

chocolate

a chocolate是“一块巧克力”，chocolates是“多块巧克力”。

choice

该说a choice between A and B，不该说a choice of A or B。

choose

1.choose作“选择出来”解，不作“从…选择”解，如可以说I want to choose five from（或among，或from among，或out of）these books，但不可说These books are for you to choose。该在choose后面加上from, among, from among或out of。

2.该说choose between A and B，不该说choose between A or B。

3.choose后面接不定式作“要…”或“决意…”解，有时含有“要…而不要做另一件事”的意思，但有时不含这意思，如I choose to stay at home有“不要出去”的含意，但I do not choose to do it again似乎没有含意。

4.choose后面可以接宾语和表语，有时也接双宾语，如They chose her a secretary。也许是“他们选择她做秘书”。（secretary用作表语），也许是“他们替她选择一个秘书”。（secretary用作直接宾语）。

5.下面三句意思相同。第三句最不普通：

We chose Mr Wood as our leader.

We chose Mr Wood for our leader.

We chose Mr Wood our leader.

Christ

1.Christ原来不是专有名词，是犹太人所期望的救主，用作耶稣的称号，原来前面有the，现在偶尔也有。

2.Jesus Christ比Christ Jesus普通。

Christendom

1.Christendom前面没有the。

2.in Christendom有时用来加重语气，跟in the world相仿。例如：I've got the worst bicycle in Christendom.

Christian

参见Catholic

Christmas

1.Christmas指12月25日（Christmas-day或Christmas Day）现在比较少见，通常指“从12月24日起的一个星期或更长一段时间”（Christmas-tide）。不论用作哪个意思，前面都没有the，都用at，不用on或in。

2.Christmas eve（或Christmas Eve）指12月24日，并不专指那天的晚上。

3.Christmas-day（或Christmas Day）和Christmas eve（或Christmas Eve）前面都没有the，都用on，不用at或in。

chronically

You are chronically finding fault（你老是找茬儿）里的chronically跟always相仿。参见always 1, 2, 3

church

在用作“在教堂里的礼拜”解的时候，church前面没有the，如at church, in church, after church, go to church, attend church和Church begins at ten o'clock。

cinema

1.cinema用作“电影院”解在英国很普通，在美国很不普通。

2.the cinema统指“电影”。例如：I do not go to the cinema often.

3.cinema有时用作抽象名词。例如：These novels have been rendered into cinema.

circle

说“集团的一群人”用单数形式circle，如He has a large circle of friends和He is very happy in his family circle。说文学界、工商界、外交界等的“界”用复数形式circles，如literary circles, business circles和diplomatic circles。各种表达方式前面都没有the。

circulate

circulate用于人是美国英语。例如：The children are allowed to circulate among the grown-ups.

circumstance

1.under the circumstances（事情既然这样，既然如此）比in the circumstances普通些。under no circumstances（决不）比in no circumstances普通得多。in good circumstances（处境良好），in flourishing circumstances（处境兴盛），in reduced circumstances（处境比以前困苦）等表达方式里都只可用in，不可用under。注意各种表达方式里都用复数形式circumstances。

2.注意Under no circumstances should we depart from the pirnciple里用should we，不用we should。

circus

Piccadilly Circus（Piccadilly 环形交叉口）等前面没有the。

citizen

1.citizen通常指共和国的公民，subject通常指君主国的国民，如Chinese citizen和British subject。

2.citizen用作“平民”或“老百姓”（指非军人、警察等）解现在似乎只在美国流行。在英国通常用civilian。在美国citizen有时指“居民”。

city

1.city在一般词典里注作“城”，其实是“都市”，不一定有城墙。

2.city和town没有绝对的区别，大概大些的叫city，小些的叫town。 city在美国比在英国用得多，相当于在英国叫做town的大小的地方，在美国往往叫作city。在英国city里的居民通常叫它town。注意in the city, to the city, out of the city, leave the city等表达方式里都有the。参见town 1

3.把City写在信封上指“本埠”是美国用法。

4.the City（全名the City of London）是伦敦的一部分，包括伦敦的商业区。the City有时指“商界”或“商界的人们”。

civilization

Chinese civilization, European civilization等表达方式前面用the或不用the都可以。world civilization前面没有the。

clad

参见clothe 1

claim

1.claim在一般词典里注作“要求”，其实是“把…看作自己所应该得到的而要求它”，如不可说He claimed my coat或My friend has many flowers, I shall claim some。

2.claim是及物动词，后面不可接for，如不可说He claims for the property。该把for删去。

3.claim后面接不定式，在英国有时作“把…看作自己所应该得到的而要求它”解，有时作“要求他人承认…”解，如He claims to be rewarded（他以为该受奖赏而要求奖赏）和He claims to be the owner（他要求他人承认他是所有者）。在美国也有这两解，但那第二解在英国有一种限制而在美国没有这种限制。在英国那不定式所表示的总是有利于自己的，如He claims to be the owner和He claims to have succeeded。在美国那不定式所表示的也许不利于自己，如He claims to be a cheat和He claims to have failed。

4.claim后面接宾语和不定式（claim作assert, maintain或represent解）是一种不正当的结构。例如：He claims it to be true.这结构成了被动语态也是不正当的。例如：It is claimed to be true.

5.claim后面接以that引导的从句有时作“把…看作当然的事而要求它”解，有时作“力言”或“声称”解，如He claims that he should be better treated（他以为该受到好些的待遇而要求它）和He claims that he is not well treated（他力言他并未受到好的待遇）。注意第一句里用should。这第二解在美国很普通，在英国被看作不正当。

6.在5里所讲的claim是动词。claim用作名词（后面不一定接以that引导的从句）有同样的情形，如His claim is that he should be better treated是英美通用的，但He makes the claim that he is not well treated在英国被看作不正当。

7.lay claim to（力言自己有得到…的权利）里没有a, the, his等词。注意lay claim to后面接动名词，如He lays claim to being her father和The book lays no claim to being perfect里的being不可改作be。但make no claim后面接不定式，不接to和动名词。例如：I make no claim to be always right.

clap

a clap of hands是“手的一拍”，a clapping of hands是“一次拍手”。假使共有十次拍手，每次有五拍，那便是ten clappings of hands，也就是fifty claps of hands。

class

1.class被用作学校里的“班”解是英美通用的，如amathematics class和a class of beginners。说“上课”用in class（没有a或the），说“上…课”用in a（或the）...class，如in a（或the）history class。“在上课前”是before class，“在下课后”是after class。

2.a mathematics class, a class in mathematics和a class for mathematics都可以说。

3.class被用作“年级”解（如the first-year class）是美国英语。在美国class of＋年份指“在…年（已或将）毕业的一级”，如the class of 1980和the class of 1982。

4.class在英国指大学里考试后所得的“优等的若干等级之一”，比“及格”高。因为class在英国有这个意思，在美国有2里所讲的意思，所以同一句子也许在英美有不同的意思，如They were in the same class在英国是“他们（在某次考试后）被列入同一的优等等级里”，在美国是“他们是同年级学生”。

5.在资本主义社会里有所谓the upper classes（上层阶级），the lower classes（下层阶级）和the classes（上流社会），各种表达方式里习惯用复数形式classes。the middle class（中产阶级，单数形式）和the middle classes（复数形式）都可以用。the classes和the masses对比，似乎包括the upper classes和the middle class(es)。

6.注意antagonisms of the classes（阶级对抗）等表达方式里的classes前面有the。

7.下面各种表达方式都可以说：a new class of hotel, a new clss of hotels, some new classes of hotel, some new classes of hotels

class(-)fellow

class-fellow是“同班同学”，通常和I, my, you(r)等单词同用，不可用作“班里的学生”解，如假定你的班里有三十个学生，你可以说I have twenty-nine class(-)fellows，但不可说There are thirty class(-)fellows in my class。class(-)mate的用法也是这样。

classic

1.英美人所说的the classics指古希腊和罗马的文学名著。“英国古典文学”该说the English classics。“流行音乐经典”该说the pop classics。

2.我国的“五经”通常译作the five classics，“四书”通常译作the Four Books。但the Chinese classics通常包括“四书”，“五经”和其他一切中国古典文学作品。

3.classic不一定指“古”或“旧”的作品，也指任何“经典著作”，一本书出版了不久也许就成为一本classic。

4.classic（形容词）和classical没有绝对的区别。classical比classic普通。说“古典文学、艺术、文化等的”通常用classical，如classical writer, classical allusions, classical education, classical studies和classical architecture。classic ground（有文学或历史联想的地方，如英国Shakespeare的故乡Stratford-on-Avon）里通常用classic，很少用classical。classic event（因历史悠久而著名的赛跑、赛马、赛船等）里必须用classic, classic race里也必须用classic。

classical

参见classic 4

class(-)mate

参见class(-)fellow

clean(ly)

1.下面两句都可以说：

Clean up the table.

Clean up the mess on the table.

2.cleanly用作形容词（读［ˈklenlɪ］作“注意清洁的”或“有清洁的习惯的”解，一个cleanly的人，即使不能常常clean，却决不甘心不clean。clean用作副词，作“完全地”解。例如：When the cat came, the mice had got clean away. I clean forgot to ask why the cleanly girl was not quite cleanly dressed that morning是“我完全忘记问为什么那天早上那个注意清洁的女孩子穿得不十分清洁”。

clench

clench和clinch原来可以通用。但现在clench通常指实际上的动作，clinch通常指心理上的作用，如clench the nail和clench the hands, clinch the argument和clinch the bargain。

clergy

the clergy（一般牧师们）通常被当作Aural。a clergy（一国或一个教会的牧师们）通常被当作单数。some clergy, many clergy, fifty clergy等当然都是复数。

clerk

clerk用作“店员”解是美国英语，相当于英国英语中的shop assistant。在美国clerk也往往被用作不及物动词，作“做店员”解。例如：I clerked at a bookseller's for two years.

climate

climate和weather不同。climate指“某地的经常的气候”，weather指“某地的一时的气候”，如说“上海雨水比天津多”是climate上的不同，说“昨天下雨而今天晴朗”是weather上的不同。

clinch

参见clench

clip(ping)

clip用作“从报纸剪下（片段）”解和clipping用作“从报纸剪下的片段”解都是美国英语，相当于英国的cut和cutting。

close

close不及shut通俗。

cloth

1.cloth的复数形式现在是cloths，不是clothes。cloths的意思是“多种布”和“多块布（如桌布）”。

2.英美人用cloth通常指“毛织物”。

clothe

1.clothe的过去式和过去分词通常是clothed。但在譬喻里往往用clad。例如：The hill is clad with verdure.

2.clothe用作“穿衣在…的身上”解现在不很普通，如Clothe yourself quickly和He used to clothe himself in blue in winter里的clothe不及dress通俗。但说“供给衣服与…”（就是“衣我食我”的“衣”的意思）用clothe很普通。例如：He had to clothe his wife and family.

clothes

1.clothes是复数形式，没有单数形式。统指衣服，不指一件衣服。可以说many clothes, these clothes和those clothes。但不可说three clothes等。现在很少说much clothes。

2.clothes和clothing都统指衣服，但clothing是单数形式，没有复数形式。注意a suit of clothes（一套衣服，包括上衣、背心和裤子）不可改作a suit of clothing, an article of clothing（一件衣服）不可改作an article of clothes。

clothing

参见clothes 2

cloud

1.cloud通常指“云块”，很少指“云（的物质）”，如通常说There are many clouds in the sky，不说There is much cloud in the sky。但可以说masses of cloud, a bluff of cloud等。

2.the clouds往往指“天空”。

Co.

Co.=Company（公司），通常用在and或&后面，如Smith and（或&）Co.。在没有and或&的场合通常用Company而不用Co.，如The Smith Company。

coal

1.a coal是“一块煤”，coals是“多块煤”。但a coal通常指正在燃烧的小煤块。

2.“煤球”叫briquette或briquet，不叫coal ball。

coat

男子的coat是西装的“上装”，女子的coat是“大衣”。男子的“大衣”叫overcoat。

C. O. D.

C. O. D.（货到收款。例如：Please send a copy of the September issue of Mainstream C. O. D.）在英国代表Cash on Delivery,在美国代表Collect on Delivery。

co(-)ed

co-ed（男女同学的学校［尤其指大学］里的女学生）是美国英语。

coffee

1.习惯说a cup of coffee，不说a glass of coffee。

2.a coffee是“一客咖啡”，coffees是“多客咖啡”。

coin

a coin是“一个硬币”，coins是“多个硬币”，coin统指硬币，在口语里也统指钱财（包括纸币）。

cold(ness)

1.cold（名词）和coldness略有不同。cold是“寒冷”，尤其指天气的“寒冷”，如The cold is intense和Do you feel the cold?coldness是“寒冷性”或“冷淡性”，如the coldness of the weather和the coldness of his reception。

2.cold（伤风）和cold in the head没有区别。

3.catch cold和catch a cold都可以说。have a cold里必须有a。take cold里没有a，但take a bad cold, take a heavy cold等表达方式里必须有a。get a cold比get cold普通。

colleague

colleague是“同事”，在西方社会里专指高级的职位，比汉语里的“同事”严谨些，如甲做外交部长，乙做交通部长，彼此是colleagues，甲是某大学的物理教授，乙是同校的化学教授，彼此也是colleagues，甲是某银行的总经理，乙是同行的副经理，彼此也是colleagues，但工厂或商店里的甲乙职员不算colleagues。不过英美人往往用colleague(s)称同职业的人，如律师或医生甲乙两人，即使互相没有关系，也说my colleague ...。

collect

1.collect（不及物动词）往往被用作“收捐款”、“收税”或“收账”解。用作“收账”解似乎是美国用法。

2.The goods will be sent collect等表达方式里的collect作“货到收款”解，把属于祈使语气的动词collect用作副词，是美国商界用语。有时也用作形容词。例如：They sent us a collect message.（他们打给我们一封收到后付款的电报。）

3.collect together里的together是多余的。

college

1.college, university和school的区别，下面几点该注意：

（1）大学像英国的牛津（Oxford），剑桥（Cambridge）等都是university，不是college，说Oxford College和Cambridge College是错误的。但每个university里有若干college，就是“院”，所以可说an Oxford college（牛津大学里的某一学院，注意college用小写字母开首）或one of the Cambridge colleges（剑桥大学各个学院中间的一个）。有些大学只有一个college，事实上那university就是那college，但仍旧叫做university，不叫做college。英国大学里的college和美国大学里的college不同，假使都译作“院”，就可以说英国的“院”和美国的“院”不同。英国大学里的college往往有若干个faculty，相当于美国大学里的college。英国的faculty of arts相当于美国的college of arts，在英国没有college of arts等名称。

（2）规模小些的大学叫做college，如农科大学和医科大学。

（3）英国有若干public school，实际并不是college，但它们的名称里却用College而不用School，如Eton College, Dulwich College，和Wellington College。但也有许多public school的名称里用School而不用College，如Harrow School, Rugby School和Westminster School，决不可称为college。

（4）英国有许多学校自称college，也有许多人随意把college指任何学校，这都是为了要装“面子”。

2....College里的…假使是人名或地名，前面有时有the，有时没有the。

3.at college, go to college, come out of college, enter college, leave college, attend college和fresh from college各种表达方式里都没有the, in college和in a college都普通。

4.college用作“在college里受教育”或“college里的生活”解似乎是美国用法。例如：He did not like college.

colloquialism

colloquialism单独用是抽象名词，指“口语用法”。a colloquialism是“一个口语用词、一个口语用法或一个口语说法”，colloquialisms是“多个口语用词、多个口语用法或多个口语说法”。These two phrases are colloquialisms里的colloquialisms不可改作colloquialism。

colonial

在英国用colonial（往往作Colonial）通常指英国的一个或多个殖民地，在美国用colonial（往往作Colonial）通常指美国在革命（1775年）以前的时代。

colon(ial)ist

colonist是“殖民者”或“殖民地的居民”，colonialist是“殖民主义者”。

colour

1.of a red colour, of a green colour等表达方式里习惯用a，不可删去，也不可改作the。

2.Tell me (of) what colour it is和My cap is (of) the same colour as yours等句子里的of可有可无。

3.red（或green等）colour, the colour of red（或green等）和red（或green等，用作名词）意思相同。

colt

colt和pony在一般词典里都注作“小马”，其实不同。colt是年幼的马（从离开母马到四岁或五岁），pony是“身材矮小的马”。

combine

combine together里的together是多余的。

come

1.come是“来”，go是“去”，似乎很简单，但有下面几点该注意：

（l）Please come to see me里当然用come，不可用go。I will come to see you和I will go to see you都可以说，但通常用come。在“来”和“去”对比的场合用go。例如：As you cannot come to see me, I will go to see you.

（2）He has asked me to come to see him和He has asked me to go to see him都可以说，但通常用come。在“来”和“去”对比的场合用go。例如：As he cannot come to see me, he has asked me to go to see him. He has asked me to go to see his brother里用go，但假使那哥哥或弟弟跟“他”在一起，也可以改用come。

（3）Shall you come to see him tomorrow?和Shall you go to see him tomorrow?都可以说，但用了come含有“我也将去”的意思。Will you come with me to see him?和Will you go with me to see him?都可以说，似乎用come普通些。

2.He has come from Shanghai是“他曾经从上海来”，He comes from Shanghai是“他是上海出身的人”。He comes of（或from）a peasant family（他是农民家庭出身的人）里用comes，不可用has come。 Where do you come from?是“你是什么地方的人？”Where have you come from?是“你刚从什么地方来？”

3.come（过去分词）有时被用作形容词，如He is come和Your time is come。is come着重在“已来”的状态，has come着重在“已来”的动作。is come现在不普通。

下面三句里的come都是过去分词用作形容词：

I am glad to hear of George come home.

The young man is an engineer come to consult my father.

This is one of my childhood reveries come real (成为了事实的).

4.have come是“已经来而仍旧在这里”的意思，说“已经来（而又去了）”不可说have come，所以下面各句都不对：

He has come often recently.

He has come twice this week.

He has come only once.

该把各句里的come改作been here。

但have come and gone是可以说的，因为come and go是习语，作“来而复去”，“来来去去”或“一来就去”解。

Nobody has come是“没有人已经来到。”Nobody has been是“没有人来过”。

5.He has come for five days是“他已经来了，预备住五天”（不是“他已经来了五天”）。He has been coming for five days是“他已经有五天要来而未来了（实际不曾来）”。说“他已经来了五天”该说He has been here for five days。It is five days since he came (here)和He came (here) five days ago都没有“他仍旧在这里”的含意。

6.答应敲门的人，英国人通常说Come in!美国人通常说Come!

7.How comes it that you have lost your watch? How came this word to be used in this sense?等句并不比How does it come that...?How did this word come...?等句不普通。在美国有How comes you have lost your watch?等句（没有it和that），在口语里往往不用comes而用come。

8.when（偶尔用if）it comes to（至于…，就…而论）里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以When it comes to writing short essays, you had better ask his advice里的writing不可改作write。come near to（几乎）里的to也是介词，所以He came near to making the mistake里的making不可改作make。

9.Come have supper with us和He asked me to come see him里的have和see前面省去to是习惯用法，但不及不省略普通。

10.下面两句意思相同：

He came to the house by inheritance.

The house came to him by inheritance.

11.I first met him five years ago, come the sixth of next month是“我在5年前的下个月6日第一次遇到他”。

12.come in useful是“证明为有用”，come in handy是“证明为在手头可用”。不可说come in convenient, come in useless, come in interesting等。

comedy

统指“喜剧”，说comedy, the comedy或comedies都可以。

comic(al)

1.严格地说，comic是“把喜剧做目的或根源的”，就是“以使人发笑做目的的”，comical是“有喜剧般的影响的”，就是“使人发笑的”，comic的东西也许实际并不使人发笑，comical的东西也许实际并不要它使人发笑。如comic scene是“喜剧里的一场”，comical scene是“使人发笑的一场”。又如“滑稽报”是comic paper，不作comical paper，滑稽连环图画是comic strip，不作comical strip。不过现在很多人到处只用comic。

2.相当于comic和comical的副词都是comically。

coming

该说the coming week, the coming year, the coming Monday等，不该说this coming week等。

command

1.command语气很强，如说上级“命令”下级。父母叫子女做什么事该用tell，不用command。

2.in command of是“统率…的”，under the command of是“被…所统率的”，如General Johnson was in command of the army和The army was under the command of General Johnson。under the command of里的the偶尔省去。

3.a good command of English里的command指“应用能力”，不指“知识”。

4.get command of, obtain command of和assume command of等表达方式里在command前面习惯没有the。

5.command不论用作名词或动词，后面的以that引导的从句里习惯用should或虚拟现在式，如He issued a command that each of them (should) come at eight o'clock和He commanded that each of them (should) come at eight o'clock。

commence

参见begin 8

commencement

1.commencement在英国指剑桥大学和爱尔兰首都的Trinity College的博士和硕士学位授与典礼（每年举行一次）。在美国指任何学校的毕业典礼。

2.commencement前面往往没有the，如after commencement。

3.commencement在美国也指“毕业典礼的前后若干天”。例如：Commencement is a time of confusion.

comment

1.comment是不及物动词，后面接on或upon。在用作名词的时候后面也接on或upon。

2.comment用作抽象名词和类名词都可以，如Comment（抽象名词）is needless和He made a comment（类名词）or two on her essay。注意第二句里用make。

commentator

commentator后面接on。例如：a commentator on the news of the day

commerce

commerce指大规模的商业，尤其指都市间或国际间的。foreign commerce（对外贸易）跟foreign trade意思相同。

commission

commission（委员会）比committee（委员会）范围大。说某人是某委员会的一员，在commission或committee前面用on。

commit

commit myself（或yourself等）to（使自己不得免于）里的to是介词，所以后面该接动名词，如I committed myself to doing it at once里的doing不可改作do。但在美国也有用不定式的。

committee

1.a committee on foreign affairs等表达方式里用on。

2.参见commission

common

1.common通常作“寻常的”或“一般的”解。但要注意也有“低劣的”、“粗俗的”等意思，如This is common furniture和He showedcommon manners。在有可能被人误解的时候该避免用。

2.common sense, common knowledge和general knowledge三种表达方式意思不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）common sense（常识）是从经验得来的，不是从研究得来的，是多数人有的，不是“独得之秘”的。

（2）common knowledge（大家知道的事）是“在某范围内人人知道的事”，不指“天下人都知道的事”，如可以说It is common knowledge (among the teachers) that they will soon have a new headmaster，不可说It is common knowledge that two and two make four。

（3）general knowledge有时用作common knowledge解，但通常指“关于许多事项的普通知识”，是从研究或注意得来的，跟specialized knowledge（专门知识）相反。“常识测验”是general knowledge test。

3.common sense除在用作形容词时以外，不该写作common-sense。

commonly

common有“共同的”或“共有的”的意思，但commonly没有“共同地”或“共有地”的意思，如可以说The two families have a common kitchen，不可说The two families have a kitchen commonly。但可以说The two families have a kitchen in common。

commonwealth

在美国commonwealth往往指美国的任何一个州（state），如the commonwealth of Virginia。

communicate

communicate with往往作“写信给…”解，不一定指“跟…互相通信”。例如：We shall communicate with you further as soon as we hear from them. 这种用法多用在商业信函和公文里。

communication

1.communication在商业信函和公文里作“信函”解。例如：We have received your communication of 14 May.在一般文字里该避免。

2.“交通部”叫做Ministry of Communications（复数形式）。这里Communications指一切means of communication（交通方法、交通工具）。注意means of communication里用单数形式communication。

3.说军队从后方到前方的“交通线”用line of communication或line of communications都可以。

communist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

community

the community指“大众”，也就是统指“社会”，注意前面有the。society前面没有the。

compact

不论说私人之间的“公约”或国家或团体之间的“公约”，现在用pact比用compact普通。例如：The two young men made a pact that they would confide their troubles to each other和They suggested a five-power peace pact。

company

1.company在用作“客人（们）”解的时候前面不用a或the，如We had company at dinner和He always has company on Saturday evenings.

2.company（公司）被看作单数或复数都可以。例如：The cinema company is（或are）holding a meeting.但有and或&的该用作复数，例如：Smith and（或&）Company are holding a meeting注意不可同时用作单数和复数，如不可说The cinema company is holding their annual meeting或The cinema company are holding its annual meeting。

3.Company前面的有and（或&）或没有and（或&），不可随便，如Smith和若干人合办的公司叫做Smith and（或&）Company（就是说Smith和他人），但叫做The Smith Company也可以，没有姓的公司名，决不可用and（或&）。凡有and（或&）的，前面不可用The，如不可用The Smith and（或&）Company。凡没有and（或&）的，前面用The或不用The都可以。

Smith and（或&）Company, The Smith Company和Smith Company都只有一个姓，有时也有两个或三个姓的。例如：

Smith, Jones, and（或&）Company,

Smith and（或&）Jones Company,

The Smith and（或&）Jones Company（这里有The，也有and［或&］，注意那and［或&］后面并不直接接Company），

Smith, Jones, and（或&）Williams Company,

The Smith, Jones, and（或&）Williams Company

comparable

参见compare 1

comparatively

comparatively few和comparatively rich和comparatively well等表达方式里的few, rich, well等词不可改作fewer, richer, better等。

compare

1.严格地说，compare...with...是“把…跟…比较”，compare...to...是“把…比作…看待”，如He compares me with my brother和We may well compare the little girl to a kitten。习惯上在该用with的场合英美人也往往用to，但似乎没有在该用to的场合用with的。comparable后面接with或to跟compare相同。

2.compare在用作不及物动词作“值得比拟”或“比得上”解，后面只可接with，不可接to，如This cannot compare with that和How does this compare with that?

3.not to be compared with（或to）作“比不上…的”解，用with或to都可以。

4.compare together里的together是多余的。

compass(es)

说画圆形用的“两脚规”用compass, compasses或pair of compasses都可以。说“三个两脚规”可以说three compasses或three pairs of compasses。

compensate

关于compensate和compensate for的用法，下面几点该注意：

（1）说“向（人）补偿”用compensate。例如：

How shall I compensate you for the loss?

We must compensate him for the time he spent in helping us.

（2）说“补偿（损失、缺乏等）”用compensate for比用compensate普通得多。例如：

Nothing can compensate (for) the loss of one's health.

No other qualities can compensate (for) the absence of this one.

Industry often compensates (for) the lack of ability.

（3）说“一个东西”补偿或抵偿“另一个东西”用compensate和compensate for都可以。例如：

Industry often compensates (for) ability.

No amount of learning rules can compensate (for) practice.

competence

competence（能力）后面接不定式，如his competence to conduct the school。

competency

competency不及competence普通。

competent

可以说He is competent to teach grammar。不可说He is so competent as to teach grammar。He is competent enough to teach grammar是可以说的，但这里的enough修饰competent，并不被to teach grammar修饰，跟He is kind enough to help me的结构不同。

complain

complain是不及物动词，后面接of，如He complains of the naughty boy, He complains of the food和He complains of indigestion（他说他消化不良）。有时complain后面接以that引导的从句。例如：He complains that his son does not work hard enough.

complex

inferiority complex（自卑情结），maternal complex（母性情结）等表达方式里的complex是类名词，所以下面两句里的an和a不可省去：

He was overawed by his friend's learning and had something like an inferiority complex.

She soon developed a maternal complex towards her sister's son.

complicate(d)

complicate用作形容词现在很不普通，该用complicated。

compliment

1.说“问候”该用复数形式compliments，如He made（或paid，或sent）his compliments to me和Please accept the book with my compliments。

2.compliment不论用作名词或动词都可能是诚恳的致敬或只是形式上的致敬。

3.compliment（动词）后面接表示人的词，那表示事件的词前用on。例如：Allow me to compliment you on your perfect pronunciation.

composition

1.composition在用作“作文”解的时候是抽象名词，前面不可加上a或the，也没有复数形式。a composition是“一篇作文”，the composition是“这篇作文”，compositions是“多篇作文”。My composition是“我的一篇作文”，不是“我的作文的能力”，说“我不善于作文”不可说My composition is not good（或is bad），该说I am not good（或am bad）at composition。说“作文”不可说write composition，该说write或write compositions。但composition writing和written composition都可以说。

2.composition book在英国通常是“作文教科书”，在美国通常是“作文练习簿”。

comprise

下面第一句是正常的英语，第二句不妥，第三句是错误的：

The book comprises five chapters.

The book comprises a chapter on present-day English usage.（最好把comprises改作contains）

The book is comprised of five chapters.（该改作第一句，或把is comprised of改作consists of或is composed of）

conceal(ment)

1.conceal不及hide普通，但concealment比hiding普通。

2.conceal是及物动词，不可用作不及物动词，如They concealed themselves in the wood里的themselves不可省去。

concede

concede有时带有双宾语。例如：The master of the house conceded me the right to use the front door.

conceivable

the best way conceivable和the best conceivable way都可以说。every precaution conceivable和every conceivable precaution也都可以说。

conceive

在idea, thought, notion, opinion, plan, scheme, purpose, affection, dislike, feeling等词前面用conceive，不用conceive of，但下面各句里用of普通些：

I cannot conceive of him as a genius.

I can hardly conceive of your doing such a thing.

We do not conceive of any sort of god.

concept(ion)

concept是“概念”，原来是哲学名词。现在用得比较广泛，但跟conception比较起来，总是带着一些学理的成分。如假使把I had no conception of the importance of the task里的conception改作concept，便不自然。I wonder whether birds have the concept of climbing里用concept比用conception普通。The concept of obligation can be expressed by the use of such words as 'ought' and 'should'里用concept也比用conception普通。

concern(ed)

1.So far as...is（或are等）concerned（就…而论）比as far as...is（或are等）concerned普通，比so far as concerns...或as concerns...更普通。注意so far as concerns...和as concerns两种表达方式里用concerns，不可用concern。

2.He was concerned to hear of her ill health里的to hear表示原因，He was concerned to improve her health里的to improve表示目的。

3.He was concerned about the matter是“他为了这件事关心或担心”。He was concerned in the matter是“他参与了这件事”。He was concerned with the matter是“他跟这件事有关”或“他参与了这件事”。

4.concerned with作“跟…有关”解，用处很广。例如：

Everybody is concerned with politics.

A dictionary is concerned with words and phrases as such rather than with the things they stand for.

The lectures are intended to help all who are concerned with the conducting of literacy classes.

The book is concerned with the myths of the land.

The story is concerned with a national hero.

His sketches are concerned with his observations as a Chinese visitor in Europe.

The conference is concerned with big problems of the day.

Your questions concerned with social development are very interesting.

5.be concerned with和concern往往意思相同，concerned with往往和concerning意思相同。例如：

6.everybody concerned（每个有关的人），all concerned（有关各方）和the department concerned（有关部门）各种表达方式里的concerned等于that is concerned, who are concerned和that（或which）is concerned，实际上不可把that is等写出。

7.your concern for me是“你对于我的关怀”，your concern over me是“你对于我的担心”。

8.To whom it may concern或To Whom It May Concern用在不指明收信者是谁的信里，当作salutation（代Dear Sir等），作“这信是给任何有关系的人看的”解。这种信通常没有信尾客套语，如Yours very truly。

9.关于a concerned air（关切的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

conciseness

conciseness比concision普通。concision原来主要是文艺批评家用的词，但现在似乎比以前用得多。

concision

参见conciseness

conclude

conclude后面接不定式（决定…）现在在英国很不普通，但在美国很普通。例如：We concluded to take the house.

conclusion

He says something amusing in conclusion to the chapter里的to可以改作of。

condense(d)

condensed story是“把某故事缩短而成的故事”，不是“被缩短的原故事”，参见revise(d) 2。注意This story is condenced from an old long novel里用from。

condescend(ing)

condescend在一般词典里注作“谦让”或“垂顾”。其实condescending（现在分词用作形容词）往往有“故意做出垂顾的样子”的意思，就是“把自己看作身份比对方高些而做出谦让的样子”，也就是“在谦让里含有骄傲”。例如：He had a haughty and condescending manner.

condescension

可以说He had an air of assurance（傲慢）almost amounting to condescension。参见condescend(ing)

condition

1.in good condition, in perfect condition, in firstclass condition, in bad condition, in poor condition等表达方式里都没有a。in a filthy condition, in a horrible condition, in a serious condition等表达方式里都有a。似乎在笼统地说“好”或“坏”的时候不用a，但在说明“怎样的”的时候用a。

2.under（或in）favourable conditions, under（或in）unfavourable conditions, under（或in）difficult conditions, under（或in） present conditions, under（或in）existing conditions等表达方式里都用复数形式conditions。这里的conditions指“环境”，在1里所说的condition指“情况”。“环境”会影响“情况”。例如：The oranges, which are now in good condition, may soon rot under present conditions.

3.I will allow you to use my library on this condition里用on。

4.I will allow you to use my library on condition of your not taking any book away里在condition前面习惯没有the。

5.on condition that...（把…做条件）在condition前面偶尔有the。但假使condition前面加上形容词，必须有the。例如：on the express condition that...

6.下面每组里的各句意思相同：

condole

1.condole是不及物动词，后面接with，那表示事件的词的前面用on或upon。例如：He condoled with her (up) on the death of her child.

2.condole大都用在“吊唁”，但有时也用在“慰问病人”等。

condolence

1.往往该用复数形式。例如：Present my condolences to your brother.

比较下面两句：

Please accept my sincere condolences on the occasion of your sad bereavement.

Please accept the expression of my sincere condolence on the occasion of your sad bereavement.

2.condolence大都用在“吊唁”，但有时也用在“慰问病人”等。

conduct

1.conduct通常前面没有a，也没有复数形式conducts。

2.参见behaviour 2

conference

He is in conferenc和The professor is in conference with a student等句子里的conference（注意前面没有a）指“会谈”，并没有“开会”的意思。

confess

1.confess可以把crime, debt, fault, guilt, secret, sin等词做宾语。这些词都指显然不利于自己的东西。假使那东西并不是显然不利于自己，那末习惯上在confess后面加上to。例如：I confess to my inability to understand it和He confessed to a slight acquaintance with the barber用了crime, debt等而用to的也有，但不很普通。

2.confess后面通常接to和动名词，不接不定式，如通常说I confess to loving her和He confessed to having seen me before。很少说I confess to love her或He confessed to have seen me before。

confide

1.confide in him是“信任他而向他吐露秘密”。confide the secret to him是“把这秘密告诉他”。confide不可把指人的词做宾语。

2.confide可以把以that引导的从句做宾语。例如：He confided to me that he had met her many times before.

confidence

1.confidence in him是“对于他的信任”。his confidence是“他对于别人的信任”。the confidence of the man是“这个男子对于别人的信任”。in his confidence是“被他信任或参与他的机密”。He took her into his confidence是“他信任她而向她吐露秘密”。

2.Gradually there came confidences between them and at last absolute confidence里的confidences是“秘密话”，confidence是“（互相）信任”。

3.confidence后面有时接以that引导的从句。 例如：We had absolute confidence that the scientific exploration would prove a great success.

confident

1.confident后面接of或以that引导的从句，不接不定式，如可以说I am confident of success（或succeeding）和I am confident that I shall succeed，不可说I am confident to succeed。

2.confident, confidential和confiding不同。confident是“自信的”，也转作“自高自大的”解。confidential是“秘密相告的”，“（表示）以秘密相告的”，或“被人以秘密相告的”，如confidential correspondence（秘密通信），a confidential tone（表示信任的语气）和confidential secretary（机要秘书）。confiding是“轻信人言的”。

confidential

参见confident 2

confiding

参见confident 2

confine

I must confine myself to giving only a few names和Her kindness to us is not confined to visiting us里的to是介词，giving和visiting不可改作give和visit。

conform

不论用作及物动词或不及物动词，conform后面接to。例如：You must try to conform your manners to those of the natives和This phrase does not conform to present-day usage在用作不及物动词的时候后面有时接with，但不很普通。

confront

confront a difficulty通常是“抵抗某种困难”，偶尔是“面临着某种困难”，be confronted with a difficulty是“面临着某种困难”。

congratulate

1.congratulate后面接指被庆贺的人的词，那表示事件的词的前面通常用on，偶尔用for。例如：I congratulate you on（偶尔用for）your graduation和He wrote to congratulate her on（偶尔用for）being chosen as a model worker。

2.下面两句意思相同：

I congratulate you on producing a new English grammar.

I congratulate you on having produced a new English grammar.

congratulation

往往用复数形式congratulations。例如：Please accept my congratulations on your graduation.注意congratulations后面用on。Congratulations on...!是惯用的省略句。例如：Congratulations on your graduation!

congress

1.Congress（指美国国会）前面通常没有the，有时有the（在议员们的用语里通常有the）。但在the American Congress, the U. S. Congress和the Congress of the United States里有the。

2.关于member of Congress，参见member 2

conqueror

英国所说的the Conqueror指1066年征服英国的William, Duke of Normandy。他在那年即王位，在历史上叫做William 1。

conquest

英国所说的the Conquest指1066年英国被William, Duke of Normandy所征服。参见conqueror

conscience

1.统指“良心”在conscience前面没有the，如the voice of conscience和according to conscience。

2.He has a good（或clear）conscience是“他问心无愧”。He has a bad（或guilty）conscience是“他问心有愧”。跟“他是好意”（He has good will）和“他是恶意”（He has ill will）不同。

conscious

conscious后面接of或以that引导的从句。例如：He is conscious of his own faults和He is conscious that he is in fault。

consent

1.consent是不及物动词，后面接to或不定式。例如：Will you consent to this suggestion?和Will you consent to give him another chance?第二句里的give改作giving也可以。

2.consent（名词）后面接to或不定式，如my consent to the proposal和my consent to consider the proposal。

比较下面两句：

The boy has got his mother's consent to take him to the pictures.（take属于母亲）

The boy has got his mother's consent to go to the pictures.（go属于男孩）

consequence

1.往往用复数形式consequences。例如：The consequences will be of great importance.

2.in consequence of里没有the。

consequential

a consequential man现在是“一个自高自大的人”，跟a man of consequence（一个有声望的人）不同。

consider

1.下面各句意思相同：

I consider him clever.

I consider him to be clever.

I consider him a clever man.

I consider him to be a clever man.

虽然有人以为不该说I consider him as clever和I consider him as a clever man，事实上很普通。

Considered as a poet, he does not deserve much praise里的as不可省去，这里as作“就…而论”解。

2.consider在用作“拟…”解的时候后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I have often considered going to college，不可说I have often considered to go to college。

considerable

1.considerable在用作“很多的”解的时候在英国通常指无形的东西，如attention和pleasure，但在美国往往指有形的东西，如coffee和salt。不论在英美，那所指的东西一定是不可数的，如可以说considerable pleasure，不可说considerable pleasures。

2.considerable在美国往往用作名词，作“大量”解。例如：Considerable of his time was spent in reading.

considerate

considerate后面接of。例如：He is always considerate of her wishes.

consideration

1. in consideration of（注意没有the）后面所接的词必须是褒义的，不可以是贬义的，如可以说In consideration of previous good conduct, he was pardoned，不可说In consideration of previous bad conduct, he was not pardoned。

2.on no consideration和under no consideration都作“决不”解，用on比用under普通。注意On（或under）no consideration should we give up the work里用should we，不用we should。

3.take into consideration（考虑到、顾及）里的consideration前面不可加上my, your等词。

considering

considering从现在分词转作介词，作“鉴于…”解。例如：You write very well considering your age（就你的年龄而论，你可算写得很好）和You write very well considering how young you are。因为是participle，所以后面也可以接以that引导的从句。例如：You write very well, considering that you are so young. 有时considering被用作副词似的，作considering the circumstances解。例如：You write very well, considering.（就情形而论，你可算写得很好。）

consist

1.consist of和consist in不同。consist of是“由…组成”。例如：The essay consists of ten paragraphs和Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen。consist in是“在于”或“存在于”。例如：Virtue consists in being good和Correct English consists in the correct use of words and phrases。

2.consist of和contain不同。consist of后面接全体的各部分，contain后面接全体的一部分。例如：The essay, which consists of ten paragraphs, contains two paragraphs of description.不过在说到容积或重量的时候consist of和contain意思相同。例如：A gallon consists of（或contains）four quarts.

constantly

constantly用在进行时态里跟always用在进行时态里相仿。例如：He is constantly writing to his friends for advice.参见always 1, 2, 3

construction(al)

1.construction是“建设”，reconstruction是“（破坏以后的）重新建设”。“城市建设”是urban construction。“基本建设”是capital construction。

2.constructional work（建筑工程）比construction work普通，但construction worker（建筑工人）似乎比constructional worker普通。

consult

1.consult him是“向他请教”或“问他”，consult with him是“跟他商量”。书是不会说话的，所以通常说consult the book, consult with the book（把书看作人）比较少见。

2.不可说consult his opinion，该说consult him。

3.“在某词典里查某词”该说consult the dictionary，不该说consult the word。但是说“在词典里查某词，根据那个词研究另一个词”便可以用consult the word来表达。例如：If you consult that word, you will understand this one.

4.consulting physician是“顾问医生”，consulting engineer是“顾问工程师”，都是被人consult的，不是consult别人的。

consumer

consumers' goods（消费品）和consumer goods都可以说。

consummate

consummate a marriage并不作“结婚”或“成婚”解，其实是“以性行为完成婚事”。

contact

1.come into contact with和come in contact with都作“跟…接触”解。似乎用into比用in普通。

2.contact在英国通常作单数形式。但在美国往往把复数形式contacts用作“联系”或“接触”解。例如：I have had many contacts with these men.

3.contact现在普遍用作动词，作“跟…联系”或“跟…接触”解。例如：During my stay in the city I contacted several teachers.原来是美国用法。

4.contact用作名词和动词有下面几点该注意：

（1）用作名词有时指“被联系或接触的人”。例如：I have got this information from one of my contacts, who used to live overseas.

（2）用作及物动词除了作“跟…联系或接触”解以外往往作“跟（无线电台）通信”或“跟…交战”解。

（3）把用作及物动词的种种意思里的宾语省去了便是用作不及物动词。例如：They arranged to contact again as soon as possible.

5.make contact with（跟…联系）似乎是最近几年才有的。

contagion

contagion和infection不同。contagion是“跟病人直接或间接接触而发生的传染”，infection是“通过空气、水等发生的传染”。但说“感染”或“蔓延”contagion和infection很少区别，如the contagion of enthusiasm（热情的感染）和the infection of enthusiasm都可以说。contagion着重在感染的迅速，infection着重在感染的锐不可当。

contagious

contagious disease是“跟病人直接或间接接触而传染的病”，infectious disease是“通过空气、水等传染的病”。infectious disease未必是contagious disease。但说“感染性的”或“蔓延的”contagious和infectious很少区别。例如：Laughter is contagious和Laughter is infectious都可以说。参见contagion

contemn

contemn（轻视）极不普通，该用despise。

contemplate

contemplate在用作“企图”、“打算”解的时候后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He contemplates visiting Africa，不可说He contemplates to visit Africa。这种用法只用于重大的事，不可用于日常小事，如不可说He contemplates going to the pictures（去看电影）。

contemptible

contemptible和contemptuous不同。contemptible是“该被轻视的”或“可鄙的”，contemptuous是“感觉或表示轻视的”或“轻视他人或任何东西的”。例如：His contemptuous attitude towards us is contemptible. （他轻视我们的态度是可鄙的。）

contemptuous

1.contemptuous后面接of。例如：She seems to be contemptuous of our advice.

2.参见contemptible

content

1.content（单数形式）是“容量”或“要旨”，contents（复数形式）是“内容”。如一个斗的content是一斗，在里头只有一升东西的时候它的contents是一升。又如一本语法书的content是语法，但它的contents是若干章或若干语法规则和例子。

2.说一篇文章或一本书的“内容”（如说“形式和内容”或“思想内容”）该用content。例如：

The essay is excellent both in form and in content.

The content of the article is not clear.

The story has plenty of thought content.

We must base our judgement on the content of the book.

All these stories have a revolutionary content.

3.contents noted（来信的内容已经被注意了）和contents duly noted是商业信函里的陈套语。在一般通信里该避免。

4.contents（目次、目录）跟table of contents意思相同。说“一个目录”偶尔用a contents。例如：A complete contents is to be found in Volume I.

5.content（形容词）和contented都是“知足的”，但下面几点该注意：

（1）content是表语形容词，不用在定语用法里，如可以说He is content with a little，不可说He is a content man，该说He is a contented man。

（2）用在表语用法里content着重在“无所它求”的意思，contented着重在“被使满足”的意思，是动词content的过去分词。现在content比contented普通，下面各句里用content比用contented自然：

Never be content(ed) with your first draft, always revise it.

We must not rest content(ed) with these victories.

I shall be quite content(ed) if you will continue to help me.

She is always happy and content(ed).

（3）content后面接不定式作“因为别无它法而愿意…的”解。例如：I should be content to remain where I am. contented用在这种结构里不普通。

6.content（知足），contentedness，contentment和contentness不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）除在to my（或his等）heart's content（尽情地、心满意足地）中必须用content以外，content现在不普通。

（2）content跟contentedness的不同，相当于content跟contented的不同。

（3）contentment跟content相同，但比content普通。

（4）contentness极不普通，不该用它。

7.I must content myself with answering only part of your questions里的with不可改作by。

contented

参见content 5

contentedness

参见content 6

contentment

参见content 6

contentness

参见content 6

continent

在英国所说the Continent（或作the continent）指欧洲大陆，前面用on（有时用upon），不用in，如：He spent three years on the Continent. 也可说on the continent of Europe。在美国所说的the Continent（有时作the continent）指北美洲，也往往指美国革命时代的那些州（state）。

continual

continual，continued和continuous不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）continual只指时间，continued和continuous指时间和空间都可以。

（2）continual是“频繁的”，continuous是“不断的”。如There was continual rain for an hour，并不是说“持续下雨一小时”，也许是每隔一分钟下雨一分钟，一共下了三十分钟，There was continuous（或continued）rain for an hour是“持续下雨一小时”。可以说The continual noise gave me a continuous headache。

（3）continued比continous着重“被使持续不断的”的意思。例如：this year's continued development（今年的持续发展）。

continually

continually用在进行时态里跟always用在进行时态里相仿。例如：She is continually ringing me up to ask how I am getting on with my work. 参见always 1，2，3

continuance

continuance，continuation和continuity不同。continuance指“自动的继续”，continuation指“被动的继续”，continuity指“继续性”。用英语讲，continuance相当于不及物动词continue，continuation相当于及物动词continue，continuity相当于形容词continuous。可以说After a long continuance of poor health, he found continuation of work tiring since it required continuity of attention。

continuation

1.参见continuance

2.the continuation of the book是“这本书的被加续篇”（指这一回事），a continuation to the book是“这本书的续篇”。

continue

1.continue on和still continue该避免，用continue够了。

2.continue后面接不定式比接现在分词普通，如The baby continued to cry all night比The baby continued crying all night普通。把continue看作及物动词而把那现在分词看作动名词也说得通。

3.continue后面不论接不定式或现在分词，都作“不停地…”解，不作“（在停止后）继续…”解，如可以说The baby continued to cry（或crying）all night，不可说The baby continued to cry（或crying）at eleven o'clock。也不可说When I got back home, I continued to write（或writing）the letter或He will continue to help（或helping）her as soon as she starts on a new problem。第一句可以改作When I got back at home, I resumed writing the letter. 第二句可以改作He will begin to help her again as soon as she starts on a new problem。

4.continue在用作“（在停止后）继续…”解的时候，它的宾语通常是story，article，narrative，speech，discourse，journey，voyage等。例如：The author will continue the story in another volume和Will the article be continued in the next number of the magazine?

5.continue（不及物动词）有时有表语。例如：The weather continued fine. 和His temper continued uncertain.

continued

参见continual

continuity

参见continuance

continuous

参见continual

contraband

contraband统指一切禁运物品，不指一种或一件禁运物品，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式，如在Is this contraband? 里不可在contraband前面加上a，All these are contraband里的contraband不可改作复数形式contrabands。

contradict

contradict比deny语气重。deny the rumour是“否认这谣言”，只是“说并没有这回事”，contradict the rumour是“辟谣”，有“声明跟事实恰恰相反”的意思。

contradiction

1.contradiction in terms（矛盾语）比contradiction of terms普通。

2.说“阶级矛盾”通常用复数形式class contradictions。

contradistinction

in contradistinction from和in contradistinction to都作“跟…对比”解。

contrary

1.on the contrary是状语短语，通常作“极不那样”（far from that）解，用在从句或句子的开首，有时也用在从句或句子的主语的后面。例如：

He does not dislike her; on the contrary, he is in love with her.

He does not dislike her. On the contrary; he is in love with her.

He does not dislike her; he is, on the contrary, in love with her.

He does not dislike her. He is, on the contrary, in love with her.

on the contrary有时也作“在另一方面”解，必须用在主语后面，不可用在它的前面，如可以说He likes her; she, on the contrary, dislikes him。不可说He likes her; on the contrary, she dislikes him。假使用on the other hand，说...; she, on the other hand, dislikes him或...; on the other hand, she dislikes him都可以。

2.to the contrary是形容词短语或状语短语，作“相反的、相反地”解。例如：Can you produce any evidence to the contrary? 和I shall come to see you on Wednesday unless I hear to the contrary. （假使我并不接到你的信，叫我不要在星期三来看你，我将在星期三来看你。）

3.contrary to...往往被用作状语短语，作“跟…相反地”或“不利于…地”解。例如：Contrary to expectation, the girl came back at last和We must not act contrary to the interests of the people。决不可把contrary改作contrarily。

contrast

1.In contrast with和in contrast to都作“和…作对比”或“和…大不相同”解，后者较普通。

2.在用作“对比的东西”（就是“相反的东西”）解的时候，contrast后面通常接to，偶尔接with。例如：Black is a contrast to（或with）white和She is a contrast to（或with）her mother in temper.

3.说“跟…对比”（就是“跟…对照”）用contrast现在远不及用contrast with普通，如The flowers contrast with the grass里的with不该省去。

contribute

1.contribute不论用作及物动词或不及物动词后面现在通常接to和动名词，很少接不定式。例如：They contributed much time to founding（很少to found）a university. 和Exercise will contribute greatly to improving（很少to improve）your health.

2.contribute of...作“贡献…的一部分”解。例如：Every one of them is ready to contribute of his talent.

contrive

1.contrive后面通常接不定式，作“居然做到…”（指成功的事）或“竟然弄得…”（指糟糕的事）解。例如：He contrived to finish the work before sunset. 和He contrived to lose his ticket. 注意第一句是“他居然做到在日落以前完成那工作”。contrived to finish有succeeded in finishing的意思。He contrived to finish the work before sunset, but he failed是讲不通的。

2.contrive（居然做到）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should。例如：Her father contrived that she should complete her college course.

control

in control of...（管理…）里没有the。under the control of...（受…的管理）里有the。under parental control, under government control等表达方式里没有the。

convenience

at your convenience, at your early convenience（得便务请）和at your earliest convenience（得便务请）都是信函里的常用语。例如：Please let me know at your（early或earliest）convenience. 有人以为上述各种表达方式都用得太多，最好改用as soon as you can。

convenient

1.convenient是“使人感觉便利的”，不是“感觉便利的”，如可以说It is convenient for me to call on him，不可说I am convenient to call on him或I am convenient in calling on him。

2.比较下面四句：

If it is convenient to（有时用for）you, please call at two o'clock.

If it is convenient to（有时用for）you, I will call at two o'clock。

I hope it will be convenient for（偶尔用to）you to call at two o'clock.

I hope it will be convenient to you for me to call (on you) at two o'clock.

3.It will be convenient to know him可能有两个意思：“要认识他是不难的”或“认识了他将有所便利”。

4.不可说It will be convenient that I shall call at two o'clock，该说It will be convenient for me to call at two o'clock。

conversation

说“（跟…）进行谈话”不可说take a conversation，该把take改作hold或have。但I found it difficult to make conversation和He did not ask any more questions or make any more conversation里的make不可改作hold或have。

conversation(al)ist

现在通常用conversationalist。

converse

converse（谈话）不论用作名词或动词现在都不普通，最好不用。

convict

convict（证明或宣判…有罪）后面接指人的词，再接of和表示罪的词，不可直接接表示罪的词，如可以说They convicted him of theft，不可说They convicted his theft。

convince

convince（使…深信）后面接指人的词，再接of和表示使他深信的事的词，或再接以that引导的从句。例如：We hope to convince him of our sincerity. 和We hope to convince him that we are sincere.

cook

cook（炊事员）在英国通常指女子。说“男炊事员”往往用man cook。

cook(ery)-book

1.cookery-book（烹饪书）是英国英语，cookbook是美国英语。

cool

参见chilly 2

co(-)operate

co(-)operate mutually, co(-)operate jointly, co(-)operate together和co(-)operate with each other（或one another）该避免，单用co(-)operate够了。

co(-)operation

mutual co(-)operation, joint co(-)operation和co(-)operation with each other（或one another）该避免，单用co(-)operation够了。

copy

1.可以说a letter in three copies（一封一式三份的信），但不可说a book in five thousand copies。

2.下面三句意思相同：

The book was published at ¥10 a copy. （这本书出版每本10元。）

The book was published at ¥10 the copy.

The book was published at ¥10.

copy(-)book

copy(-)book在英国现在是“习字帖”，但在美国除了习字帖以外也指“（文件等的）副本合订本”在英国叫copying-book。

copyright

1.copyright（版权、著作权）原来是抽象名词，但有时也用a copyright或copyrights。

2.注意the copyright in these publications里用in。偶尔用on。

3.This book is copyrighted是英国说法，copyrighted是过去分词。This book is copyright是美国说法，copyright是形容词。

cordially

cordially在美国时常用在信函的信尾客套语里，如Yours cordially。在英国没有这种用法。

corn

在英国corn统指“谷类”，在英格兰往往指小麦，在苏格兰和爱尔兰往往指燕麦（oats）。在美国和澳洲只指玉蜀黍（maize或Indian corn）。不论指什么，corn前面不可加a，也没有复数形式corns。在作“一粒米”的“粒”解的时候前面可以加a，而且有复数形式corns。例如：a corn of rice和three corns of wheat

corner

1.说“180度以上的角”在英国通常说at the corner，有时说on the corner或round the corner，在美国通常说on the corner，有时说around the corner。说“在180度以下的角”用in the corner。如南北街和东西街相交的地方共有四个角，照理每角有270度，在英国用at，但在美国往往用on。方形教室也有四个角，照理每角有90度，用in。

2.说两条街的转角处，该说the corner of... and...，不该说the corner between... and...两条街相交的地方共有四个角，所以照理该说one of the corners of... and... 或a corner of... and...，但习惯上说the corner of... and...

correct

1.He has corrected the essay和He has corrected the mistakes in the essay都可以说。He has corrected her for bad grammar也可以说。

2.注意He corrected 'on' to 'in'里用to。

correction

correction和correctness不同。correction是“改正”或“改正点”。例如：The correction of the essay took two hours. 和He has made many corrections in the essay. correctness是“正确性”。例如：I doubt the correctness of this sentence.

correctness

参见correction

correspond

1.“相当于…”该说correspond to，不可说correspond with，如The wings of a bird correspond to the arms of a man里的to不可改作with。

2.说“跟…符合”说correspond with或correspond to都可以。例如：Does the description correspond with（或to）the thing?

3.说“当（某报）的通信员”该用correspond for。例如：He used to correspond for an English-language newspaper.

correspondence

correspondence有时指“互通的信件（总称）”。例如：Their correspondence has been published. 注意不用复数形式correspondences。但可以说His letters form one of the most interesting correspondences ever published。a correspondence是常见的。例如：He has a heavy correspondence to attend to.

correspondent

1.correspondent指“写信者”，my correspondent是“写信给我者”，不是“我写信给他的人”。

2.good correspondent是“勤于写信者”，bad correspondent是“懒于写信者”。

3.说“某报的通信员”在correspondent后面接for，on或of都可以，例如：a correspondent for（或on，或of）the People's Daily

cost

1.at the cost of（以…为代价）后面接的词通常表示损失或花费的东西。例如：life，health，time和money。但有时也接表示被遭受的东西的词。例如：discomfort，hardship，misery和suffering。at the cost of losing his life和at the cost of his life意思相同。at the cost of leaving your meaning vague和at the cost of the clearness of your meaning也意思相同。

2.at all costs（不惜任何代价、无论如何）比at any cost普通。

3.cost原来是不及物动词，This cost me much money里的me是间接宾语，money是状语宾语。不过这种结构很特别，为便利起见，不妨把cost看作及物动词，me看作间接宾语，money看作直接宾语。但注意This cost me much money决不可改作This cost much money to（或for）me，也不可改作I was cost much money（by this）或Much money was cost me (by this)。

4.cost的状语宾语（或直接宾语）通常是表示损失或花费掉的东西的词。例如：life，health，time和money。但有时也接表示被遭受的东西的词。例如：discomfort，hardship，misery和suffering。The accident cost him his life和The accident cost him the loss of his life意思相同。

cottage

cottage原来指“简陋的小屋”。但现在也指乡偶尔海滨的“别墅”，在英国指小些的，在美国竟有指很大的。这用法相当于我国从前的“小筑”或“草堂”，过去富人的别墅，不论怎样宽大，也可以叫“小筑”，不论怎样华丽，也可以叫“草堂”。

cotton

1.说“棉布”或“棉织物”该说cotton或cotton cloth，不可说cloth of cotton。

2.cotton clothes和cotton garment(s)都指“棉布衣”，不指“棉衣”。说“棉衣”该说wadded clothes或wadded garment(s)。那棉衣里的“棉絮”叫cotton wool，cotton wadding或wadding，不叫cotton。

cough

cough通常并不统指“咳嗽”，a cough是“一声咳嗽”或“一种咳嗽”，如可以说He gave a cough和He suffered from a bad cough，不可说He had much cough。cough用作抽象名词是极少见的。例如：She is now free from cough.

could

参见can

counsel

1.counsel是“辩护律师”，指一人或多人都可以。如Their counsel was a learned man和Their counsel were all learned men。没有复数形式。

2.counsel指“劝告”原来是抽象名词，但有时也用a counsel或复数形式counsels。例如：a wise counsel和wise counsels

count

1.count在用作“把…看作…”解的时候，它的宾语的后面不用as比用as普通，如He counted himself lucky和This is generally counted of no importance里在lucky和of前面不用as比用as普通。

2.I count (up)on you to come（我指望你会来）和I count (up)on your coming意思相同。

countenance

countenance是“面容”，着重在表情，并不指“面部”，如可以说There are marks of sadness in his countenance，不可说There are scars in his countenance。

counting-house（或countinghouse，或counting house）

按理counting-house（账房）该是一宅，counting-room（账房）该是一间。但事实上不论一宅或一间，在英国通常用counting-house，在美国通常用counting-room。

counting-room（或counting room）

参见counting-house

country

1.我国春秋和战国时代的“国”是state，不是country。

2.the country通常指“乡村”，但在英国有时指“伦敦以外的国土”。

3.this country是“这个国家”，不指乡村。native country通常是“本国”，极少指“本乡”。my（或your等）country是“我（或你）的国家”，不是“我（或你）的本乡”。

4.在用作“乡村”解的时候，country前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。

5.a tract of smiling country, a stretch of sweet country, miles of densely wooded country, the scenery of mountainous country等表达方式里的country指“（涉及地理、风景、土壤等项的）地”。偶尔用a country。例如：a country of extensive views, bounded in the distance by bare mountains.

country-house（或country house）

country-house是“乡间的住宅”，通常有围地和园圃，并不泛指任何“乡间的屋”。

countryman

his countryman（他的同国人）跟his fellow countryman意思相同。countryman有时也指“同乡”。

countryside

countryside有时统指“乡村”。例如：this expanse of countryside，miles of countryside和in open countryside。

county

1.英国分成若干county，美国分成若干state，每一个state（除Louisiana以外）分成若干county。所以英国的county相当于我国的“省”，美国的county相当于我国的“县”。但就面积而论，美国的county并不比英国的county小。

2.在英国说the county of...，不说... County，如可以说the county of Kent，不可说Kent County。在美国说... County，不说the county of ...，如可以说Henrico County，不可说the county of Henrico。在爱尔兰说County...。例如：County Tipperary。

3.county的首府在英国叫county town，在美国叫county seat。

4.中国的“县”现在通常译作county，如Baoshan County（宝山县）。

couple

1.a couple of...作“两个…”解，不一定有“成对”的意思。在美国有时也指“两三个…”。在口语里有时省去of，例如a couple minutes和a couple more chairs

2.说“若干对”有时说 ...couple而不说...couples，例如five couple of snipe和several couple of snipe。

3.说“…夫妇”前有the。例如：the Brown couple

4.couple（夫妇）指两个人，但往往被当作单数。例如：The couple is busy with small children and parties. 和The Brown couple was left severely to itself.

courage

have the courage to...（不定式）（有作…的勇气）里有the。但take courage to...（不定式）（鼓起勇气）里没有the，find (the) courage to...（不定式）里的the可有可无。

course

1.in due course（在今后适当的时候）里没有the。

2.in the course of...（在…的过程中）是状语短语。例如：Three delegations arrived in the course of the day. in course of...（正在…中）是形容词短语。例如：The house is in course of erection. in (the) course of time（到了相当时期地）里的the可有可无。

3.说“从（某教授）学习某课程”在美国大学里有下面各种说法：take a course under Professor...，take a course from Professor...，take a course with Professor...，和take a course to Professor...。用to最不普通。

4.在口语里有时用course代替of course。

court

1.at court是“在朝廷上”，in court是“在法庭上”。in open court是“在公开的法庭上”。

2.Court（以大写字母开首）在美国有时指“审判员”。例如：The Court was a fat man.

courtesan

courtesan通常指“高档”的妓女，交际花，却不可指在马路上拉客的妓女。

courtesy

报纸或杂志得到版权人许可而转载文字或图画，在美国通常载着By courtesy of...或Courtesy of...，相当于英国的By favour of...，作“蒙…特许”或“蒙…好意”解。

court-martial

复数形式courts-martial（军事法庭）和courtmartials都有人用。

cousin

可以说boy cousin和girl cousin，male cousin和female cousin。

cover

1.under separate cover作“在另一封袋里”或“在另一包里”解。例如：I send the book under separate cover. 在separate前面通常没有a。

有人以为under separate cover有些商业文件和公文气息，在一般通信里最好改用separately。

2.under cover of（靠着…的庇护，假托…的名义）和under the cover of都可以用。

3.注意下面各句里都用with，不用by。

The ground is covered with snow.

The trees are covered with flowers.

The table is covered with books.

His head is covered with grey hair.

4.Please write to me under cover to my father（请把你写给我的信，封在你写给我父亲的信里）里的cover前面不可加the。

cow

cow的复数形式现在通常是cows，不是kine。

coward(ly)

coward是名词或形容词，cowardly是形容词或副词。coward用作形容词不及cowardly普通。

cow(-)boy

cow(-)boy在美国指“牧场的骑马牧工”，通常骑着马，他所照顾的不一定是cow（母牛），他自己通常并不是boy（孩子）。

cracker

cracker作“饼干”解是美国英语，不是物质名词，说“多块”该用crackers。参见biscuit 2

craft

craft（船，飞机）单数和复数同一形式。例如：The harbour is full of craft. 和Two craft flew together. 偶尔也用crafts。

crash

crash（忽然跌下）可以把飞机做主语，也可以把飞机里的人做主语。例如：An aeroplane crashed on a hillside near Tokyo last week. 和The aviator crashed on a hillside near Tokyo last week.

crazy

1.crazy在美国比在英国用得多。

2.You are crazy to talk like that是“你那样说话是愚蠢的”。

creator

参见creature

creature

creature（产物、被创造物）往往跟creator对比。例如：He was not the creature but the creator of his destiny.

creche

指“托儿所”，在英国常用。在美国用day nursery。

credence

1.give credence to是“相信”，不是“使…被人相信”，如可说I do not give much credence to his story，不可说His appearance gives credence to his story。

2.下面两句意思相同：

I do not give much credence to his story.

I do not give much credit to his story.

credentials

credentials（复数形式）是授给派到国外去的公使或大使的“国书”，不论实际上是一封信或多封信，总是用复数形式。

credible

credible和creditable不同。credible是“值得被信任的”或“可信的”。例如：I do not think him credible. 和All this information is credible. creditable是“值得被称赞的”或“优良的”。例如：This is a piece of creditable conduct. 和The article is highly creditable to its author. credible的反义词是incredible，creditable的反义词是discreditable。

credit

1.credit用作“学分”解是美国英语。

2.下面每组里的各句意思相同：

3.参见credence 2

creditable

参见credible

crew

crew指“全体船员”，不指“一个船员”。一条船只有一个crew，两条船才有两个crews。crew并不包括旅客们，有时也不包括高级船员们。

crime

crime有时指“一种犯罪”，有时统指“犯罪”。例如：Murder is a crime和There was a great decrease of crime in recent years.

Crimea

Crimea（克里米亚半岛）前面有the。

crisis

crisis是类名词，也是抽象名词。在用作类名词的时候有复数形式crises，如The cyclical crises（周期性的危机）。a sense of crisis，a time of crisis，two years of crisis等表达方式里的crisis是抽象名词，前面没有a。

crisp

burn(t) to a crisp（烧得松脆）里用a，不用the。

critical

critical（批评的）后面接of。例如：They are rightly critical of your careless work.

criticism

criticism后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I was very much impressed with his criticism that my knowledge of the language was merely academic.

criticize

criticize后面不可接以that引导的从句，如不可说He criticizes that the story lacks interest，该把criticizes改作observes。

crop

the crops指一季的各种收获，包括谷类、水果等。

cross

在英国说cross往往指cross the English Channel，就是“渡过英吉利海峡到法国去”。例如：He crossed to Paris to see his father.

cross(-)roads

cross(-)roads指“两条路的交叉点”，被看作单数。例如：a cross(-)roads

cry

1.cry（名词）指“一阵哭”，并不统指“哭”，如The baby had a good cry里的a不可省去。

2.cry指一阵哭，不一定发出声音。

3.a cry是“一次喊声或哭声”，a crying是“一阵喊声或哭声”。

4.可以说He cried to us to stop。

5.cry out后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：She cried out that she had lost her ticket.

cult

cult和worship在语法上和意思上都略有不同：worship是抽象名词，cult是类名词，cult是对于某人或某事物的盲目的或过分的崇拜（worship），如“个人崇拜”是the cult of the individual或the cult of personality。

culture

culture有时前面用a，也有时作复数形式。例如：a national culture和chinese and Indian cultures

cunning

cunning用作“小巧玲珑的”解是美国英语。例如：What a cunning little baby! 和He gave the boy a cunning doll.

cup

参见glass 2

cupful

参见-ful

cure

1.cure在用作“治疗或纠正的东西或方法”解的时候后面接for，在用作“治疗”或“纠正”解的时候后面接of。例如：This is a cure for headaches. We suggested a cure for red tape. The cure of his headache was soon effected. We aimed at the cure of red tape.

2.注意下面各句的结构：

This will cure you. This will cure your headache.

This will cure you of your headache.

curio(sity)

1.curio（古董）现在似乎比curiosity普通。

2.curiosity后面可以接不定式。例如：There was a general curiosity to know what was going to happen.

curious

1.curious to know和curious to hear作“很想知道…的”解。例如：I am curious to know where he lives. 和I am curious to hear about his travels. curious to relate和curious to say作“说来可怪地”解，都单独使用。例如：Curious to relate（或say）, the boy was not drowned.

2.curious有时后面接how，what等词引导的从句。例如：We felt curious how they would receive our suggestion.

3.注意It is curious that the old man should remember the names of all his childhood friends里用should。

custom

1.custom有时指“一种风俗”，有时统指“风俗”。例如：This is an old custom among the natives. 和Custom is sometimes considered as important as law.

2.说“关税”和“税务机关”该用复数形式customs。但custom(-)house（或custom house）比customs-house（或customs house）普通。在customs duty，customs laws，customs officer和customs official里习惯用复数形式。

3.custom clothes，custom suit，custom garment和custom tailoring里的custom都作“定制的”解，跟“现成的”（ready-made）相对，这样用法的custom是美国英语，相当于英国的bespoke。

custom(-)house（或customs-house，或customs house）

参见custom 2

cut(ting)

1.参见clip(ping)

2.cut有时带有双宾语。例如：He cut her a slice of bread. （他替她切了一片面包。）

3.He began to cut down on his wine是“他开始逐渐少喝酒”。在美国往往把on省掉。

cycler

cycler（骑自行车者）是美国英语，相当于英国的cyclist。

D

Dairen

Dairen是我国大连的旧译，不可跟Panama和Colombia中间的Gulf of Darien里的Darien相混。现大连译为Dalian。

Dakota

the Dakotas指美国的North Dakota和South Dakota两州（state）。

Dalai

Dalai Lama（达赖喇嘛）前面有the。

damage

1.说物质上的“损害”用单数或复数形式都有，但用单数形式普通得多。说精神上的“损害”（如“名誉上的损害”）只用单数形式。a damage是不用的。

2.说“损害赔偿费”该用复数形式。

damn

damn在口语里有时用作副词，作“很”解。例如：damn well和damn careful

dance

1.dance通常是一种“跳舞”，一次“跳舞”，“跳舞会”或“跳舞曲”，并不统指“跳舞”那动作，就是说不是抽象名词。如不可说fond of dance，该说fond of dancing。不可说He teaches me dance，该说He teaches me dancing（或to dance）。但近几年来有时被用作抽象名词（前面有形容词），例如his deep interest in modern dance。

2.dancing girl（或dancing-girl）指在舞台上表演跳舞的女子，不指舞场里伴舞的舞女。这种伴舞的舞女叫做taxi dancer，有时叫做hostess。

3.dance hall现在比dancing hall普通得多。

danger

1.danger后面接of和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说There is danger of (his) being misunderstood，不可说There is danger (for him) to be misunderstood。

2.in danger of里没有the。

3.danger有时后面接以that引导的从句。例如：So long as hydrogen bombs exist, there is danger that they will be used.

4.下面四句意思相同：

He is in danger of death. He is in danger of his life.

He is in danger of losing his life. His life is in danger.

5.下面两句意思不同：

There is danger of his seeing us. （有着他看见我们的危险。很可能我们被他看见。）

There is danger in his seeing us. （他看见了我们，就会有危险发生。）

dangerous(ly)

1.dangerous是“（引起）危险的”，不是“受到危险的”，如He is dangerous是“他是（引起）危险的”，就是“他易于使别人受到危险”，不是“他自己受到危险”。说“他自己受到危险”该说He is in danger或He is endangered。英美人也有把dangerous用作“（因病而）受到危险的”解的，但这主要是方言用法。

He is dangerous虽然不是“他自己受到危险”，但He is dangerously ill和He is dangerously near the edge of the precipice两句里的dangerously都指“他”的受到危险。但须注意dangerously并不修饰He而修饰ill和near，dangerously ill是“生了危险疾病的”，就是“病危”。dangerously near是“引起危险地近”，那dangerous（ly）仍旧是“引起危险”，不是“受到危险”。

2.It is dangerous to bathe in this river和This river is dangerous to bathe in都可以说，也可以说This is a dangerous river to bathe in。

Dardanelles

Dardanelles（达达尼尔海峡）是复数形式，前面有the。例如：The Dardanelles are of great strategic importance.

dare

1.dare在下面各句里都用作普通的动词。看作及物或不及物都可以：

He dares to go.

Does he dare to go?

He does not dare to go.

He will dare to go.

Will he dare to go?

He will not dare to go.

He dared to go.

Did he dare to go?

He did not dare to go.

dare也可以用作助动词。例如：

He dare not go.

Dare he go?

He dared not（或durst not）go.

No-one dared go（或dared to go，或durst go）.

He dare do anything.

No-one dare go.

在这种用法里注意：1.句子是否定的或者有否定的意味的。2.不定式除了在dared后面以外都没有to。3.用dare而不用dares。4.durst不及dared普通。5.有时dare也指过去的事。例如：He was afraid, and dare not（或daren't）go.

上面所讲的是正常的用法，事实上下面几句也是常见的。

He dare go.

I am sure he dare.

He dares go.

Does he dare go?

He does not dare go.

He is too weak to dare go today.

He dared go.

Dared he go?

He did not dare go.

No-one dares go.

2.Do you dare to..? Does he dare to...? 等里的dare to...通常有“胆大妄为”的意思。例如：Do you dare to tell such a lie? Dare you（或he等）...？ 通常有“冒险”的意思。例如：Dare you tell the sick old woman that she has only a few days to live? 但How dare you（或he等）...? 却有“胆大妄为”的意思。例如：How dare you say such rude things about him?

3.下面两句意思相同。第一句比第二句普通：

If he had been warned, he would not have dared to go.

If he had been warned, he dare not have gone.

4.I dare say（也作I daresay）通常作“我以为”、“在我看来”、“大概”、“或者”等解。例如：His brother, I dare say, is still in town. 和I dare say his brother is still in town. I dare say后面的从句通常省去that。

Darien

参见Dairen

dark(ness)

dark（名词）和darkness的用法没有绝对的区别，但下面几点该注意：

（1）只有dark可以指“傍晚”，at dark，before dark和after dark里的dark不可改作darkness，前面都没有the。

（2）in the dark在用作“不知道的”解的时候dark不可改作darkness。例如：I am in the dark about his whereabouts.

（3）The room is in darkness里的darkness不可改作dark或the dark。

（4）dark惯用在指经常的情况，darkness惯用在指一时的情况。例如：

Some children are afraid of the dark.

He stayed behind because he was afraid of the darkness.

We set off in the darkness across the flat county.

I could not see the house properly because of the darkness.

但in the dark一语也往往指一时的情况，例如第三句里的darkness可以改作dark。

darling

1.Darling George和George darling都可以说。

2.可以说My dear，darling George。

data

data是datum（供给讨论或推究的一项资料）的复数形式，但datum现在不通用，用单数的时候通常改用one of the data。在美国往往把data用作单数。例如：This data has been collected from various sources.

date

1.date不一定指“日期”，也可以包括月或年。5 October, 2001是date，October 2001或2001虽然不是“日期”，却也是date。

2.of even date（同一天的），of current date（同一天的），of recent date（不久以前的），of yesterday's date（昨天的），under (the) date of...（…日期的），和at an early date（不久以后）都是商业信函里的陈套语，在一般通信里该避免。

3.date前面的介词通常是at，偶尔是on。例如：at an early date和on a certain date。但在on that date中习惯用on。

4.date在美国往往用作“约会”解。例如：I have a date with them. 在口语里从“日期”转指“约会”，再转指“被约会的人”，再转指“异性朋友”，用作动词从“跟…约会”转用作不及物动词，指“（男女）交际”。

5.your letter dated...（例如：8 April）和your letter of...（例如：8 April）都可以用在信函里，但现在多用of而少用dated。

6.严格地说，文件等上的date只指“日期”，不包括“地址”（address），但事实上往往包括地址。说信上的载着某个地址，习惯用be dated from（或at）和那地址名称。例如：The letter is dated from（或at）Moscow.

7.下面两句可以说意思相同，但用from普通些。

His family dates from 1764. （他的家系上溯起自1764年。）

His family dates back to 1764.

说His family dates back from 1764也可以，但不很普通。

8.a letter of an early date, a poem of a later date等表达方式里的an或a可以省去，美国英语without date里没有a。例如：The conference adjourned without date. （会议无限期休会。）在英国通常用indefinitely或拉丁语sine die。

9.His dates are not known里的dates指date of birth和date of death。

10.date不可只指“星期几”。例如：What's the date? 或What's the date today? 的回答可能是It's 25 August或Today is 25 August。It's Saturday, 25 August或Today is Saturday, 25 August，不可能是It's Saturday或Today is Saturday。What day is it? 的回答可能是It's Saturday，不可能是It's 25 August或It's Saturday, 25 August。

What is the date of the establishment of the People's Republic of China? 的回答可能是It's 1 October, 1949, It's October 1949或It's 1949。What's the day of the establishment of the People's Republic of China? 的回答只可能是It's 1 October, 1949。

11.to date作“到现在为止”解，是状语短语。例如：To date no solution has been found. 和The book has been widely accepted as the best on the subject to date.

datum

参见data

dawn

at dawn和before dawn里没有the。The dawn came和We used to rise with the dawn等句子里有the。

day

1.the 19th day of May等表达方式只用在正式文件里。参见April 3

2.the day before yesterday和the day after tomorrow是英国英语，day before yesterday和day after tomorrow是美国英语。yesterday or the day before和tomorrow or the day after是英国英语，yesterday or day before和tomorrow or day after是美国英语。

3.all day, all day long, all the day和all the day long四语都作“全天”解。例如：He worked all (the) day (long). all day最普通，all the day long最不普通。

4.all day yesterday（昨天全天）和all day tomorrow（明天全天）比all yesterday和all tomorrow普通。

5.day after day，day by day，from day to day和day in，day out四语都作“每天”解。day after day含有“时日长久”的意思，含有“每天重复”的意思。from day to day有时含有“逐渐变更”或“逐渐增加”的意思，有时含有“暂时”或“不固定”的意思。day in，day out（这语最不普通）含有“杳杳无期”的意思，偶尔写作day in and day out。

6.these days指“现今”，those days指“往昔”。例如：these days of reform和those days of isolation。these days往往用作状语短语。例如：These days everybody talks of terrorism. 但those days通常不用作状语短语，如通常不说Those days we knew very little about computer，最好把Those days改作In those days。in these days不及these days普通。注意these days不可改作this day，those days不可改作that day。in the old days（在古时），in the days of old（在古时），in the days to come（在将来），in the days of...（在…的时代）等表达方式里也都用复数形式，但our own day（现今）里用单数形式。

7.one day指过去或将来都可以。例如：I met him in a park one day.和I may meet him again one day. Some day只指将来，不指过去，如可以说I may meet him again some day，不可说I met him in a park some day。

8.this day（今天）似乎比today语气重些。at this day是“现在”，不是“今天”。比较下面两句：

I have this day received a letter from my father.

Even at this day my father, who died long ago, is always in my thoughts.

9.to this day（直到现在）所修饰的动词，通常属于现在时态，很少属于完成时态。例如：She keeps（很少用has kept）his ring to this day.

10.this day week指“下星期或上星期的相当的那一天”，如假定今天是星期四，this day week就是下星期四或上星期四。this day month指“下月或上月的相当的那一天”，如假定今天是5月14日，this day month就是6月14日或4月14日。this day year指“明年或去年的相当的那一天”，如假定今天是5月14日，this day year就是明年5月14日或去年5月14日。注意week，month和year前面都没有a。

11.at the present day（现在）比in the present day普通。

12.at day是“在破晓时”，现在不普通。When it was day, the fishermen went out里的day也指“破晓”，前面不可加上the。

13.good day原来在相会和相别的当儿都可以用，现在很少用，最好不用。

daydream

不论用作名词或动词，都不限于白天，如可以说He used to have daydreams at night和He used to daydream at night。

daylight

1.daylight-saving time（或daylight saving time）（日光节约时间）是美国英语，相当于英国英语summer time（夏令时间）。在英国人William Willett首创这办法的时候，用daylight saving time，当时英国采用这办法的法令叫做Summer Time Act，所以在英国通常用summer time而不用daylight-saving time。

2.daylight-saving time（或daylight saving time）前面没有the。

day(-)time

day(-)time前面有the。例如：in the day(-)time

D Day（或D day，或D-day）

D day，指第二次世界大战盟军在法国登陆的那一天，就是1944年6月6日，D指尚未明示的day。前面没有the。

dead(ly)

1.the dead指新近死的若干人，也指一切死人（包括古今的一切已死者），但不指死了好久的一人或多人。指新近死的一人现在不很普通。

2.He is long dead和He has long been dead意思相同。

3.dead用作副词作“极端地”或“完全地”解，如dead tired和dead dull。deadly也可以这样用，但主要是口语。

deaf

“聋和哑”该说deaf and dumb，但说“聋哑人”该说deaf-mute或deaf mute。

deal

1.a great deal（许多）比a good deal（相当多）语气重。

2.a great（或good）deal of只用于不可数名词，不可用于可数名词，如可以说a great（或good）deal of money和a great（或good）deal of trouble，不可说a great（或good）deal of pounds和a great（或good）deal of troubles。但说I have seen a great（或good）deal of them lately是可以说的，这句相当于I have seen (very) much of them lately，作“我近来见过他们多次”解。说a great deal of laughter and kisses也可以，因为这里的kisses跟laughter用在一起，并不着重在“吻”的次数。

3.a great（或good）deal可以用作状语短语。例如：He is a great（或good）deal better today.

4.a deal用作a great deal解，是口语。

dear(ly)

1.dear和affectionate不同。参见affectionate

2.在信函的称呼语里用dear，下面几点该注意：

（1）dear通常译作“亲爱的”，其实用在称呼语里只是习惯，竟可说是没有意思的。

（2）用在句首时，D该大写。例如：Dear Mr Bruce。不用在句首时，通常用小写。例如：My dear Mr Bruce，很少作My Dear Mr Bruce。

（3）英国人认为My dear...比Dear...亲密，所以除了对于熟朋友以外都用Dear...而不用My dear...。美国人认为My dear...比Dear...正式些，所以对于初次通信的人往往用My dear...，后来改用Dear...。不过有一点是英美相同的，用名字（而不用姓）称人，或在son和brother等词前面，英美人都认为My dear...比Dear...亲密。

（4）dear用在称呼或名字的后面表示亲密或诙谐。例如：Auntie dear 和Alice dear。

3.dear有时形容价钱。例如：I bought it at a dear price. 和¥100 is very dear for a cap like this. 但dear price似乎远不及high price普通。

4.dear可以用作副词，但跟dearly不同，有下面两点该注意：

（1）修饰love，通常用dearly，用dear颇有“文学”韵味。注意She is dear to her children里的dear跟She loves her children dear(ly)里的dear或dearly不但在语法上不同，在意思上也不同。第一句里的dear作“被爱的”解，决不可改作affectionate，第二句里的dear或dearly却可以改作affectionately。第二句里的dear并不等于第一句里的dear变成了副词，第二句里的dearly并不等于第一句里的dear加上了ly。

（2）修饰buy，sell，pay，cost等词用dear或dearly都可以，用dear似乎普通些。

5.习惯上说的You are a dear（你是个可爱的人）里的a不可省去。

death

1.比较下面三句：

The death of two men is reported.

Two men's death is reported.

Two deaths are reported.

deaths（复数形式）指两个或两个以上的人的死亡。但在of前面或在物主代词后面用单数形式比用复数形式普通。用复数形式着重在各人个别的死。例如：the deaths of his wife and three daughters

2.不可说cause him to death，该把death改作die，但cause him to die不及kill him简洁。

3.death from the disease，death from drowning等表达方式里用from表示致死的原因。

death(-)bed

death(-)bed前面用his，her等词，不用the，通常用on，很少用in，如习惯说on his death(-)bed（临终），很少说in his death(-)bed，不说in the death(-)bed或on the death(-)bed。

debit

下面两句意思相同：

We shall debit the amount to（偶尔用against）you.

We shall debit you with the amount. （我们将把这款记入你的账上的借方。）

debt

1.debt统指“债”。a debt是“一笔债”。debts是“多笔债”。

2.说“负债更多”或“受惠更多”该说more in debt，不可说in more debt。

3.The compiler of such a book as this is necessarily under a heavy debt to previous writers里的a不可省去。

4.“因欠债而被监禁的人”该说prisoner for debt。

decade

可以说decade of years（十年），跟单独用decade意思相同。也可以说the decade of the 1950's。

deceased

the deceased或deceased（原来是不及物动词decease的过去分词）指“死者”，只用在文件和正式些的文字里，只指一人，不指多人，只指新近死的人，不指死了好久的人。

deceive

deceive是“欺骗成功”，“欺骗”而不成功便不是deceive，如不可说George deceived me into believing that he was an honest man, but I was too discreet to confide in him，该把deceived改作tried（或attempted）to deceive。

December

参见April

decide(d)

1.decide（决定）后面接不定式或on（或upon）和动名词，如I have decided to help him和I have decided (up)on helping him，用不定式普通些。有时也接以that引导的从句。例如：I decided that I would help him.用that引导的从句里往往用should或虚拟现在式。例如：We (have) decided that the meeting (should) be held on Saturday evening.

2.说“决定…”该用decide on（或upon），不该只用decide，如I have decided on（或upon）a course of action里的on或upon不可省去。但I have not yet decided on（或upon）where to spend my holidays里的on或upon在口语里往往省去。

3.用decide很容易犯双重被动的错误，如不可说He has been decided to be helped，该改作It has been decided to help him或It has been decided that he should be helped。

4.a decided man（一个果断的男子）里的decided是不及物动词decide的过去分词用作形容词。

5.参见decisive

decision

decision后面接不定式，如my decision to apply for further particulars。

decisive

decisive是“决定性的”，decided是“决定了的”或“无可争辩的”。例如：This is a decided victory, but whether it is a decisive one only time can tell. （这是一个无可争辩的胜利，但是否是一个决定性的胜利，那要到将来才知道。）

declare

1.下面各句意思相同：

He declared himself satisfied.

He declared himself to be satisfied.

He declared her sincere.

He declared her to be sincere.

但不可说：

He declared himself as satisfied.

He declared her as sincere.

上面四句都不及下面两句普通：

He declared that he was satisfied.

He declared that she was sincere.

2.declare后面不可接不定式，如不可说He declared to keep on trying，该说He declared that he would keep on trying。

declination

declination用作“婉拒”解，是美国英语，相当于动词decline。例如：The letter contains a firm declination.

decline

1.decline是“有礼地谢绝”，比refuse婉转。

2.decline后面接不定式或动名词都可以，如She declined to answer（或answering）my questions。用不定式比较普通。

3.相当于refuse的名词是refusal。相当于decline的名词有人用declinal，有人用declination，有人用declinature，但都不普通。在美国declination比较通用。还是用refusal好些。在必要时可以在refusal前面加上polite，courteous等词。

4.I must decline to accept your invitation里的to accept是多余的。

decoration

Decoration Day（阵亡将士纪念日）原为美国纪念美国南北战争阵亡将士的日子，后为纪念在为国服役中死去者的日子。也作Memorial Day。前面没有the。

decrease

a decrease in traffic和a decrease of traffic都可以说。

dedicate

His life is dedicated to serving the people里的to是介词，serving是动名词，serving不可改作serve。

deduce

1.deduce（推断）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He deduced that the man had already left the city.

2.deduce比infer严正。在科学和哲学上比infer普通。

deduct

1.deduct是“减去”，不是“减少…”或“从…减去若干”，如说“从款项里减去百分之三”该说deduct 3％ from（有时用out of）the sum，不可说deduct the sum by 3％。

2.deduct和subtract意思相同。但deduct多用于数量，subtract多用于数目。例如：deduct the cost from the profits和subtract 4 from 9。

deem

deem主要用在严正的场合。下面各句里的deem和deemed在一般文字里改作think和thought自然些：

I deem it wise to follow his advice.

He is, I deem, a very learned man.

I deem that it is time to act.

The plan is deemed to be a very good one.

deep(ly)

deep可以用作副词，跟deeply没有绝对的区别，如dig deep和dig deeply都可以说，但在drink deep，be buried deep，deep into等表达方式里习惯用deep，在feel deeply，deeply regret，deeply grateful，deeply offended等表达方式里习惯用deeply。

deer

deer的单数和复数同一形式，如one deer和four deer。deers偶尔有人用。

defeat

1.defeat有时用作类名词，有时用作抽象名词。例如：a defeat和in defeat。

2.his defeat of the enemy是“他打败敌人”，his defeat by the enemy是“他被敌人打败”，his defeat是“他被别人打败”，不是“他打败别人”。

defect

1.without defect里通常没有a。

2.a defect in his character比a defect of his character普通。

defend

defend的宾语后面接from或against都可以。例如：We must always be ready to defend our country from（或against）aggression.

defer

defer后面现在接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I have to defer calling on him for some time里的calling不可改作to call。

definite

definite和definitive不同。definite是“明白的”、“精确的”、“不会被人误解的”等，definitive是“决定一切的”、“最后的”、“不容改变的”等。如a definite answer是“一个明白的答复”，a definitive answer是“一个不容改变的答复”。英美人往往在该用definite的场合误用definitive。

definitive

参见definite

degree

1.to a high degree，to a certain degree，to the last degree，等表达方式里用to，但也可以改用in。

2.to a degree通常作“极端地”解，但偶尔作“有一些地”解。

3.说“某科的学位”在degree后面接in。例如：a degree in mathematics

4.在the degree of Master of Arts（文科硕士学位）等表达方式里在Master前面没有the或a。也可以说a Master of Arts degree等。

deject(ed)

关于a dejected attitude（一个沮丧的姿态）等，参见much 3 (5) E

delay

1.delay（动词）后面接动名词比接不定式普通，如I have to delay answering his letter比I have to delay to answer his letter普通。

2.delay（名词）后面接in和动名词，不接不定式或of和动名词，如Excuse me for my delay in answering your letter里的in answering不可改作to answer或of answering。

delectable

delectable作“快乐的”、“愉快的”、“可喜的”等解。但在英国现在通常用作反语，含有“使人感觉不快的”或“讨厌的”的意思。例如：What a delectable situation! （好不恼煞人也！）

delegate

delegate用作动词作“派（某人）当代表”解，用作名词指“（被派当）代表（的人）”。参见represent 1和representative 1

delegation

1.参见deputation

2.说“某人是某代表团的一员”在delegation前面用on。例如：My cousin is on the delegation to Washington.

deliberative

deliberative作“进行考虑的”或“进行审议的”解，如a deliberative body（一个审议团体）。它不作“审慎的”解，说“审慎的”该用deliberate。例如：a deliberate man（一个行动谨慎的人），a deliberate speech（一篇慎重的演说），a deliberate tone（慎重的语气）

delight(ed)

1.delight in和delight to...（不定式）都可以说。例如：I delight in reading novels（或novel-reading）. 和I delight to read novels. delight to...往往含有“惯常”或“偏要”的意思。例如：He delights to talk about his family affairs in the office. 注意：1.两种表达方式都不指一时的情形，都不能加today等词。2.两种表达方式都用于主动语态，不用于被动语态，如不可说I am delighted in...或I am delighted to...。delight in用在被动语态也有。例如：This is one of the modern English novels delighted in by young Chinese readers. 注意不可说Young Chinese readers are delighted in...。be delighted to...（不定式）指一时的情形，往往用在客气话里。例如：I was delighted to see him. I am delighted to see you. 和I shall be delighted to see you.

2.delighted后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He was delighted that his brother had come back.

3.delight（名词）后面接in，如his delight in English literature和her delight in reading aloud。

4.关于a delighted laugh（一个快乐的笑声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

delightful

delightful是“使人感觉快乐的”，不是“感觉快乐的”，如a delightful poet是“一个使人感觉快乐的诗人”，就是“一个写使人感觉快乐的诗的人”。

delinquent

delinquent拖欠（税款、债务）在英国只用于人，如delinquent tenant（拖欠租金的房客）。但在美国也用于tax，account等词，delinquent tax是“拖欠的税”，delinquent account是“拖欠的账款”。

demand

1.demand（名词）后面接for。例如：There is a great demand for eggs. 但demand（动词）是及物动词，后面不可接for，如He demands more help里不可在demands后面加上for。

2.demand不论用作名词或动词，后面都可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should，或现在虚拟语气。例如：

He makes the demand that she shall leave the place at once.

He makes the demand that she should leave the place at once.

He makes the demand that she leave（不用leaves）the place at once.

He made the demand that she should leave the place at once.

He made the demand that she leave（不用left）the place at once.

He demands that she shall leave the place at once.

He demands that she should leave the place at once.

He demands that she leave（不用leaves）the place at once.

He demanded that she should leave the place at once.

He demanded that she leave（不用left）the place at once.

3.demand（动词）不可把指被要求的人的词做宾语，如不可说I shall demand him for an answer或I shall demand him to answer，该说I shall demand of him to answer或I shall demand an answer of him或I shall demand that he shall（或should）answer或I shall demand that he answer （不用answers）。

4.demand（动词）不可把指被问的人的词做宾语，该在那个词的前面加上of，如We must demand of him whether he has heard from her recently里的of不可省去。注意下面一句里也有of：

'What do you want?' he demanded of her.

demand作“问”解语气很重，有“责问”或“诘问”的意思。

5.demand（动词）后面接不定式，不接动名词，如He demanded to see my library里的to see不可改作seeing。

democracy

1.“一个民主国家”该说a demoracy，“多个民主国家”可以说democracies。

2.the Democracy（用大写字母开首，前面有the）在美国指the Democratic party（民主党）。

democrat(ic)

说及美国的Democratic party（民主党），在英国往往把Democrat用作形容词，例如Democrat party和Democrat candidate，但在美国总用Democratic而不用Democrat，在美国Democrat只用作名词。

denial

denial（否定）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：His evidence was a denial that he knew anything about the matter at all.

deny

1.下面各句的意思相同而结构不同：

He denies her nothing.

She is denied nothing (by him).

Nothing is denied her (by him).

He denies nothing to her.

Nothing is denied to her (by him).

2.deny（否认）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如He denied having done so里的having不可改作to have。

3.He denied that she was to blame是“他否认她有过失”，就是“他说她没有过失”。He objected that she was to blame是“他因为她有过失而提出反对”，不可相混。

depart(ed)

1.depart用作“离开”解，除了说及火车的“开出”以外，现在很不普通，如可以说The train departs at 8:30 a.m。但最好不说We shall depart at 8:30 a.m.，可以把depart改作leave或start。

2.depart不可用作“分手”解，如不可说It is a year since we departed，该把departed改作parted或last met。The two travellers departed together in the morning and parted in the afternoon是“那两个旅行者在早上一起离开（某地），在下午分手了”。

3.depart是一时的动作，所以不可说He has departed for five months，该说He departed five months ago或It is five months since he departed。

4.He departed for England和He departed to England都可以说。

5.He is departed和He has departed都可以作“他死了”解，第一句里的departed是不及物动词depart的过去分词用作形容词。

6.the departed（原来是不及物动词depart的过去分词）指“死者”，指一人或多人都可以，但只指新近死的人，不指死了好久的人。

department

1.参见bureau 2

2.department用作大学里的“系”解在美国比在英国普通。例如：department of foreign languages和physics department。

departure

1.动词depart用作“离开”解现在虽然不普通，名词departure用作“离开”解却很普通。例如：Nothing has been heard of him since his departure. 参见depart 1

2.departure不可用作“（互相）分别”解，如It is a year since our departure不是“我们分别以来已经一年了”，却是“我们离开（某地）以来已经一年了”。参见depart 2。说“（互相）分别”可以用parting或separation。

3.his departure for England和his departure to England都可以说。

depend

1.depend是不及物动词，后面接on或upon。例如：She used to depend (up)on her sister. The sciences depend up (on) each other.和It depends (up)on where they live. 第三句里的where they live是间接疑问句。在间接疑问句前面有人只用depend而没有on或upon，这是不妥当的。

2.可以说You may depend (up)on him to get everything ready for you。

3.可以说You may depend (up)on it that he will get everything ready for you。

dependant

dependant是名词，很少用作形容词。

dependent

dependent通常是形容词，很少用作名词。

depict

depict是“画…的图”，不是“画（图）”。如可以说depict a dog，不可说depict a picture of a dog。可以说The portrait depicts him sitting in a chair。不可说A portrait has been depicted of him sitting in a chair。

deprec(i)ate

deprecate是“对…表示反对”，depreciate是“把…看作几乎没有价值”，就是“轻视”。We deprecate war and certainly do not depreciate our efforts to avert it是“我们对战争表示反对，对于我们为了避免战争而作的努力，必然并不轻视”。

deprive

deprive后面接指人的词，再接of和表示被夺去的东西的词，不可直接接表示被夺去的东西的词，如The health deprived me of the pleasure of meeting you yesterday里的me of不可省去。

deputation

说“代表团”在英国通常用deputation，在美国通常用delegation。

derelict

derelict用作“不忠于职务的”解是美国英语，例如He is derelict in not doing so. 在英国通常用delinquent。

derive

下面每组里的两句意思相同，第二句里的用法比较新：

descend(ed)

He descends from a poet of the Tang dynasty（他是唐朝的一个诗人的后代）和He is descended from a poet of the Tang dynasty都可以说，但用descends不及用is descended普通。注意：1.is descended并不属于被动语态，那descended是不及物动词descend的过去分词。2.be descended from（或descend from）后面都接指祖宗的词，不接指父亲的词，如“他是一个诗人的儿子”不可说He is descended（或descends）from a poet。3.不用在完成时态，如不可说He has (been) descended from a poet of the Tang dynasty。

descent

of peasant descent（农民出身的），of Dutch descent（荷兰人后裔）等表达方式里没有a或the。

describe

describe现在用作“用文字描写”解，不用作“画…的图”解，如describe a landscape是“用文字描写风景”，不是“画风景的图”，“画风景画”该说draw a picture of a landscape。

descriptive

descriptive后面接of，如a few sentences descriptive of the lake。

desert

a desert是“一大片没有水而且几乎没有草木的荒地”，往往指“一大片沙漠”，deserts是多片这样的荒地或“多片沙漠”。Camels are peculiarly adapted for life in the desert（或life in deserts）里的desert前面的the不可省去，deserts不可改作desert。但a great stretch of desert，two hundred miles of desert等表达方式里的desert前面没有the。

deserve

1.deserve后面通常接不定式。例如：He deserves to succeed. 和He deserves to be punished. 有时接属于主动语态而在意思上是被动的动名词。例如：The old man deserves looking after. 和The naughty boy deserves warning.

2.deserve后面接名词，中间不可加of，如可以说He deserves a reward，不可说He deserves of a reward。但deserving（现在分词用作形容词）后面接of。例如：He is deserving of a reward. 和The second point in his criticism is especially deserving of notice. （注意is deserving并不是进行时态。）又deserve well of和deserve ill of两习语里都有of。例如：He deserves well of the people. （他有功于人民。）和He deserves ill of the people. （他有罪于人民。）

3.deserve后面偶尔接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should。例如：Does he deserve that you should treat him like this?

deserving

1.参见deserve 2

2.deserving用在定语用法里只作“该受奖赏的”或“有功的”解，不作“该受罚的”或“有害的”解。

design

1.design（计划、决意）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：They design to go（或going）at once.也可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall。例如：He designs that the house shall be redecorated in the summer.

2.These handkerchiefs are (of) a very smart design里的of往往省去。

desirable

1.It is desirable that...（…值得想望的）里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：It is desirable that he should take charge of the class.和It is desirable that he take（不用takes）charge of the class.

2.desirable和desirous不同，desirable是“值得想望的”，desirous是“想望的”。例如：When I told him I was desirous of going to the seaside, he said it was not desirable in that cold weather. （当我告诉他我想要到海边去的时候，他说在那么冷的天气里去是不值得的。）

desire

1.desire（名词）后面通常接不定式，偶尔接of或for和动名词，如a（或the，或his等）desire to go比a（或the，或his等）desire of（或for）going普通。

2.desire（动词）后面接不定式，不接动名词，如I desire to go里的to go不可改作going。

3.desire（动词）后面接指人的词和不定式通常作“（严正地）请求”解，偶尔作“愿望”解。例如：I desire（请求）you to go at once. 和I desire（愿望）you to succeed.

desire作“（严正地）请求”解是比较正式的词，不及ask或request普通。有时后面接以that引导的从句，那从句里通常用should或虚拟现在式。例如：I desire that he should call on me on Monday morning. 和I desire that he call（不用calls）on me on Monday morning. 那从句里也有用may或might，will或would的。例如：

I desire that he may go at once.

I desired that he might go at once.

He desires that I will go at once.

He desired that I would go at once.

I desire that you will go at once有“我命令你”的意思。

4.说“为了…的请求”在desire前面用at或by都可以。例如：Mr Morgan called on Mr Marley at（或by）Mr Franklin's desire.和At（或By）the desire of Mrs Taylor, I have to inform you that her daughter is ill.

5.They desire a meeting called（他们希望召开一次会议）是美国英语，在英国在called前面加上to be。

desirous

1.desirous后面接of和动名词比接不定式普通，如desirous of seeing him比desirous to see him普通。

2.可以说I am desirous for you to read all these essays。

3.desirous后面接以that引导的从句现在比较少用，大都用在公文和商业文件里。那从句里用should。例如：We are desirous that the reports should be ready by the end of the week.

desist

desist（停止）后面通常接from和动名词，很少接不定式，如可以说He has desisted from looking for the lost pen，最好不说He has desisted to look for the lost pen。

despair

1.despair是不及物动词，后面接of，作“绝望”解。例如：I despair of success. 和He despairs of ever seeing her again注意第二句里用of和动名词，不可用不定式，如不可说He despairs ever to see her again。

2.despair（名词）有时指“令人绝望的人（或事物）”，但有时也指“（使竞争者）望尘莫及的人（或事物）”。例如：He is my despair. （1.我对他毫无办法。2.我实际及不上他。）

3.He despairs是“他绝望（例如自信决没有考试及格的希望）”，He is disappointed是“他失望（例如原来以为考试及格而结果竟然不及格）”，He is disappointing是“他使人失望（例如原来别人以为他考试及格而结果竟然不及格）”。

despatch

despatch不及dispatch普通。参见dispatch

desperate

1.desperate比hopeless语气轻些。例如：The situation was desperate but not hopeless.

2.desperate后面有时接不定式，作“发狂似地想要…的”解。例如：When the war was over, Tom was desperate to return to civilian life.

despicable

despicable比contemptible语气重。

despite

1.despite（介词）作“不管…的存在”或“虽然有…”解，如I shall try again despite the difficulty。现在不很普通。in despite of和despite of也有人用，都更不普通。

2.despite比in spite of语气轻。

dessert

1.dessert在英国只指餐末在布丁（pudding）等后的水果、干果等，在美国也包括布丁、冰淇淋等，就是英国的sweet courses。

2.复数形式desserts似乎只用在美国。

detail

1.in detail（详细地）里用单数形式detail。go into detail(s)（详细论述）里用单数形式或复数形式都可以，但用单数普通些。go into personal details等表达方式里习惯用复数形式。

2.in more detail（较更详细）和in less detail（较不详细）比more in detail和less in detail普通。

determination

1.determination和a determination后面通常接不定式，但my（或your等）determination和the determination后面也接of和动名词，例如：determination to go和a determination to go, my determination to go和my determination of going, the determination to go和the determination of going。

2.determination后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall，should或虚拟现在式。例如：

His determination that his son shall（或should）have a good education is most praiseworthy.

His determination that his son have（不用has）a good education is most praiseworthy.

His determination that his son should have a good education was most praiseworthy.

His determination that his son have（不用had）a good education was most praiseworthy.

determine(d)

1.determine后面接不定式比接on或upon和动名词普通，如He has determined to propose a new method比He has determined (up)on proposing a new method普通。

2.比较下面三句：

He determined to propose a new method.

He had determined to propose a new method.

He was determined to propose a new method.

determined是“（当时）决定”，had determined是“（当时）已经决定”，was determined是“（当时因为已经决定而）有决心”。determined是不及物动词determine的过去分词用作形容词。determined和had determined都是一时的，所以不可说For a long time he determined（或had determined）to propose a new method。was determined不一定是一时的，所以可说For a long time he was determined to propose a new method。一个人一经determine，便继续be determined。

3.determine和be determined后面都可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall，should或虚拟现在式。例如：

He has（或is）determined that his son shall（或should）have a good education.

He has（或is）determined that his son have（不用has）a good education.

He (was) determined that his son should have a good education.

He (was) determined that his son have（不用had）a good education.

4.determine a date是“决定一个日期”，不及fix a date通俗。

devastating(ly)

devastating(ly)现在往往被用作“厉害的（或地）”解。例如：

He has written a devastating satire on corruption.

She spoke to us with devastating candour.

Part of the story is devastatingly dull.

develop

It develops（或developed）that...（…显露出来）是美国英语。例如：It soon developed that the meeting was a great success.

device

1.device是“被devise出来的东西”，可以说He devised something by which much time could be saved, but his device did not prove practical。

2.leave him（或you等）to his（或your等）own devices（听任他［或你等］自行其是）是习语，用复数形式devices。

devil

谚语The devil take the hindmost. （落后者倒霉。）里用take（虚拟现在式），不用takes。

devote

devote的宾语后面接to和动名词，不可接不定式，如This book is devoted to explaining and illustrating English usage里的to explaining and illustrating不能改作to explain and illustrate。注意He devotes his time to study里的study是名词，不是动词。

dew

dew用作动词现在很不普通，如下面每组里的第一句远不及第二句普通：

dialect

1.dialect统指“方言”。a dialect是“一种方言”。dialects是“多种方言”。

2.说“某地的方言”该说the... dialect。例如：the Shanghai dialect和the Yorkshire dialect。

dialectal

dialectal是相当于dialect（方言）的形容词。例如：dialectal words（地方词）和dialectal pronunciations（方音）。

dialectic(al)

1.说“辩证法”现在用dialectics比用dialectic普通。dialectics作为一种科学被用作单数。例如：Dialectics, means studying things in their real motion and interconnexion.

2.说“辩证的”用dialectic或dialectical都可以。例如：dialectic(al) method和dialectic(al) materialism。说“方言的”现在一般不用dialectic或dialectical而用dialectal。

dialectics

参见dialectic(al)

diamond

1.diamond统指“金刚石”。a diamond是“一块金刚石”。diamonds是“多块金刚石”。

2.diamond cut diamond是习语，作“针锋相对”或“棋逢敌手”解。全语用作名词，如Whenever he argues with his brother, it is diamond cut diamond。cut是动词，习惯用cut而不用cuts或cutting。

diary

说“记日记”该用keep。例如：I keep a diary in English.

dictate

教师做dictate（口述）的工作，不是学生做这工作，学生们可以说We shall have dictation this afternoon。参见dictation

dictation

1.dictation是“听写”，并不是“读熟了一篇文字，从记忆里默出来”，却是听了教师的朗诵而写下来，这词的本身指教师的“口述”而不指学生的“写下来”。

2.dictation是“口述”，不一定指教师的口述。

3.说“照口述写下或用打字机打下”在dictation前面通常用from，但也有人用to或at。例如：I am ready to write（或type）from（或to，或at）your dictation.动词该用take。例如：I can file, type, and take dictation.

4.可以说The teacher is giving a dictation in the classroom。

diction

diction在美国有时指演戏里的“发音”或“朗诵”，相当于英国的enunciation或elocution。

dictionary

1.English dictionary是“用英语解释英语的词典”。English-Chinese dictionary是“英汉词典”，就是“用汉语解释英语的词典”。说“英汉词典”不可说English dictionary。

2.a dictionary of English usage里的of不可改作on或for。

did

参见do

die

1.die是不及物动词，不可用在被动语态。但died有时用作形容词，如George Bernard Shaw, died 1950和John Milton, born 1608 and died 1674或John Milton, born 1608, died 1674。

2.have died（完成时态）当然不错，但英美人除了对于死了不久的人以外，不用这语。如某人死了一天或一星期，可以说He has died。假使某人死了一年或十年，习惯说He is dead。He has died着重在“他现在已经死了而不像不久以前活着。”He is dead着重在“他是死了的而不是活着的。”即使对于死了不久的人，He has died也不及He is dead普通。

不但这样，说“某人在某日因某病死去”也往往用was dead代died。例如：Mr F. G. Nelson was dead of cancer on Monday.

3.died是一时的动作，所以不可说He has died for a week。说“他死了一星期”。该说He has been dead for a week或It is a week since he died。He died a week ago着重在死的日期而不着重在死了以后到现在的时期。

4.die用在进行时态作“渐渐死去”解，如He is dying是“他渐渐死了”。也就是“他快要死了”。He has been dying for a week是“他濒于死境已有一星期”。

但dying用在独立结构里有时是“渐渐死去”，有时是“死去”，比较下面两句：

The old man dying（渐渐死去）, his sons shed tears silently.

He was twice married, his first wife dying（死去）during his absence abroad.

5.说“因为…而死”通常用die of。例如：What did he die of? He died of cancer. He died of hunger. 和He died of old age. 在病名的前面有时用from。例如：He died from cancer.

6.die后面接形容词或名词，作“在死的时候是…”解。例如：He died rich. He died young. He died a hero. 和He died a martyr.

7.die（骰子）的复数形式是dice，习惯上“一粒骰子”说one of the dice而不说a die。也有人说a dice。

differ

differ在用作“不同”解的时候后面接from，不接with。例如：Chinese differs greatly from English in pronunciation. differ在用作“有不同的意见”或“表示异议”解的时候后面接with或from都可以。例如：I have to differ with（或from）you about that. 和Why should he differ with（或from）her in such a small matter? 用with比用from普通。He differs with her from you是“他和她同样地跟你有不同的意见”。

different

1.different后面接from，to或than都有，接from最普通。接to主要用在英国。接than在美国比在英国用得多。

2.different是普通的形容词，当然可以说very different，但也有人说much different。

3.有人以为no different不及not different正当，但事实上no different比not different普通。Your plan is no different from mine不只是“你的计划跟我的（计划）是一样的。”还含有“一模一样”、“毫无不同”、“半斤八两”等意思。

4.广告里所说的different作“与众不同”解，例如Carpets that are different是“与众不同的地毯”不是“各不相同的地毯”。

differently

不可说He does it differently from she does it，该说He does it differently from her（他的做法跟她不同）。

difficult

1.difficult是“使人感觉困难的”，不是“感觉困难的”，如可以说This is a difficult task和This task is difficult to do，不可说I am difficult to do the task或I am difficult in doing the task。I am difficult作“我使人难以应付”解，又如：He is a difficult boy.

2.This task is difficult to do里的to do不可改作to be done。同样地，可以说difficult to answer，difficult to understand等，不可说difficult to be answered，difficult to be understood等。

3.difficult后面可以接of和表示动作的名词，如difficult of access，difficult of explanation和difficult of performance。

difficultly

difficultly现在极不普通，“困难地”该说with difficulty。

difficulty

1.with difficulty作“困难地”解，是状语短语，不可用作形容词短语，如可以说We climbed the hill with difficulty，不可说Our climb was with difficulty，该把with difficulty改作difficult。但It was with difficulty that we climbed the hill是可以说的，却不可把with difficulty改作difficult，因为这句是We climbed the hill with difficulty的强势式，那was后面当然用副词或状语短语，不可用形容词或形容词短语。

2.in difficulties（注意用复数形式）作“处境困难的”解，是形容词短语，尤其指金钱上的困难。例如：He was in difficulties. in difficulties for...作“缺乏…的”解，如He was in difficulties for money和He was in difficulties for men（他缺乏帮助他的人手）。注意不可在in difficulties后面接不定式，如不可说He was in difficulties to pay the rent，该说He was in difficulties and unable to pay the rent, and unable不可省。

偶尔in difficulty用作in difficulties解。例如：He was in difficulty.

3.make difficulties和raise difficulties都作“提出反对”或“表示异议”解，注意用复数形式。但说“不提出反对”或“不表示异议”用make（或raise）no difficulties或make（或raise）no difficulty都可以。

4.在have（much，great等）difficulty in...ing和find（much，great等）difficulty in...ing里都用单数形式difficulty，前面都没有a。have difficulty in...ing里的in往往省去。例如：I had little difficulty (in) finding the house. There is（much, great等）difficulty in...ing里的in也有时省去。例如：There was some difficulty (in) getting in touch with the children at home.

5.不可说There is some difficulty for me to understand spoken English该说There is some difficulty in my understanding spoken English。或I have some difficulty in understanding spoken English。

6.注意下面各句里习惯用复数形式difficulties：

We needed an interpreter because we had language difficulties.

The enterprise prospered in spite of money difficulties.

Printing difficulties have delayed the publication of the magazine.

It is technical difficulties only that they have yet to overcome.

diligent(ly)

中国学生似乎把diligent和diligently用得太多。该用hard，industrious(ly)，hard-working，painstaking(ly)，studious(ly) 等词调剂一下。

dine

1.dine作have dinner解（参见dinner）。但往往含有“所have的dinner是丰盛的或正式的”的意思，近代英国作家Arnold Bennett写道：Edwin had never dined, he had merely had dinner.

2.比较下面三句：

I shall dine with him tomorrow.

I am dining with him tomorrow. （比第一句通俗）

I dine with him tomorrow. （有“经常每星期几或每月某天我跟他一同进餐，明天又将轮到”的意思）

dinner

1.英美“上等”人家的dinner通常在晚上，“中等”和“下等”人家的dinner通常在午刻。晚上吃dinner的人们所吃“午餐”叫lunch，他们或者不吃supper或者在dinner以后吃一顿简便的supper。

2.dinner也指正式的宴会。

3.dinner有时指“正餐那件事”，有时指“正餐吃的东西”，不论作哪个解，都有时是类名词，有时不是。例如：

He had a hasty dinner with me.

He had to wait for dinner.

He ate a well-cooked dinner.

He could not bring much dinner to me.

4.at dinner，to dinner，before dinner，after dinner等表达方式里都没有the。

5.have dinner，take dinner和eat dinner都作“进餐”解。

diploma

1.diploma主要指大学或专科学校的毕业证书，小学或中学的毕业证书通常用certificate。

2.说某某学科的毕业证书，diploma后面接in。例如：diploma in education，diploma in law，diploma in biology

diplomat(ist)

diplomat（外交家）和diplomatist相同，都很普通，在英国多用diplomatist，在美国多用diplomat。但说“有外交手腕的人”在美国也用diplomatist。

direct

1.direct（直接地，用作副词）在下面各句里比directly普通：

I will go direct to the capital.

The tram goes there direct.

Please send the goods direct to me.

You had better write direct to the headmaster.

We shall communicate with you direct.

We got the information from the police direct.

2.direct（命令）后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should或虚拟现在式。例如：

I direct that he shall（或should）be paid in full.

I direct that he be（不用is）paid in full.

I directed that he should be paid in full.

I directed that he（不用was）be paid in full.

direction

1.in...direction是“向着…的方向”，from...direction是“从…的方向”。in...direction里的in不可改作to。

2.an easterly direction里用an，不用the，但the direction of the east里用the，不用an。

3.说“命令”、“吩咐”、“指示”、“（药的）服法”、“（器具的）用法”等都习惯用复数形式。后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should。例如：Before he started, he left directions that his papers should be kept where they were.

directive

近一二十年来directive往往用作名词，作“命令”解。尤其指关于重大事件的发给许多人的命令。

directly

1.参见direct 1

2.directly往往用作连接词，作as soon as解。例如：I got up directly I heard him. 这是口语用法，主要用在英国。

directory

directory用作“董事会”解是美国英语，相当于英国英语的directorate。

dirt

dirt统指一切污秽的东西，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。例如：The swine love to wallow in dirt.

disagree

1.disagree不论作何解释，后面只接with，不接其他介词。例如：This disagrees with that. I disagree with you about that. 和We disagree with your suggestion.

2.disagreed（不及物动词的过去分词）有时用作形容词。例如：The committee are disagreed on this point.

disappear

disappear是一时的动作，所以不可说He has disappeared for some days，该说He disappeared some days ago. 或It is some days since he disappeared。偶尔也有For ten days again he disappeared等句。

disappoint(ed)

1.disappoint是“使…失望”或“使沮丧”，不是“感觉失望”，如可以说The book has disappointed me和I have been disappointed in the book，不可说I have disappointed in the book。The book disappoints里的disappoints作“使人失望”解，是不及物动词。

2.be disappointed in...是“对于…感觉失望”，be disappointed of...是“因为得不到…而感觉失望”，比较下面两句：

I was disappointed in the book. （我对于那本书感觉失望［那本书不及我原来所期望的好］。）

I was disappointed of the book. （我因为得不到那本书而感觉失望。）be disappointed with...跟be disappointed in...意思相同，但后面通常接指人的词。例如：He was disappointed with his new assistant. be disappointed at...跟be disappointed in...也意思相同，后面通常接指东西的词。例如：He was disappointed at his marriage.

3.He is disappointed和He is disappointing和He despairs意思不同。参见despair 3

4.disappointed后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He is disappointed that he did not fulfil his quota of production last month.

5.disappointed后面可以接表示原因的不定式。例如：The teacher was disappointed to find that the boy could not spell his own name.

6.关于a disappointed look（失望的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

disapprove

1.disapprove用作“不核准”解现在很不普通。

2.I disapprove (of) your conduct和I disapprove (of) your doing so等句子里的of可有可无。但I disapprove of you（指人）等句子里的of不可省去。

disarmament

disarmament没有复数形式disarmaments。

disaster

disaster有时指一件很不幸的事，有时统指很不幸的事。例如：The railway accident is indeed a disaster. 和He never thinks of the possibility of disaster.

disc

参见disk

disconcert(ed)

关于his disconcerted face（他的受窘的面容）等，参见much 3 (5) E

disconsolate

disconsolate（郁郁不乐的）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He was disconsolate that nobody had come out to meet him.

discontent(ed)

1.discontent用作形容词现在极不普通，该用discontented。

2.discontent（名词），discontentedness，discontentment和discontentness有下面几点该注意：

（1）discontent最普通。

（2）discontentedness着重在“被使不满足”的意思。

（3）discontentment跟discontent相同，但不及discontent普通。

（4）discontentness极不普通，不该用。

discontentedness

参见discontent(ed) 2

discontentment

参见discontent(ed) 2

discontentness

参见discontent(ed) 2

discontinue

1.discontinue（中止）后面接动名词比接不定式普通，如He soon discontinued writing to me比He soon discontinued to write to me普通。

2.continue（继续）是连续的动作，但discontinue通常是一时的动作。如假定你从3点钟到9点钟连续写字，在9点钟停止，continue 6小时，在9点钟那一时刻discontinue了，可以说I continued (to write) for six hours, and discontinued at nine o'clock。但偶尔也指“持续地停止”。例如：After his illness he discontinued writing for nearly five years.

discount

1.for discount（当作折扣），without discount（没有折扣），get discount（得到折扣）等表达方式里习惯没有a。5％ discount和a 5％ discount都可以说。

2.discount（动词）作“贴现”解的时候，主语也许是收进票据者，也许是交出票据者，如The bank discounted my bill和I discounted my bill at the bank都可以说。

discourage

1.discourage（劝阻）的宾语后面接from和动名词，不接不定式，如His advice discouraged her from trying again里的from trying不可改用to try。把from改作against也可以，但不及用from普通。

2.discourage是“阻止成功”，“阻止”而不成功便不是discourage，如不可说His advice discouraged her from trying again, but she made two attempts more，该把discouraged改作was meant to discourage。

discover

1.discover是“发现”（原来有而未曾被人知道的东西），invent是“发明（原来没有的东西）”。如牛顿（Newton）的发现地心吸力是discover，中国的发明指南针是invent。

2.He suddenly discovered himself (to be) unable to go to the concert because of a previous engagement里的to be用的多，不用的少。

discriminate

discriminate A and B, discriminate between A and B和discriminate A from B都可以说。

discuss

discuss（讨论）是及物动词，所以后面不该加上about，如不可说We shall discuss about the problem very soon或The book discusses about the international situation，该把about删去。

discussion

We had a discussion on the easing of world tensions里的on改作of或about也可以。

disease

disease统指“病”。a disease是“一种病”。diseases是“多种病”。

disfavour

参见disgrace

disgrace

disgrace比disfavour语气重，如可以说He was in disfavour amounting almost to disgrace。

disgraceful

可以说You ought to be ashamed of the disgraceful manner in which you treated your little brother，但不可说You did not treat your little brother in a disgraceful manner或Did you treat your little brother in a disgraceful manner? 以及If you treated your little brother in a disgraceful manner, you ought to be ashamed of it和You must avoid treating your little brother in a disgraceful manner。参见most 4

disguise(d)

disguise是“使…假装”。例如：Henry disguised her as a beggar. 注意disguised的宾语是her，不是beggar，要是说Henry disguised a beggar，便是说“亨利把一个叫化子假装（得不像叫化子）”了。同样地，a disguised beggar是“一个实际是叫化子而假装得不像叫化子的人”，不是“一个假装得像叫化子的人”。a beggar in disguise也是这个意思。“一个假装得像叫化子的人”该说a person（或man，或woman）disguised as a beggar。

disgust(ed)

1.disgust用作名词是“厌恶”，不是“惹厌”。例如：He showed disgust at the sight. 但disgust用作动词是“惹…的厌”，不是“厌恶…”，如可说The sight disgusted him，不可说He disgusted the sight。但可以说He was disgusted at the sight。

2.关于a disgusted grin（表示厌恶的露齿一笑）等，参见much 3 (5) E

disgustful

disgustful有两个意思，“惹厌的”和“因厌恶而起的”，如disgustful sight（惹厌的景象）和disgustful contempt（因厌恶而起的轻视）。现在说“惹厌的”多用disgusting，少用disgustful。

disillusion

disillusion（动词）作free from illusion解，就是“使（某人）大失所望”。例如：He had thought the story very interesting, but was disillusioned after reading the first few pages.

disillusionize

disillusionize等于disillusion，但不及disillusion普通。

disinclination

disinclination后面接不定式或to和动名词，如his disinclination to go out at night和his disinclination to going out at night。

disincline

disincline现在通常只用作及物动词，作“使…不要”解，它的宾语后面接不定式或to，往往用在被动语态里。例如：The health disinclines him to read. He is now disinclined to read. The health disinclines him to sociability. 和He is now disinclined to sociability.

disinterested

disinterested作“不自私的”或“公正的”解，uninterested作“不注意的”或“不感兴趣的”解，不可相混。

disk

1.disk和disc相同。

2.disk作“唱片”解主要用在美国，在英国通常用record。

dislike

1.dislike（动词）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：She dislikes to leave（或leaving）letters unanswered.

2.dislike（名词）后面接to，of或for，不接不定式，如可以说his dislike to（或of，或for）leaving letters unanswered，不可说his dislike to leave letters unanswered。

3.I dislike him语气比I have a dislike to（或of，或for）him重。

dispatch

1.dispatch比despatch普通。

2.dispatch作send（off）解，但不及send（off）普通。

displace

displace是“把…的地位让给另一东西”，misplace是“把…放在不该放的地位”，如假定你把第一册书放在第五册书的地位，你便displace了第五册，misplace了第一册。被displace的人或物当然被迫让位，在第二次世界大战里的displaced person是“被迫离开祖国的欧洲人”。

disposal

disposal相当于dispose of，disposition相当于dispose。如the disposal of the books是“这些书的处置”，如“藏起来”或“卖掉”，the disposition of the books是“这些书的安排”，指“排列”。at your（或his等）disposal和at your（或his等）disposition意思相同，作“听任支配”解。例如：It is at your disposal（或disposition），现在多用disposal。

dispose

dispose和dispose of都可以用作“处理”解，如You may dispose it as you please和You may dispose of it as you please都可以说。现在多用dispose of。

disposed

disposed（愿意的）后面接不定式或to和动名词都可以。例如：I am disposed to help（或to helping）you.

disposition

1.参见disposal

2.disposition（意向）后面接to或不定式，如a disposition to jealousy和a disposition to suspect people。

disqualify

1.disqualify（使不合格）的宾语的后面接for和动名词，不接不定式，如His poor eyesight has disqualified him for serving in the army里的for serving不可改作to serve。

2.disqualify（使失去权利）的宾语的后面接from和动名词。例如：A conviction of perjury has disqualified him from being a witness.

disregard

disregard（名词）后面接of，for或to都可以，如his disregard of（或for，或to）convention。

dissatisfactory

dissatisfactory远不及unsatisfactory普通。

dissatisfied

1.dissatisfied语气比unsatisfied重。

2.关于a dissatisfied expression（一个不满意的表情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

dissemble

1.He dissembles fear可以作“他实际上不怕而假装怕”解，但通常作“他实际怕而假装得不怕”解，等于dissimulate。参见dissimulate

2.没有相当于dissemble的名词，在需要名词的场合用dissimulation。

disservice

do him（或her等）a disservice作“做有害于他（或她等）的事”解，往往含有“原来想有利于他（或她等）而结果反而有害于他（或她等）”的意思。

dissimilar

dissimilar后面通常接to，也可以接from或with，但不普通。

dissimulate

1.He dissimulates fear是“他实际怕而假装得不怕”。He simulates fear是“他实际不怕而假装得怕”。

2.dissimulate不及dissemble通俗，但在跟simulate对比的场合习惯用dissimulate。

dissuade

1.dissuade（劝阻）后面现在接宾语和from，不接宾语和不定式，如I must dissuade you from your purpose和I must dissuade you from going。from going不可改作to go。

2.dissuade可能是“劝阻成功”，可能是“劝阻（而未必成功）”，通常必须看了上下文才能看出。例如：

He dissuaded me from my purpose, without much difficulty. （成功）

He dissuaded me from my purpose, but did not insist. （不成功）

用在被动语态总是指成功的。例如：I am thankful that I was dissuaded from my purpose.

distance

1.at a distance和to a distance里用a，不用the。in the distance里用the不用a。from a distance比from the distance普通。at that distance和at some distance里用at。

2.in the distance所指的“远处”指看得见或听得到的地方，如I see a cottage in the distance和I hear a dog barking in the distance。但一人住在上海，一人住在南京，不能说彼此in the distance。

3.within easy distance of the school等表达方式里的easy前面没有an或the。

distaste(ful)

1.distaste是“厌恶”，后面接for或of。例如：a distaste for monotonous work和a distaste of being left behind。

2.distaste是“厌恶”，不是“惹厌”，但distasteful是“惹厌的”，不是“厌恶的”。

distinct(ive)(ly)

distinct(ly) 是“独立的（或地）”或“清楚的（或地）”，distinctive(ly) 是“足以表示特殊的（或地）、有特色的（或地）”。One of the distinctive features of the book is its distinct illustrations是“这本书的特点之一是它的清楚的插图”。英美人往往在该用distinct(ly)的场合误用distinctive(ly)。

distinguish(ed)

1.distinguish A and B和distinguish between A and B都可以说。在主动语态里用between普通些，在被动语态里不用between普通些。例如：We must carefully distinguish between the present participle and the gerund. 和The present participle and the gerund must be carefully distinguished.

2.distinguished（著名的、出众的）后面接for或by都可以，例如He is distinguished for（或by）his sound judgement。用for比用by普通。

distress(ed)

1.distressed（心中痛苦的）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：She was distressed that her mother was ailing.

2.distressed后面可以接表示原因的不定式。例如：I was distressed to learn the other day that you were ill again.

distribute

1.distribute（分发）的宾语后面接to或among都可以。例如：Please distribute these pictures to（或among）the children.

2.distribute不可用来指“分派给一个人”，如不可说Please distribute this picture to that boy。

district

我国的“县”从前往往译作district，…县译作the... district，如the Wu district（吴县）。现在通常译作county，没有the。

distrust

distrust语气比mistrust重些。

distrustful

1.distrustful是“不信任别人的”，不是“被人不信任的”或“不值得信任的”。后面接of。例如：They seemed to be distrustful of us.

2.distrustful语气比mistrustful重些。

divers(e)

divers是“若干个”，着重在“不止一个或两个”，diverse是“不同的”，着重在“形形色色”。“百家争鸣”里的“百家”可以译作diverse schools (of thought)。divers现在很少见。

divine

divine（动词）作“推测”解，后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：She divined that her brother was going to marry.

divinity

the Divinity指“上帝”，a divinity指“神”。the Divinity里的the偶尔省去，Divinity的开首字母必须大写。a divinity里的divinity的开首字母必须小写。

divorce

1.divorce是“离婚”，不可指“解除婚约”。

2.divorce通常是及物动词，如可以说He has divorced her和They were divorced last year。不该说He has divorced和They divorced last year。

3.He has divorced her是男的主动，She has divorced him是女的主动。但He has been divorced和She has been divorced只说“他已经离婚”和“她已经离婚”，并不一定是“被动”的。注意下面各句：

He has divorced her.

He has been divorced by her.

He has been divorced from her.

He has been divorced.

第一句说男的主动。第二句说女的主动。第三句和第四句并不说谁是主动。divorced man和divorced woman是“离了婚的男子”和“离了婚的女子”，并没有被动的意思。“离了婚的人”（不分男女）是divorcee。

4.divorce是抽象名词，也是类名词She is seeking for (a) divorce里的a可有可无。

do

1.do和did用来加强语势。例如：

I do hope you will come. Do come.

Do be quiet. I did hope you would come.

这两句里的do和did都该重读。注意do be只用在祈使语气里，I do be happy和He does be happy都不可以说。相当于I am happy和He is happy的强势式是I am happy和He is happy。那am和is都该印作斜体，或在下面加上一横线，读起来该重读。

I do hope you will come是I hope you will come的强势式。Do come是Come的强势式。Do be quiet是Be quiet的强势式，是一种强势的请求，略有不耐烦的含意，却并不是命令。I did hope you would come是I hoped you would come的强势式。否定的强势式在用词上跟非强势式没有不同，只是把那否定的词重读。例如：

2.用do或did加强语势有“确定”的意味，下面每组里的两句意思不同：

3.注意下面各句里的do和did：

Never do（或did）I see him.

Not a word do（或did）I ever say to him.

Little do（或did）I know about him.

Hardly do（或did）I know about him.

Seldom do（或did）I see him.

Rarely do（或did）I see him.

Only on Sundays do（或did）I meet him.

Well do（或did）I remember him.

注意：以上各句里的do和did虽然都是用来加重语气的，但习惯上并不重读。do和did都用在主语I的前面，而且不可省去。假使省去了，never，not a word，little，hardly，seldom，rarely，only on Sundays和well都不可用在句首，如Never do I see him该改作I never see him，Never did I see him该改作I never saw him。除了only和well以外，never等词都有否定性质。

4.He studies English as hard as I do Chinese里的do代表study。He studies English as hard as I do里的do代表study English。这两种用法都很普通。但该注意下面各点：

（1）do不可代表动词to be和表语，如He is as much interested as I am里的am不可改作do。

（2）do不可代表从被动语态里推想出来的动词，如不可说His essays are always written as carefully as I do mine，该把do改作write。

（3）do不可用在被动语态，现在分词或动名词，如不可说：

His essays are always written as carefully as mine are done. （该把done删去或改作written）

He always writes as carefully as I am doing. （该把doing改作writing）

He always writes as carefully as I am in the habit of doing. （该把doing改作writing）

（4）He studies English as hard as I do里的do可以省去，但通常不省去，因为I是代词。He studies English as hard as his brother does里的does通常省去，因为brother是名词.

5.注意下面各句里的do so，do it，which...do和as...do：

I did not write my essay yesterday, but shall do so tomorrow.

I did not write my essay yesterday, but shall do it tomorrow.

I wrote my essay in English yesterday, which I seldom do.

I wrote my essay in English yesterday, as I seldom do.

第三句里的which和第四句里的as都指wrote my essay in English，也可以说指writing my essay in English。

注意上面各句里的write和wrote都属于主动语态。下面各句都不可说：

My essay was not written yesterday, but I shall do so tomorrow.

My essay was not written yesterday, but I shall do it tomorrow.

My essay was written in English yesterday, which I seldom do.

My essay was written in English yesterday, as I seldom do.

6.do so和do it可说意思相同。例如：I did not write my essay yesterday, but shall do so tomorrow. 和I did not write my essay yesterday, but shall do it tomorrow. do so不及do it明确，do it里的it明白指write my essay那一件事。比较下面两句：

When he heard the knock, he stood up to open the door, but as he did so, the telephone rang.

When he heard the knock, he locked the door. I do not know why he did it.

但第一句里的so也可以改作it，第二句里的it也可以改作so。

7.There is nothing to do是“没有事可做（闲着）”。There is nothing to be done是“没有办法”。

8.do for，do to和do with意思不同。例如：

What have you done for him? （你为他做了什么？你怎样帮助了他？）

What have you done to him? （你做了什么害他的事？）

What have you done with him? （你怎样处理了他？）

What can I do for you? 是口头惯用语，直译作“我能够为你做什么？”就是“你来看我有什么事？”或（店员问顾客）“你要买什么？”

9.在疑问句和否定句里，助动词do往往和have用在一起。例如：

Do you have bread for supper?

I do not have many visitors.

这两句可以改作：

Have you bread for supper?

I have not many visitors.

但远不及用do的自然。

把助动词do和have用在一起，在美国比在英国普通。在英国通常用在习惯或经常发生的事情，不用在一时或永久的事情，如通常说：

Do you have bread for supper?

I do not have many visitors.

但不说：

Do you have bread for supper this evening? （该说Have you bread for supper this evening?）

I do not have many visitors today. （该说I have not many visitors today。）

也不说：

Do you have brothers and sisters?

I do not have a very strong heart.

但在美国没有这种限制。

上面所举的各句里的have都作“有”解，或有近乎“有”的意思。在have a look，have a chat，have a good time，have a rest，have an accident，have an engagement等表达方式里的have和那后面的名词习惯用在一起。例如：

Did you have a look at the picture? （不作：Had you a look at the picture?）

I did not have a chat with him. （不作：I had not a chat with him.）

Did you have a good time at the top of the hill? （不作：Had you a good time at the top of the hill?）

He did not have a rest till late at night. （不作：he had not a rest till late at night.）

同样地，该说Did you have your hair cut yesterday? 不该说Had you your hair cut yesterday? 该说I did not have my hair cut yesterday，不该说I had not my hair cut yesterday。

10.比较下面两句：

I have not（或haven't）to go. （1.我不必去。2.我只得不去，我不可去。）

I do not（或don't）have to go. （我不必去。）

第一句有两个不同的意思，但I haven't got to go只作“我不必去”解。第一句用在第二个意思里很不普通。

比较下面两句：

I haven't (got) to go next Sunday. （一次）

I don't have to go on Sundays. （经常）

11.do nothing but（或except），do anything but（或except）和do less than三种表达方式后面的不定式没有to。例如：

He did nothing but（或except）laugh.

He did not do anything but（或except）laugh.

He could hardly do less than laugh.

在None of them did anything but（或except）laugh等句子里的不定式也没有to。

下面三句里wait and see前面的to可有可无：

There was nothing（或little）for James to do but (to) wait and see.

It was impossible for James to do otherwise than (to) wait and see.

What is there to do but (to) wait and see?

12.have done（停止）和have done with（停止、完结）两习语都属于完成时态。事实上只有完成时态而没有其他时态。

have done后面有时不接什么，有时接动名词，如I have done和I have done writing。have done with后面接名词，或代词，或动名词。例如：I have done with the whole thing. I have done with it. 和I have done with writing. I have done writing和I have done with writing意思相同。

have done和have done with里的have有时改作动词to be。例如：I am done with the whole thing. I am done writing. 和I am done with writing. 用动词to be主要流行在美国、苏格兰和爱尔兰。

13.do away with和do away都作“除去”解，现在通常用do away with而不用do away。

14.make do（do是不定式）作“勉强过去”解，make do with作“靠着…勉强过去”解。例如：In those days of high prices before liberation we found it very hard to make do. 和As I had broken my pen, I had to make do with a pencil.

15.How do you do? 是习惯用语，但通常不说How do your parents do? 和How does your brother do? 等，却说How are your parents? 和How is your brother? 等。

doctor

1.严格说来，医学博士才是doctor（简写作Dr），但在美国一切医生都被称做doctor（或Dr），也把doctor（或Dr）用来称牙医，兽医和药剂师等。在英国外科医生不算作doctor。

2.the two Drs Johnson和the two Dr Johnsons都可以说。

doctrine

Eisenhower Doctrine（艾森豪威尔主义），Monroe Doctrine（门罗主义）等前面有the，但political doctrine，Christian doctrine，points of doctrine等表达方式里的doctrine是抽象名词，不用the。

document

document指供给证据的任何东西，不一定是公文或文书。如钱币、图画（不一定有文字）、碑铭等也包括在内。

doff

doff现在不很普通，最好改用take off。

dog

dog是“公狗”，“母狗”叫bitch，但习惯上不论公母都可称dog。

dollar

是美国货币单位的名称，译作“元”。说中国的货币单位“元”习惯用yuan，复数同式。

dominate

dominate和dominate over意思相同。

don

don现在很不普通，最好改用put on。

donate

donate（捐赠）主要用在美国。

donation

donation（捐赠的东西、捐款）不及gift普通。

done

关于have done和have done with，参见do 12

donkey

参见ass

doomsday

doomsday（世界末日）前面没有the。

door

1.out of doors比out of door普通得多。

2.There are three doors in this room里习惯用in。

3.说“通入…的门”在door后面接to。例如：There is a little door to the kitchen.

dormitory

dormitory在英国是一间“宿舍”，在美国通常是一所“宿舍”。在美国往往用dormitory bedroom指一间“宿舍”。

double

1.double（双重的）后面接单数形式的名词，如双宾语（双宾语）包括直接宾语和间接宾语，double meaning（双关语）包括一个明显的意思和一个暗示的意思。

2.double this amount, double what was paid等比the double of this amount, the double of what was paid等普通。

doubt

1.I have no doubt that he will come soon和I have no doubt he will come soon都可以说。

2.可以说There is no doubt that he will come soon，不可说It is no doubt that he will come soon。

There is no doubt about it that he will come soon. =There is no doubt that he will come soon.

3.doubt（动词）除了在否定句和疑问句里以外，后面通常接whether而不接that，如通常说I do not doubt that he will come soon和Do you doubt that he will come soon? 但不说I doubt that he will come soon。最好把that改作whether。doubt用作名词也有这区别，如通常说There is no doubt that he will come soon和Is there any doubt that he will come soon? 但不说There is some doubt that he will come soon。最好把that改作whether。

4.在上面说过，I doubt that he will come soon里的that最好改作whether。用了that，不但不合习惯，而且往往有可能被人误解，因为在旧式些的英语里doubt that...作“恐怕…”或“料想…”解。

5.I doubt whether he will come soon含有“我想他不会不久就来”的意思，I doubt whether he will not come soon含有“我想他不久就来”的意思。

6.no doubt是状语短语，现在作“当然”或“大约”解，没有“确实无疑”那样的坚信的意思，如No doubt he meant well enough和You have no doubt heard of her before。要表示“确实无疑”的意思，该用undoubtedly，without doubt，without a doubt，beyond doubt或beyond a doubt。

7.in doubt有时作“怀疑的”解，有时作“使人怀疑的”解，如I am in doubt about his age和His age is in doubt。在用作“怀疑的”解的时候，后面往往不用介词而直接以what，where，how等开首的短语或从句。例如：

I am in doubt what to do with it.

I am in doubt where he lives.

I am in doubt how to proceed.

8.I have no doubt about it和There is no doubt about it等句子里用单数形式doubt，但I have doubts about it里必须用复数形式。

doubtful

1.doubtful有时作“使人怀疑的”解，有时作“怀疑的”解，如Here is a doubtful point of grammar和I am doubtful of the construction of this sentence注意第二句里doubtful后面接of。

2.doubtful除了在否定句和疑问句里以外，后面通常接whether而不接that，如通常说It is not doubtful that he will come soon和Can it be doubtful that he will come soon? 但不说It is doubtful that he will come soon。最好把that改作whether。

3.It is doubtful whether he will come soon含有“他大约不会不久就来”的意思，It is doubtful whether he will not come soon含有“他大约不久就来”的意思。

4.doubtful（怀疑的）后面可以不用介词而直接以what，where，how等开首的短语或从句。例如：

I am doubtful what to do with it.

I am doubtful where he lives.

I am doubtful how to proceed.

doubtless

doubtless现在只用作副词，不用作形容词。它的意思跟no doubt相同。参见doubt 6说“无疑的”通常用unquestionable或indubitable。

down

1.down和up是显然相反的，但下面几点该注意：

（1）说“南”用down，说“北”用up，跟我国的“南下”和“北上”相同。例如：He has gone down south. 和He has gone up north.

（2）说“沿海”用down，说“内地”用up，如he has gone down to the coast和He has gone up to the country。up to the country似乎不及up the country，up country，up-country或upcountry普通。

（3）说“乡村”用down，说“城市”用up，如He has gone down to the country和He has gone up to town。在英国up to town或up in town通常指首都伦敦。

（4）说河的“下游”（近河口）用down，说河的“上游”（近发源地）用up，如He has sailed down the river和He has sailed up the river。

（5）说城市的“商业区”（热闹的）用down，说城市的“住宅区”（冷静的）用up，如He comes down town（或down-town，或down town）every morning和he lives up town（或up-town，或up town）。这主要是美国用法，参见down(-)town

（6）说“沿（街、弄等）”用down或up没有区别。例如：He is walking down（或up）the street.

2.比较下面两句：

A cat jumped down the ladder. （一只猫在梯子上跳下来［沿着梯子一跳一跳地下来］。）

A cat jumped down from the ladder. （一只猫从梯子上跳下来［一刹那的动作］。）

3.He is up是“他已经起身。”He is down是“他已经离开卧室（或梳洗室）。”可以说He is up and down。

downstair(s)

1.不论用作形容词或副词，downstairs比downstair普通。

2.downstairs虽然有时也用作名词，但不可说in downstairs或to downstairs.

3.He kept running up and down stairs里因为up和down并列而down和stairs分开。

down(-)town

downtown或down-town主要是美国英语，指城市的（热闹的）商业区，用作形容词、副词或名词都可以。例如：He works in a down(-)town street. He works down(-)town. 和I do not care for the lift of down(-)town. 在用作副词的时候，往往写作down town。

dozen

1.dozen的复数形式有时后面加s，有时不加。dozen后面有时有of，有时没有。dozens后面不可没有of而直接接名词。下面几点该注意：

（1）some dozen people是“一打左右的人”，就是“大约十二个人”。some dozen of people同义。some dozens of people是“若干打的人”，就是“几十个人”。说“若干打”必须用some dozens，不可用some dozen。

（2）a dozen people，two dozen people，several dozen people，many dozen people等表达方式里都用dozen，不用dozens，而且都没有of，用了of便带古意。但a dozen of these people，two dozen of them，several dozen of wine等表达方式里该有of，因为习惯上在these，those，them，us等词前面该用dozen of，在wine等物质名词前面也该用dozen of（dozen后面省去bottles，quarts等词）。several dozen of wine或many dozen of wine里的dozen可以改作dozens。

（3）dozens of people（几十人、许多人）和dozens of times（几十次、许多次）等表达方式里用dozens，不用dozen。

2.关于a dozen和one dozen，参见a，an 20 (5)

Dr

参见doctor

draft

1.draft和draught实际是一个词，但有下面几点应该注意：

（1）说“支取款项”或“汇票”只用draft，不用draught。

（2）说军队里的“分遣”或“分遣队”用draft比用draught普通。

（3）说“草稿”，“作…的草稿”或“草图”用draft比用draught普通。但说“作…的草图”在英国通常用draught，在美国通常用draft。“投稿”的“稿”和“书稿”的“稿”不可用draft，该用manuscript。

（4）在英国人用draught的场合美国人往往用draft。

2.draft（汇票）后面习惯接for再接款额，如a draft for ¥ 200。也有人用of，但不及for普通。

3.draft（汇票）后面习惯接on再接银行名，如a draft on the Bank of China。

drama

统指“戏剧”用drama或the drama都可以，统指“某地或某时的戏剧”用the或不用the也都可以，如the French drama和French drama, the Elizabethan drama和Elizabethan drama。

draught

1.参见draft 1

2.draught（通风、气流）通常用作类名词，但有时也用作物质名词。例如：There is too much draught here.

draw

1.draw（拉）不及pull通俗。

2.draw用作“画（图）”或“画…的图”解都可以。例如：draw a picture of a cat和draw a cat。

3.draw是“绘制画”，不指水彩画或油画。

4.draw有时带有双宾语。例如：I ask you to draw（画）me a plan showing where your house is. I ask you to draw me a cheque for this amount（开给我这笔款的支票）. 和I ask you to draw（汲）me a bucket of cold water.

dread

1.dread（动词）后面接不定式比接动名词普通，如Lily dreads to go out late at night比Lily dreads going out late at night普通。也可以接以lest引导的从句。例如：She dreads lest her baby (should) have a relapse. 但很不通俗。

2.dread用作形容词作“可怕的”或“使人敬畏的”解，现在很不普通，最好改用dreadful。

3.dread（名词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He has a dread that the weather will prove too much for his old father.

4.in dread后面可以接以lest引导的从句。例如：They were in dread lest a storm (should) destroy their crops. 但很不通俗。

dream

1.dream是类名词，是一个一个的梦，并不统指“梦”或“做梦”，就是说不是抽象名词，如可以说I had a dream last night和He pretended to be able to interpret dreams。不可说I never have dream或He often talks in dream。该改作I never have dreams和He often talks in his dreams。

2.dream（动词）后面接of或about或以that引导的从句，不接不定式，如可以说I sometimes dream of（或about）my grandfather和I sometimes dream that I am in Singapore，不可说I sometimes dream to be in Singapore。在用作“梦想”解的时候，dream后面接of或以that引导的从句，不接about，如I have never dreamt of（不用about）doing this和I often dream that I shall go to the moon some day。

3.dream有时用作形容词，作“梦中的（而未必真有的）”或“像梦一样美妙的”解，如dream children, dream city, dream landscape, dream holiday和dream face。

drear(y)

dreary比drear普通得多。drear在散文里用得很少。

dress

1.dress（动词）作“穿衣”或“替（某人）穿衣”解，不作“穿（衣）”解，如可以说She is dressing和She is dressing her baby，不可说She is dressing her coat。

2.dress（名词）统指“服装（尤指外衣）”。例如：He doesn't seem to care much about dress. a dress通常是“一件女衫”，偶尔是“一件童装”，dresses通常是“多件女衫”，偶尔是“多件童装”。不可把a dress和dresses用作“一件男装”和“多件男装”解，如不可说He wears a blue dress该改作He is dressed in blue。

3.full dress（大礼服）和evening dress（晚礼服）前面都没有a或the，也没有复数形式。dress有时也单独用作evening dress解。

4.下面两句意思不同：

He dresses well. （他经常穿得很整齐。）

He is well dressed. （他［在某时］穿着得整齐。）

注意不可说He dressed well that morning，该说He was well dressed that morning。

但下面两句里的dress指一次，并不指经常：

Let's dress（穿上礼服）for dinner.

I'm afraid I shall not have time to dress（穿上适当的衣服）。

dress-goods

dress-goods是“女装和童装的衣料”，并不泛指“衣料”。

dress(-)maker

dress(-)maker是“做女装和童装的人”，通常是女装裁缝，并不泛指“裁缝”。

dress(-)making

dress(-)making是dress(-)maker的职务。

drink

1.He is addicted to drink, He is given to drink和He has taken to drink三句里的drink都作“过度的喝酒”解，是名词。

2.They used to drink heartily of what they liked best里用of表示“喝…的一部分”。

3.对人说Drink another cup of tea当然不错，但不及Have another cup of tea普通。

4.drink to him（喝酒祝他健康）和drink him都可以说。drink to his health和drink his health也都可以说。drink success to the cause是“喝酒预祝那事业的成功”，drink to the success of the cause是“喝酒庆祝那事业的成功”。

drive

1.a drive to raise funds（筹款运动），a membership drive（征求会员运动）等表达方式里的drive是美国英语，在英国用campaign。drive用作“进攻”解也是美国用法，在英国用offensive。

2.drive（不及物动词）和ride（不及物动词）略有不同。drive通常是“乘完全或部分地自己管理的车”，如He is driving in his own car, He is driving in a friend's car和He is driving in a hired car。ride通常是“乘自己并不管理的车”，如He is riding in a bus, He is riding in a tram-car和He is riding in a train。在美国ride也指“乘船”。例如：He is riding in a steamer. drive和ride用作名词，有跟用作不及物动词同样的区别。

3.drive是“驾驶”，drive in是“乘坐”。例如：

He is driving a car. （他正在驾驶汽车。）

He is driving in a car. （他正在坐着汽车行路。）

4.He drives his own car可能有两个含意：“他驾驶自己的汽车（不必借用别人的）”和“他自己驾驶汽车（没有司机）。”

drop

1.drop可以用作“投寄（信件）”解，有“随意一投”的意思。例如：Please drop me a line. 和I dropped a note to him this morning.

2.drop in（偶然访问）后面接on或upon再接指人的词。例如：I dropped in (up) on him yesterday.

3.let drop（暗示，drop是不定式）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：Quite unexpectedly Paul let drop that he was thinking of leaving for Europe.

drouth

drouth（旱灾）=drought，但在英国通常用drought，在美国通常用drouth。在英国drouth主要用在诗歌和方言里。

drown

1.drown用作不及物动词作“淹死”解，但除了在现在分词和动名词以外，通常不用drown而用动词to be＋drowned，如The drowning man was a foreigner, He was saved from drowning和He was drowned last night。He drowned last night也不算错，但不很自然。

2.drown用作不及物动词作“淹死”解，用作及物动词作“把…淹死”解，都指“死”，说“淹而未死”或“放入水中”不可用drown，如不可说I was drowned last night, but was fortunate enough to be saved和I drowned my cat, but she jumped up and ran away。

3.drown只用于有生命的东西，不可用来指船的“沉没”或“使（船）沉没”，如不可说The ship (was) drowned yesterday，该改作下面的任何一式：

The ship went down yesterday.

The ship sank yesterday.

The ship was sunk yesterday.

The ship was lost yesterday.

The ship was wrecked yesterday.

drudgery

drudgery（苦役、劳苦的工作）通常用作抽象名词，但偶尔也用作类名词。例如：a laborious drudgery

drug

参见medicine 1

druggist

druggist（药剂师）在美国很通用，相当于英国的chemist。

drug(-)store

1.drug-store或drugstore（药房）是美国英语，相当于英国的chemist's shop。

2.drug(-)store在美国除了卖药和配药以外往往兼卖冰淇淋、冷热饮料、糖果、点心、牙膏、牙刷、香水、杂志、唱片等东西，而且备有凳子，给顾客们坐着聊天。

drunk(en)

drunk和drunken有下面几点不同，该注意：

（1）drunk主要用在表语用法里，如可以说Francis is drunk。比较少说Francis is a drunk man。它作“喝醉了的”解，不作“时常喝醉的”解。

（2）drunken用在定语用法里可以作“喝醉了的”解，也可以作“时常喝醉的”解，如I met a drunken man yesterday和Francis used to be a drunken fellow。用在表语用法里只作“时常喝醉的”解，如可以说Francis used to be drunken and lazy，不可说Francis was drunken this morning。该把drunken改作drunk。

dry

dry goods在英国通常指五谷等干物，在美国指绸、布等织物。

duck

1.duck（鸭）兼指雌雄，drake（雄鸭）很少用。

2.duck往往指鸭肉或当作猎物的鸭子，如I like duck和We shall shoot duck next week。

due

1.in due course（依照顺序）和in due time（在适当时机）里都没有the。in due course of time跟in due time同义，但很不普通。

2.the amount due to you（欠你的款项）等表达方式里的to在美国往往省去。Thanks are due to all the authors whose works are here represented里的to在美国也往往省去。

3.the amount due是“那欠着的款项”，the due amount是“那（多少）适当的款项”。

4.在“标准”英语里due to（由于）只可引导形容词短语，不可引导状语短语，如可以说Their delay was due to the bad weather，不可说“They delayed due to the bad weather，该把due改作owing，但这种用法的due to在英美都很普通。

5.Thanks are due (to) him和A month's leave is due (to) her都是正常的英语。He is due thanks和She is due a month's leave是比较新的结构，主要用在口语里。

dumb

dumb用作“笨的”解是美国口语。例如：A man is not suspected of being dumb until he begins to talk.

duplicate

a letter in duplicate是“一式两份的一封信”，the duplicate of a letter是“一封信的副本”。

dusk(y)

dusk（薄暮的，阴暗的）用作形容词主要用在诗歌里，在一般文字里该用dusky。

dust

dust统指“尘”，没有复数形式。a dust是“一阵尘土”。

Dutch(man)

Dutch是“荷兰的”或“荷兰语”，Dutchman是“荷兰人”。从前Dutch也用作“德国的”或“德语”解，Dutchman也用作“德国人”解，现在Dutch和Dutchman在美国有时还这样解。有时也指“讲德语的美国人”。

duteous

duteous远不及dutiful普通，最好不用。

duty

duty后面通常接of和动名词，很少接不定式，如通常说the duty of doing it，很少说the duty to do it。

dwell

dwell用作“住”解现在除了在报纸上以外远不及live通用。

dwelling

除了在诗歌或法律文件里以外，dwelling通常指简陋的房子。

dying

参见die 4

dynamic(al)

除了作“关于dynamics（动力学）”解（例如：dynamical principles）以外，现在dynamic比dynamical普通得多，相当于这两种形式的副词都是dynamically。

dynasty

1.dynasty指“连续的一姓的若干君主”，就是“明朝或清朝”等的“朝”。说“南北朝”的“朝”不可用dynasty，该用period，说“乾隆朝”的“朝”也不可用dynasty该用reign。

2.说某朝该用the，如the Ming（明）Dynasty（或dynasty）和the Stuart Dynasty（或dynasty）。

3.in the...Dynasty（dynasty）里的in改作during或under也可以。

E

each

1.each和every都作“每”解，但用法不同，该注意下面各点：

（1）each可以用作代词，但every现在只可用作形容词，如可以说each of these books，不可说every of these books，该在every后面加上one。each one也有人用，往往含有“没有遗漏”的意思。

（2）each可以指两个或两个以上中间的“每个”，但every只可指两个以上中间的“每个”，不可指两个中间的“每个”，如可以说each of my hands，不可说every one of my hands。但可以说every one of my fingers。

（3）each通常指固定的若干个中间的“每个”，但every往往指“任何一个”，如Each boy sitting at the table is my brother和Every boy should do his best。

（4）every比each语气重些。在every指固定的若干个中间的“每个”的时候，着重在全体而不在个别的各个，如I know every member of the family着重在“认得全家的人”，I know each member of the family着重在“认得各个人”。

2.each或each…属于单数形式，如Each is good, Each of the books is good和Each book is good。把each或each...当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

3.下面两句意思相同：

Each of the boys has his own mother.

The boys each have their own mothers.

第二句不可改作The boys each have his own mother。

下面两句意思也相同：

Each of the boys has two apples.

The boys have two apples each.

第二句改作The boys each have two apples也可以，但不很自然。

下面两句意思也相同：

Each of the boys is clever.

The boys are each of them clever.

第二句改作The boys are each clever或The boys are clever each也可以，但不很自然。

4.each of them, each of us, each of those, each of the books等都可以说，但不可说each of A and B或each of A, B, and C。

5.不可说between each或between each... 参见between 1

6.each other和one another可以通用，参见another 8

7.each other的物主代词形式是each other's，不是each others'。但each other's fathers, each other's faces等表达方式里通常用fathers和faces，很少用单数形式。

8.each other不可用作主语，如不可说We know what each other wants，该说We know each what the other wants或Each of us knows what the other wants。假使一共有三个或三个以上的人，该说We know each what the others want或Each of us knows what the others want。

9.注意Each day, each hour, and each minute has its interest里用has和its，不用have和their。

10.Each time (that) I saw her I admired her more里的that可有可无。

eager

1.eager后面接for或after，如He is eager for（或after）themastery of English。也接不定式，如He is eager to master English。但通常不接for或after和动名词，如通常不说He is eager for（或after）mastering English。

2.eager后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用should。例如：I am（或was）eager that you should arrive there before ten.

3.eager后面可以接for和宾语和不定式。例如：The girl was eager for her parents to meet the young man who had asked her to marry him.

eagerness

eagerness是eager的名词，后面接不定式。例如：an（或his等）eagerness to master English

ear

1.每个人有两个耳朵，但在若干习语里着重在“听”而不着重在耳朵那东西，所以用单数形式。例如：

an ear for music（辨别音乐的才能），have a good ear（能够辨别音乐），have a poor ear（不能辨别音乐），have no ear（不懂音乐），give ear to（静听），gain（或have）his（或your等）ear（得到他［或你等］的静听），send him（或you等）away（或off）with a flea in his（或your等）ear（责备或嘲笑他［或你等］而使他［或你等］走开），turn a deaf ear to（不理、不顾），a word in his（或your等）ear（对他［或你等］讲的私下话）

2.下面两句里用all，是习惯用法，不可改作both：

He listened with all his ears. （他倾耳而听。）

He was all ears to hear our discussion. （他静听我们的讨论。）

也可以说He was all ear。

early

1.early in the morning等表达方式有时被用作名词。例如：Early in the morning is a good time for a walk.

2.下面两句意思相同：

They arrived here early in the morning.

They arrived here in the early morning.

下面两句也意思相同：

Early next morning we started together.

Next morning early we started together.

3.as early as five o'clock和as early as 1632里不该在five o'clock前面加上at或在1632前面加上in。

4.I was told that he had left the city two days earlier里的earlier作before解。

earn

1.earn有时用作“应该得到”（实际未必得到）解，如He got what he had earned和He did not get what he had earned。

2.earn有时带有双宾语，作“使…得到”解。例如：His writings have earned him many friends. earned后面加上for也可以。

earnest

1.in earnest用作形容词短语或状语短语都可以，如He is in earnest和He asked the question in earnest。

2.in real earnest和in good earnest都比in earnest语气重。

ear(-)shot

He is within ear(-)shot通常是“他在可以听到的距离以内”。偶尔是“他在可以被听到的距离以内”。He is out of ear(-)shot通常是“他在可以听到的距离以外”。偶尔是“他在可以被听到的距离以外”。比较下面每组里的两句：

within ear(-)shot of和out of ear(-)shot of也有两个不同的意思。例如：

上面所举的例子都指人的声音，He is within ear(-)shot和He is out of ear(-)shot等句往往兼指可以听和可以被听到，只能发出声音而没有听觉的东西（例如钟和乐队）不可能within ear(-)shot或out of ear(-)shot，如不可说：

The bell is within ear(-)shot.

The bell is within ear(-)shot of the class.

The band is out of ear(-)shot.

The band is out of ear(-)shot of the people outside the room.

但可以说：

The class is within ear(-)shot of the bell.

The people outside the room are out of ear(-)shot of the band.

earthy

of the earth earthy（世俗的、人世的）或of the earth，earthy是习语，注意用earthy，不用earthly。

ease

at ease和at his（或your等）ease在用作形容词短语的时候，都作“没有拘束的”或“自在的”解，如She is at (her) ease in speaking English和He is not quite at (his) ease in society。在用作状语短语的时候，at ease通常作“富裕地”解，如The old couple live at ease。偶尔作“安闲地”解，如They sat side by side and talked at ease。at his（或your等）ease作“安闲地”解，如They sat side by side and talked at their ease。

easily

1.easily有时作“无疑地”解，主要用在美国。例如：

He is easily the best student in the class.

The Way of All Flesh is easily the most important work of Samuel Butler.

2.可以说He is genuinely shy and blushes easily和The modern reader easily forgets that Shakespeare did not receive a good school education。

east

1.the East在英国指世界的东部，如中国、日本和印度，在美国通常指美国的东部。在美国称世界的东部通常用the Orient。

2.Far East（远东），Near East（近东）和Middle East（中东）三种表达方式前面都有the。

3.East China（中国的东部、华东），East Europe（欧洲的东部、东欧）等表达方式前面都没有the，但the east of China, the east of Europe等表达方式里都有the。

4.in the east of是“在…的东部”，to the east of是“在…的东方”，就是“比…东”，如Japan lies in the east of Asia和Japan lies to the east of China。east of（east是副词）=to the east of。例如：Japan lies east of China. 注意不可在该用to the east of的时候用in the east of。on the east of跟to the east of相同，但有“贴近”的含意。

5.east（形容词），easterly和eastern不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）east wind（东风）和easterly wind都可以说。但eastern wind极不普通，不该用。

（2）除了指风向以外，east, easterly和eastern都不作“从东方来的”解。

（3）说“东门”或“东端”用east，如East Gate和east end。the East End指伦敦东区，港口附近，多工人住宅。

（4）说“向东的”用easterly，如easterly course, easterly voyage和easterly direction。

（5）说“东方的”用eastern，如eastern province, eastern tribe和Eastern civilization。Eastern China, Eastern Europe等表达方式跟East China, East Europe等表达方式相同。

Easter

1.Easter（耶稣复活节），Easter day和Easter Sunday三个单词意思相同，前面都没有the。

2.Easter前面用at，Easter day和Easter Sunday前面用on。

easterly

参见east 5

eastern

参见east 5

easy

1.easy是“容易的”，不是“感觉容易的”，如可以说This is an easy lesson和This lesson is easy to learn。不可说I am easy to learn the lesson或I am easy in learning the lesson。

2.可以说This lesson is easy to learn。也有人说This lesson is easy to be learnt，但很少见，不算正当。同样地，通常说easy to do, easy to solve, easy to understand等，不说easy to be done, easy to be solved, easy to be understood等。

This lesson is easy to be learnt不算正当，但This lesson is easily to be learnt和This lesson is easily learnt都是正常的英语（两句意思相同），不过不及This lesson is easy to learn普通。但This lesson is easily (to be) forgotten却不可改作This lesson is easy to forget。This word is easily (to be) misused也不可改作This word is easy to misuse。注意“忘记”和“误用”都是要不得的。

It is easy to forget this lesson和It is easy to misuse this word却又是正常的英语。

3.easy后面有时接of和表示动作的名词，如easy of access（易于接近），easy of acceptance（易于接受）和easy of accomplishment（易于成功）。

4.take it easy, take things easy和take matters easy三种表达方式都作“从容”或“不紧张”解，习惯用easy，极少用easily。但下面两句里用easily而不用easy，显然因为前面有more或too。例如：

You can't afford to take things more easily.

You seem to take matters too easily.

eat

1.eat用作“进餐”解在英国现在不流行，但在美国很流行，如We eat at noon和Does he eat in his sitting-room?

2.They used to eat heartily of what they liked best里用of表示“吃…的一部分”。

3.对人说Eat more marmalade当然不错，但不及说Have more marmalade普通。

4.eat his（或your等）words一般译作“食言”，其实是“声明取消前言”，跟“食言”不同。如假定某人在上星期说将在今天给你什么东西，结果今天并不给你，那是“食言”，但不是eat his words，必须他声明不给你了，才是eat his words。又如假定某人说你坏话，你叫他声明他所说的不对，那便是叫他eat his words，却并不是叫他“食言”，可以说When he was confronted with such clear evidence, Henry was forced to eat his words in public。

eatable

eatable是“（虽然太生、太熟或不很新鲜但是）可以吃的”，edible是“（虽然通常不用作食品而）可以吃的”。

eave(s)

eaves原来是单数形式，但现在被用作复数形式，如The eaves have now been finished。另外造出eave作单数形式，但eave远不及eaves普通。

economic(al)

1.现在economic作“经济（学）上的”解，economical作“节约的”解，如economic help（经济援助）和economic point of view（经济观点），economical use（节约的用法）和economical meal（节约的一餐）。Adam Smith's economic doctrine, the economic structure of society, economic independence, economic crisis, economic espionage（经济间谍），economic penetration（经济侵入）等表达方式里必须用economic。

2.economical后面接of。例如：She is economical of her time.

3.相当于economic和economical的副词都是economically。

economics

参见-ics

economy

economy是“节约”或“节省”，是抽象名词。例如：The housekeeper is accustomed to economy. an economy是“一件节约的事”，它的复数形式是economies，如He practises a strict economy in paper和She practises several little economies。

edible

参见eatable

edit

edit不可用作“出版”解，如不可说The Foreign Languages Publishing House in Beijing has edited many books，该把edited改作published。edit也不可用作“创作”解，如不可说Shakespeare edited As You Like It，该把edited改作wrote。

edition

1.edition并不是相当于edit的抽象名词，如不可说The edition of his father's letters took him two months，该把edition改作editing。

2.一本书的second edition（第二版）与first edition不一定相同，也不一定不同，third edition与second edition也是这样。假使要表示完全相同，该用second impression（第二次印刷）和third impression。

editor

city editor在英国指“经济栏编辑”，相当于美国英语financial editor，在美国指“本埠新闻编辑”。

editorial

editorial作“社论”解主要用在美国，相当于英国的leader或leading article。

educate

educate有时用作“付…的教育费用”解。例如：He educated his sisters after their father's death.

education(al)

1.He has had a college education里的had不可省去。

2.说“教育法令”和“教育当局”等在英国通常用education，如education act和education authorities。在美国通常用educational。

education(al)ist

educationist（教育家）比educationalist普通。但都不及educator普通。

effect

Our opinion is to the effect that...（我们的意思是…）和His reply is to the effect that...等句子里的to the effect是公文里的陈套语，往往不如省去的好。

effective

1.effective用作“（法令等）被施行的”解是美国用法。例如：The order became effective on 4 April.

2.effective, effectual, efficacious和efficient不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）effective是“很有效的”，用于人和事物都可以，如effective speaker, effective speech和effective measures。

（2）effectual是“达到目的的”，只用于事物或行为，不用于人，如effectual measures, effectual refutation和effectual recommendation。

（3）efficacious是“必然有效的”，但语气比effective轻，用于事物，尤其用于药品，如efficacious plan, efficacious remedy和efficacious drug。efficacy是相当于它的名词，如the efficacy of the medicine。

（4）efficient是“有效率的”、“得力的”或“能胜任的”，用于人、事物和行为都可以，如efficient cook, efficient methods和efficient work。efficiency是相当于它的名词。

effectual

参见effective 2

efficacious

参见effective 2

efficient

参见effective 2

effort

1.在用作“努力”解的时候，effort后面接不定式。例如：His effort to reform her at length succeeded. 在用作“作品”解的时候effort后面接at和动名词或名词，如This is his effort at depicting the peasants和His maiden effort at authorship was a long tale。

2.an effort是“一次努力”，efforts是“多次努力”，effort是“努力”，是抽象名词。在make后面只用an effort, efforts, every effort, many efforts等，不用effort。在without effort（不费力）或without great effort（不费大力）里只用effort，不用efforts。

但Effort has been made to...（不定式），Special effort has been made to...（不定式）和Effort has been directed to（介词）...都可以说，又make special effort to...（不定式）也可以说。

e. g.

e. g.是拉丁语exempli gratia的简写形式，作“例如…”解，读作for example或for instance，如可以说There are several proper nouns in the lesson, e. g. 'China'。不作“就是…”解，如不可说This is a proper noun, e. g. the name of a particular person or thing。该把e. g.改作i. e.（=that is）。

e. g.印作斜体或正体都可以，后面用逗号或不用逗号也都可以。

egg

egg指“一个一个的蛋”，并不统指“蛋”，如不可说I like egg，该把egg改作eggs。

但可以说You've got some egg on your chin，这句里的some egg指“煮熟的一些蛋”。不过这用法是很少见的。

ego(t)ism

egoism（自我主义）指不断地想到自己，是纯粹的自私，egotism（自私自利）是不断地谈到自己，是“自高自大”。egoism是哲学、伦理学等的专门名词，egotism是一个比较通俗的词。

ego(t)ist(ic)

参见ego(t)ism

eight

eight of them是“他们中间的八个”，the eight of them是“他们八个（指全体）”。

eighty

1.eighties, twenties, thirties等词都可以指一个人的“从第80年到第89年”，“从第20年到第29年”，“从第30年到第39年”等，如He is somewhere in his eighties和She married in her early twenties。把his和her改作the也可以。

“从第10年到第19年”和“从第1年到第9年”在英语里没有惯用的说法。有人用the tens和the ones，但极不普通，the ones似乎讲不通。his teens, her teens等里的teens指“从13（thirteen）岁到19（nineteen）岁”，就是“从第14年到第20年”。

2.the eighties等都可以指一个世纪的“从第80年到第89年”等，就是“80年代”等，如He was born in the eighties of the nineteenth century和Something important occurred in this city during the nineteen forties。

关于“80年代”等，有下面两点该注意：

（1）所谓“80年代”并不是一个世纪的第8个10年（decade），却是第8个10年的末年和第9个10年的第1年到第9年。

（2）“10年代”用the tens极少见。“10年代”以前的10年在汉语里似乎没有惯用的说法，英语里说the ones，似乎讲不通。

either

1.either在用作代词或形容词的时候指“两个中间的任何一个”，如Either of the two will do和You may put the chair on either side of the table。有时也指“两个以上的中间的任何一个”。如Either of the three will do和You may put the ring on either finger of your hand。但这种用法不算正当，该避免，通常该用any或any one。

2.either有时指“两个中间的每一个”（each of the two），如I have two typewriters, but either is out of order now和There is a chair on either side of the table。但这种用法现在不很普通，最好避免，通常该用each。注意这种用法跟1里所讲的不同，There is a chair on either side of the table里的either side等于each side，但You may put the chair on either side of the table里的either side并不等于each side。You may put a chair on either side of the table可能有两个不同的意思：“你可以放一把椅子在这桌子的任何一边（只放一把椅子）。”或“你可以放一把椅子在这桌子的每一边（共放两把椅子）。”这句不明白，该改作You may put a chair on either one or the other side of the table或You may put a chair on each side of the table。

比较下面两句：

Two of her brothers sat on either side of her. （1.在她的每一边坐着她的弟兄们中间的两个［有四个弟兄坐着］。2.在她的两边坐着她的弟兄们中间的两个［有两个弟兄坐着］。）

Her two brothers sat on either side of her. （她的两个弟兄坐在她的两边。）

第一句不明白，该改作There were two of her brothers sitting on each side of her或There was one of her brothers sitting on each side of her。第二句也不妥当，该改作There was one of her two brothers sitting on each side of her或One of her two brothers sat on one side of her, and the other sat on the other side。第一句假使改作Two of her brothers sat on each side of her和One of her brothers sat on each side of her也不妥当，因为好像说一个人同时可以坐在另一个人的两边。

3.either（代词或形容词）属于单数形式，如Either is good和Either book is good。把它当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

4.either...or...所连接的主语的动词跟后一个名词或代词相一致。例如：

Either he or you are wrong.

Either you or he is worng.

Either the father or the sons are wrong.

Either the sons or the father is wrong.

但这种结构往往被避免用，如上面四句可以改作：

Either he is wrong, or you are.

Either you are wrong, or he is.

Either the father is wrong, or the sons are.

Either the sons are wrong, or the father is.

5.在1里讲过，把代词或形容词either用来指“两个以上的中间的任何一个”是不正当的。但把either（副词或连接词）...or...用于两个以上是正当的，如Either you, (or) your brother, or your sister will do和You may write the application either in Chinese, (or) in Russian, (or) in English, or in French。

6.用either...or...比单用or语气重些。例如：

比较下面两句：

Do you want tea or coffee? （1.你要茶，还是要咖啡？［你要哪一种？］2.你要茶或咖啡么？）

Do you want either tea or coffee? （你要茶或咖啡么？）

7.either...or...跟both...and...受同样的规则的限制，如可以说either boys or girls，也可以说either with boys or with girls和with either boys or girls，但最好不说either with boys or girls。参见both 4

8.注意下面各句里的either作副词用：

If you do not go to see him, I shall not either.

You will not go to see him, and I shall not either.

I do not want this, or that, or the third one either.

He is not clever or handsome either.

John, or Henry either, might have done it.

eke

eke out的正确意思是“补充（进款等）”。例如：In those days he had to eke out his income with odd jobs. 但也往往用作“勉强维持”解。例如：How did he eke out his livelihood?

elapse

1.elapse用作名词现在很不普通，如通常不说the elapse of half a year，最好把elapse改作lapse。

2.The three years elapsed since they met have greatly changed her appearance里的elapsed是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

elder

在英国说“哥哥”用elder brother，说“姐姐”用elder sister，不用older brother和older sister。older brother指“比较另一个brother年长些的一个”（不一定是自己的哥哥，也许是自己的弟弟），older sister指“比较另一个sister年长些的一个”（不一定是自己的姐姐，也许是自己的妹妹）。但在美国说“哥哥”往往用older brother，说“姐姐”往往用older sister。

elderly

elderly是形容词不是副词，作“上了年纪的”或“中年以上的”解。例如：an elderly man

eldest

eldest和oldest的不同，相当于elder和older的不同。美国的oldest brother和oldest son等于英国的eldest brother和eldest son。参见elder

elect

1.elect to...（不定式）作“决定…”解。例如：At length he elected to try again. 有时用动名词。例如：At length he elected trying again.

2.下面三句意思相同：

They elected him mayor.

They elected him to be mayor.

They elected him to the mayoralty.

很少说They elected him as mayor。

3.elect后面可以接指被选而任职者的词。例如：They are going to elect a new mayor.

4.elect往往用作形容词，用在职务名称的后面，作“新当选而尚未就职的”解。如president-elect, mayor-elect, representative-elect和chairman-elect。

elective

elective用作“选修的”（如an elective subject）或“选修课程”（名词）解是美国英语，相当于英国的optional和optional subject。

electric(al)

1.electric现在比electrical流行，如electric current, electric light, electric battery, electric spark, electric shock, electric bell, electric chair（电刑用的电椅）等里的electric不可改作electrical。用在譬喻里electric现在比electrical普通。例如：His speech produced an electric effect on the audience. electrical现在只用作“电学的”解，如electrical book（电学书），electrical engineering和electrical engineer。

2.相当于electric和electrical的副词都是electrically。

element

“积极分子”和“落后分子”等表达方式里的“分子”假使指两个人或两个人以上，用elements，如activist elements, progressive elements和backward elements。假使只指一个人，不可用element，“积极分子”是activist，“进步分子”是progressive，“落后分子”是backward person。elements前面不可加上two, three, some, many等词。

elevator

elevator用作“电梯”解是美国英语，相当于英国的lift。

eloquent

be eloquent of作“充分表示出”解，如His letters are eloquent of his personality和The building is eloquent of the culture of China。

else

1.else后面通常接than，但也可以接but。nothing else than和nothing else but都作“仅有”、“只是”解。用了but最好把else删去。

2.anybody's else, someone's else等不及anybody else's, someone else's等普通。who else's和whose else都可以说，在美国现在多用who else's。

3.不可说some way else, any book else, every city else等。

embarrass(ed）

关于an embarrassed silence（一阵尴尬的沉默）等，参见much 3 (5) E

embrace

She embraced her baby是“她把她的婴儿抱了一抱”。是一时的动作，跟She held her baby in her arms（她怀抱着她的婴儿）不同。

embroider

embroider用作“在织物上绣…”和“在…上剌绣”解都可以，如embroider a handkerchief with a flower和embroider a flower on a handkerchief。

emergence

emergence现在跟emergency不同，只作“出现”或“发生”解。例如：Gradual processes of growth (quantitative changes) lead to the emergence of something new, of a new stage of development (qualitative changes).

emergency

emergency有时用作“紧急事件”解，有时用作“紧急”（抽象名词）解，如in case of an emergency和in case of emergency。

eminent

eminent只指某人活着的时候的“出众”或“卓越”，不指身后的名誉，如可以说李白是唐朝的eminent poet，却不可说他现在还eminent。可以说他现在还famous。

emotion

emotion（单数形式）指“情感的兴奋”。例如：I cannot see this without emotion. the emotions（复数形式）指（喜、怒、哀、乐等）情绪，和“理智”相反。例如：The book appeals to the emotions rather thanto the reason. 在不跟the reason相对的时候，emotion（单数形式，前面没有the）也统指“情绪”。例如：This book appeals to emotion.

emperor

1.emperor是“皇帝”，比king（王）尊贵。

2.说“某某皇帝”习惯用the，如the Emperor Qian Long（乾隆）和the Emperor Nero（罗马皇帝尼祿）。

emphasis

括弧里的Emphasis added的意思是“原文并没有斜体部分（或下面划线的字），这里的斜体（或划线）是我加上去的。”例如：Equal pay for equal work (Emphasis added).

emphasize

1.emphasize可以用以that引导的从句作宾语。例如：The speaker emphasizes that hard work is of greater value than genius.

2.emphasize是及物动词，后面不可加上on或upon。

emphatic

emphatic后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He was emphatic that his son should call him at five o'clock.

employ(ment)

in his employ（被他雇用的），in the employ of...（被…雇用的）等表达方式里的employ改作employment也可以，但用employ普通些。但seek employment（求职），out of employment（失业）等表达方式里的employment不可改作employ。

empress

1.empress是“女皇”或“皇后”，比queen（女王、王后）尊贵。

2.说“某某女皇”或“某某皇后”习惯用the，如the Empress Wu（武则天）和the Empress Maria Fedorovna（玛丽亚·费奥多罗夫娜皇后）。

enable

enable后面习惯接宾语和不定式，作“使有能力、使能够”解。例如：His perfect health enables him to work hard. 用作“使…可能”或“使…便利”解现在极不普通，该避免，如最好不说His perfect health enables his hard work。

enclose

1.Enclosed is...作“附…在这封信里”解，比...is enclosed用得多。

2.enclose和herewith连用在信函里很普通，如I am enclosing a cheque herewith和Enclosed herewith is a price list。但很多人以为herewith是多余的。

3.Enclosed please find..., Please find enclosed...和Enclosed you will find...都是商业信函里的陈套语，在一般通信里该避免。

4.说“把一封信附在另一封信里”用with或in都可以。例如：He enclosed your letter with（或in）his own.

5.He enclosed his photograph和His letter enclosed his photograph都可以说。

6.I（或We）enclose跟I am（或We are）enclosing意思相同。例如：I enclose his recent letter.

7.enclose往往有双宾语。例如：I enclose you a list of new books.

8.the enclosed指“所附的东西”，就是“附件”。例如：The enclosed will no doubt interest you.

9.Stamped addressed envelope enclosed.＝A stamped addressed envelope is enclosed.

encyclop(a)edia

Encyclopaedia Britannica（大英百科全书）和Encyclopaedia Americana前面有the。

end

1.注意下面各个用end组成的习语里的结构的异同：

bring...to an end, bring an end to, put an end to, make an end of（都作“使…停止”解），come to an end（停止）

注意：1.各种表达方式里都用an不用the。2. bring...to an end比bring an end to普通。3.put an end to不可改作put...to an end。

2.at an end作“完毕了的”解，是形容词短语。例如：The conference is now at an end. in the end作“最后地”解，是状语短语。例如：In the end we reached an agreement. 偶尔也有人用at the end (=in the end）。

3.make both ends meet是习语，作“量入为出”解，近二三十年来很多人把both省去，用make ends meet。偶尔也有人用make the two ends meet。

4.在end用作“目的”解的时候，说“达到目的”通常用accomplish, attain, effect或gain。

5.The story has a happy end里用end不及用ending普通。

6.an end to that state of things和the successful end to the war等表达方式里的to改作of也可以。

7.There is no end to his energy和There seems to be no end to those recollections等句子里用to比用of普通。但Joseph must have had no end of trouble里用of比用to普通。There are no end of such stories（这种故事是多得讲不完的）里必须用of（注意用are）。

8.no end有时用作状语短语，作“无穷”解。例如：It's no end good of you to say so. The joke made me laugh no end. 和That would help us no end.

9.at this end（在我［们］这方面）和at your end（在你［们］那方面）是商业信函和报纸里的惯用语。

10.the final end里的final是多余的。

11.end作动词用，为了加强语气，后面有时加上up。例如：

George got in with the wrong crowd of boys and ended up a petty criminal.

They had been enemies for years, but ended up the best of friends.

Henry worked all day and went out every night, and at last ended up by（或will）a nervous breakdown.

12.the week ending (on) 4 September和the week ended (on) 4 September都是“9月4日终止的那一星期”。有人说指将来该用第一种形式，指过去该用第二种形式，如We shall spend the week ending (on) 4 September in the country和We spent the week ended (on) 4 September in the country。事实上指将来固然一定用第一种形式，指过去也可以用第一式。

13.把end用作被动语态往往不及用作主动语态合乎习惯。例如：

The play ends（不用is ended）at eleven o'clock.

The term will end（不用be ended）early in July.

The story ends（不用is ended）with a celebration meeting.

Their estrangement ended（不用was ended）as a result of an explanation.

endear

endear作“使…被人爱”解，在那指“人”的词的前面习惯用to。例如：His readiness to help endears him to all he meets.

endeavour

1.endeavour不及try通俗，有“决心”和“继续不断”的含意。

2.endeavour（动词）后面接不定式。 例如：I shall endeavour to master English and French. 把endeavour看作不及物动词或及物动词都讲得通。

3.endeavour（名词）后面接不定式或at和动名词。例如：All his endeavours to effect a compromise（或at effecting a compromise）were vain.

4.把endeavour用在被动语态，该注意勿犯双重被动的毛病，如He endeavoured to effect a compromise是对的，但A compromise was endeavoured (by him) to be effected却不对，该改作An endeavour was made to effect a compromise。

endorse

1.endorse（背书）跟indorse相同。在英国的商界和一般场合用endorse，在法律上用indorse。在美国通常用indorse。

2.endorse the cheque on the back里的on the back是多余的，endorse on the back of the cheque里的on the back of也是多余的。

endure

endure（忍耐）后面接动名词或不定式都可以。例如：I cannot endure thinking（或to think）that I shall never see him again.

enemy

1.enemy是“仇者”，不是“被仇者”，如my enemy是“仇我者”，未必是“被我仇者”，也许实际是“被我爱者”。

2.an enemy总是指一个人。the enemy往往是“敌军”。例如：The enemy were soon driven out of the country.

energy

说“精力”往往用复数形式energies。例如：He applies all his energies to his work.和His comrades used to warn him against wasting his time and energies on cheap literature.

enforce

enforce him to do it, enforce the country into peace等表达方式里的enforce（作“强迫”解）现在不普通，该改作force。

engage

1.engage是“使…订婚”，不是“跟…订婚”，说“跟…订婚”通常用被动语态。例如：When did he become engaged to her? 注意engaged 后面用to。He engaged himself to her也可以说。注意不可说He engaged her，这句作“他雇用（或聘请）她”解。

2.He was engaged to be married to her和They were engaged to be married都合乎习惯。

3.下面每组里的两句意思相仿，但第一句着重在状态，第二句着重在行动：

但对于一时的行为，be engaged in和engage in颇有不同。如He is engaged in a game of tennis是“他现在从事于打网球。”He engages in a game of tennis似乎讲不通，He engages in a game of tennis every morning才对。He often（或sometimes，或seldom，或never）engages in a game of tennis也可以说。

engagement

1.engagement（订婚）后面接to和指对方的词，如his engagement to Miss Hood。

2.long engagement是“长时期的订婚”，就是“从订婚到结婚的一段长时期”，short engagement是“短时期的订婚”。

3.engagement（约会）后面接at和时刻。例如：I have an engagement at half past five. 假使后面不说明时刻而说明日期或上午或下午等，用for而不用at，如an engagement for 7 April和an engagement for tomorrow morning。

4.engagement（约定）后面可以接不定式。例如：I have an engagement to spend the holidays with them.

England

England是Britain的一部分，参见Britain。但英美人往往把England用来指（Great）Britain, United Kingdom或者更广一些。如England expects that every man will do his duty和Who is the present queen of England? 两句里的England都不是指狭义的England。

English

1.English往往用作British解，如English history, English literature, English traditions等表达方式里的English都不是指狭义的England。

2.English是“英语”，the English是“英国民族”，有时是“英军”。可以用many English指“许多英国人”，但不很普通。

3.Old English, Middle English, Modern English, present-day English等表达方式里都没有the。Old English是1100年或1150年以前的英语，Middle English是1100年或1150年到1500年的英语，Modern English是1500年到现在的英语，这三个名称是术语，都用大写字母开首。older English（older不用大写字母开首）指比较旧些的英语，modern English（modern不用大写字母开首）指现代的英语，present-day English也指现代的英语，这三种表达方式都不是术语。注意：1.older English不过比modern English或present-day English旧些罢了，比Old English和Middle English新得多。2.modern English和Modern English大不相同。3.modern English和present-day English相同，但用了modern着重在“跟旧时不同”的意思，用了present-day着重在“当代流行”的意思。也得注意present-day English有时也指从1650年到现在的英语。

4.the king's English指纯正的英语。在英国女王在位的时候叫做the queen's English, speak the king's（或King's）English往往指“说大致尚好的英语”。即使在女王在位的时候，也往往用king's（通常不用King's）而不用queen's。

5.Englishman不可写作English man，但every English man and woman和English men and women里的English man和English men不错。

Englishman

1.参见England和English 1

2.Englishman不可写作English man。参见English 5

3.Englishman指男子不指女子，指女子该用Englishwoman（或English woman），但Englishmen往往统指英国人。

Englishwoman

有人用English woman和English women而不用Englishwoman和Englishwomen。

enjoin

1.enjoin（命令）后面接宾语和不定式现在不及在宾语的前面加上on或upon的普通，如They have enjoined (up)on us to go ahead里的on或upon最好不省去。就语法讲，to go是enjoined的宾语，正如They have enjoined diligence (up)on us里的diligence是enjoined的宾语。

2.enjoin用作“禁止”解是美国英语。例如：The law enjoins such acts.和The law enjoins them from doing it.

enjoy

1.enjoy后面接动名词，不接不定式，如I enjoy hunting for new idioms里的hunting不可改作to hunt。

2.下面两句意思相同：

We enjoyed the holidays.

We enjoyed ourselves during the holidays.

enormity

enormity（极恶）现在不用作enormousness（巨大）解。

enough

1.注意下面各句里enough前面的名词前都没有a：

He was fool enough to believe what the cheat said.

He was gentleman enough to help her.

He was scholar enough to read the inscription.

He was not blunderer enough to repeat his mistake.

2.enough用在它所修饰的名词的前面或后面都可以，如We have enough manpower和We have manpower enough。但enough在用作副词的时候几乎总用在它所修饰的词的后面，如He is clever enough和He writes well enough。She is a good-tempered enough girl和She is a good-tempered girl enough两句里的enough的作用不同：在第一句里enough修饰good-tempered，在第二句里enough修饰good-tempered girl。

3.比较下面两句：

I am glad to see you.

We are strong enough to be able to resist aggression.

第一句里没有enough，第二句里有enough，就语法讲，to see修饰形容词glad, to be able to resist aggression修饰副词enough。第二句里的enough不可省去。

初学者往往在该在形容词和不定式的中间用enough的场合不用enough。哪里该用enough，哪里不该用enough，有下面的一条规则：可以用so...as to...（不定式）的场合该用enough，不可用so...as to...（不定式）的场合不该用enough。如We are so strong as to be able to resist aggression是可以说的，所以该用enough。I am so glad as to see you是不可说的，所以不该用enough。注意不可说...enough as to...（不定式），如不可说We are strong enough as to be able to resist aggression。

对于这条规则，也许要发生些疑问，因为有时好像用enough或不用enough都通。是的，下面每组里的两句都通：

但注意：第一组第二句里的to accept并不修饰enough，却是修饰ready, ready enough作very ready解，enough跟to accept并没有关系。第二组第一句是“他有这样的一个儿子是幸运的”。第二组第二句是“他幸而有这样的一个儿子”。两句的意思不同。注意下面每组里的两句意思不同。

下面各形容词通常在其和后面的不定式的中间用enough：

bad, brave, careless, clever, courageous, cruel, dangerous, foolish, good, high, honest, imprudent, large, long, low, old, old-fashioned, patient, poor, prudent, rich, sensible, shrewd, silly, strong, tall, weak, well, wide, wise, young

4.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

5.I cannot see enough of you是“我跟你见面愈多愈好”。参见can 7

enquire

enquire不及inquire普通，参见inquire。在美国通常用inquire，名词用inquiry。在英国两种形式都用，有人把两种形式分别开来，把inquire和inquiry专用作“调查”解，把enquire和enquiry专用作“问”解。

enquiry

enquiry不及inquiry普通，参见inquiry和enquire

enrol(l)

1.在英国通常用enrol，在美国通常用enroll。

2.Please enrol(l) me as a member里的enrol(l）是及物动词，I will enrol(l)里的enrol(l)是不及物动词。下面三句意思相同：

He has enrolled himself in English.

He has enrolled in English.

He has been enrolled in English.

ensure

1.说“保险”现在用insure，不用ensure，说“保証”用insure远不及用ensure普通。

2.ensure（保証）后面的以that引导的从句里所说的事，假使是一次的，用shall或should比用will或would普通，所说的事假使是经常的，用shall或should也比用will或would普通，但往往不用shall或will而用属于现在时态的动词，不用should或would而用属于过去时态的动词。例如：

3.参见assure 3

enter

1.enter the room（或house等）和enter into the room（或house等）没有什么区别，通常不用into。

2.The boy entered the school last week是“这个男孩在上星期入学”。The boy was entered at the school last week是“这个男孩上星期被送入学”。

3.剧本里的Enter Othello（Othello上）等表达方式里的enter是不及物动词，习惯用Enter，不用Enters。等于Let...enter。

entertain

下面各句里的at现在报纸上往往改用to，最好不用to而保存at：

We shall entertain a party at dinner tomorrow.

Dr Fine was entertained at a banquet.

They are entertaining a guest at supper.

enthusiasm

enthusiasm后面可以接不定式。例如：his enthusiasm to join the Pupils' Association。

enthusiastic

enthusiastic后面可接不定式。例如：She is enthusiastic to take part in the contest.

entire

The poem is printed entire和The book may be easily read entire两句里的entire都合乎习惯。改作entirely也可以，但不很自然。

entitle

entitle（使…有…的权利）的宾语后面接to和名词或接不定式，如Your attainments entitle you to high respect和Your attainments entitle you to enjoy high respect。偶尔也接to和动名词。例如：Your attainments entitle you to enjoying high respect.

entrance

entrance（入口）后面接to或of都可以，如at the entrance to（或of）the building（或house, garden, library, cave, tunnel等）。

entrust

1.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

2.entrust现在不用作“信任”解，如不可说We entrust you，该把entrust改作trust。也不可在entrust后面接宾语和不定式，如不可说They have entrusted me to finish the work within a week，该把entrusted改作commissioned, charged等词。

envelope

envelope是“封袋”或“封套”，不一定是“信封”。

envious

1.envious of his success和envious of him for his success都作“忌妒（或羡慕）他的成功”解。

2.be envious of不及envy普通，如Don't be envious of your neighbours不及Don't envy your neighbours普通。

3.可以说I am envious of your success。参见envy 3

environment

environment（环境）习惯用单数形式，不用复数形式，如可以说My house stands in a pleasant environment，不说My house stands in pleasant environments。但surroundings不可改作a...surrounding。

envy

1.对于人envy（名词）后面接of，对于事物后面接of或at，如his envy of his brother和his envy of（或at）his brother's success。

2.I envy his success和I envy him his success两句意思相同。第二句里的his success假使改用动名词，在动名词前面必须加上for。例如：I envy him for having read Homer in the original.

3.envy原来是“妬忌”，是贬意的，但也转作“羡慕”的意思。例如：

I envy you. I envy your success.

I envy you your success.

I envy you for having read Homer in the original.

4.I envy you your success是“我羡慕你的成功。”I don't envy you your trouble的含意是“我真侥倖，我没有像你那样的麻烦。”I don't envy you, being stuck in the city year in year out和He is ill again, and I don't envy him里的I don't envy有相似的意思。

equal

1.enqual在作“胜任”解的时候后面接to和动名词，不接不定式，如I am equal to performing this duty里的performing不可改作perform。

2.My respect for your intelligence is only equalled by my admiration for your integrity的含意是“我敬佩你的聪明跟羡慕你的正直在程度上是相同的”。

3.“平均主义”是equalitarianism。

equally

1.equally现在后面接with，不接as，如I like it equally with you里的with不该改作as。

2.This is equally as important as that里的equally该删去。This is important, that is equally as important里的as该删去。删去equally而保存as也可以，但语气轻些。

equinox

vernal equinox（春分）和autumnal equinox（秋分）前面都有the。

equip

equip是“装备或配备”，它的宾语不该是指被装备或被配备的东西的词，如可以说equip the army with arms，不可说equip arms to the army。

equipment

偶尔用复数形式equipments指各种设备，如The soldiers were sitting on their equipments和We have not yet got all the necessary equipments for the expedition。但不可在equipments前面加上two, some, several等词。

equivalent

equivalent（相同的）后面接to和动名词，不可接不定式，如That would be equivalent to teaching him not to meddle in my affairs里的teaching不可改作teach。

errand

go errands, run errands, go on errands和run on errands都作“被派出去干事（送信、买东西等）”解，指经常的事，说一次该用an errand。

error

in error（错误）用作形容词短语或状语短语都可以，如You are in error about the spelling和You have written 'in' for 'inn' in error。可以说You are in error in assuming that they are still there。

escape(d)

1.下面各句里的escaped是及物动词，后面都没有from：

The mistake escaped my notice. （那错误不曾被我注意到。）

The mistake escaped me. （那错误不曾被我注意到。）

The name escaped my memory. （那名字被我忘掉。）

The name escaped me. （那名字被我忘掉。）

2.escape me（或you等）除了作“不被我（或你等）注意到”和“被我（或你等）忘掉”解以外，有时也作“被我（或你等）忽然说出”解，如That word never escapes me（我永不忽然说出那个字）和I heard a groan escape her（我听到她忽然发出呻吟声）。在用作这个解时，escape后面不接me, you等词而接my lips, your lips等表达方式也可以。例如：Never let that word escape your lips. 注意用lips，不用mouth或tongue。

3.escaped（不及物动词的过去分词）有时用作形容词，作“已逃走的”解。例如：James looks like an escaped prisoner.

4.escape（动词）后面可以接动名词。例如：He was thankful to escape being caught.

(e)special(ly)

1.especial是“特别的”或“非同寻常的（not ordinary）”，special是“专门的”或“特设的（not general）”，如My especial friend is Mr J. B. Parkman和I made a special trip to see him。但习惯上special比especial普通得多，竟可以说在不论什么场合可以用special而不用especial。

2.especially和specially的不同，相当于especial和special的不同，如It is especially hot today和We went there specially to see him。习惯上两个单词分得很清楚，不可混用，注意下面的各句：

Conditions are especially（不用specially）encouraging.

All contributions, especially（不用specially）those from school teachers, will be welcome.

A committee has been specially（不用especially）appointed to look into the matter.

The essays have been specially（不用especially）selected for the book.

Though the weather was especially unfavourable, they came specially for the meeting.

He is sorry you don't like what he has done, especially as he did it specially for you.

3.下面各句意思相同：

All contributions, especially those from school teachers, will be welcome.

All contributions, more especially those from school teachers, will be welcome.

All contributions, and especially those from school teachers, will be welcome.

All contributions, and more especially those from school teachers, will be welcome.

and more especially比较最不普通。

Esq

1.Esq.是Esquire（先生）的简写形式。也有人写作Esqr。

2.Esq.用在姓名的后面，姓名后可以不用逗号，也可以用逗号，如Henry Webb Esq. 和Henry Webb, Esq.。用了Esq. 不可再用Mr，如不可用Mr Henry Webb Esq. 或Mr Henry Webb, Esq.。注意用了Esq. 必须用名或名的开首字母，不可只用姓，如可以用Henry Webb Esq. 和H. Webb Esq.，不可用Webb Esq.。

3.在英国通常用Esq. 称一般“上等人”，用Mr称小商人，也有人在为了业务（如付账）而写信给小商人的时候用Mr，但在为了非业务的事而写信给他的时候用Esq.。在美国通常用Mr，少用Esq.，两个单词没有多大区别。注意即使在英国也不用Esq.，在信函的称呼里绝对不可用Dear Henry Webb Esq.，该改作Dear Mr Webb。

essay

1.essay在一般英汉词典里注作“论说文”，其实不一定有“论”或“说”的性质，记叙文也是，也有人把essay译作“散文”，其实“散文”是prose（跟verse相对），散文不一定是essay（如short story不是essay），essay也不一定用散文写（如Pope的Essay on Criticism是诗而不是散文）。

2.an essay on...是“论述…的一篇文章”，an essay in...是…方面（或性质）的一篇文章，如an essay on economic theory和an essay in economic theory。18世纪英国诗人Alexander Pope的Essay on Criticism是论述文学批评的，19世纪英国文学批评家Matthew Arnold的Essays in Criticism的本身是文学批评论文集。

essential

1.注意下面各句里用should或虚拟现在式：

It is essential that the change should be made.

It is essential that the change be（不用is）made.

It was essential that the change should be made.

It was essential that the change be（不用was）made.

establish

establish（建立）是一时的动作，所以不可说We have established the school for ten years，该说We established the school ten years ago或It is ten years since we established the school。但可以说The school has been established for ten years。

esteem

1.esteem（把…看作）后面接宾语和表语，如I esteem her very happy和I shall esteem it a favour。在那宾语后面加上as也可以。

2.your esteemed letter, your esteemed favour, your esteemed inquiry, your esteemed order等是商业信函里的陈套语，在一般通信里该避免。

estimation

下面各句里的estimation都不及括号里的词普通：

We must make an estimation（最好改作estimate）of our resources.

In our estimation（最好改作opinion）self-criticism is as important as criticism.

The various achievements of China are universally held in high estimation. （最好改作esteem）

estrange

estrange=alienate。参见alienate

etc.

1.etc. 是拉丁语et cetera或etcetera的简写形式，作and the rest, and so forth或and so on解，也可以写作&c. （et作and解）。etc. 既然包括and的意思，所以不可用and在它的前面，and etc. 是错误的。

2.etc. 多少有些商业或公文性质，所以在一般文字里最好避免。

3.严格说来，etc. 作and the rest解，不作or the rest解，但习惯上也用作or the rest解。例如：Each of the articles is written in Russian, English, French, German, etc.

4.etc. 也可以指人。例如：The party included Mr Cowper, Mr Williams, Mr Hobson, etc.

5.在引文不完全的时候也可以用etc.，习惯用在引号的里面。例如：He used to say 'Where there is a will etc.'（=He used to say 'Where there is a will there is a way'.）也有用在引号以外的。例如：He used to say 'Where there is a will' etc.

6.etc., etc. 比单用etc. 语气强，它的意思是“还有许许多多”。也有人用etc., etc., etc.。

7.etc. 有人读作and so forth。

ethic(s)

1.ethic用作形容词现在很不普通，该改用ethical。

2.ethics是“伦理学”或“道德准则”。用在第一个意思当作单数或复数都可以。例如：Ethics is（或are）a social science. 用在第二个意思总是当作复数。例如：Social ethics, medical ethics等。ethic是一种“道德体系”，如the socialist ethic。

evacuate

1.evacuate通常有三个意思：1.（居民等）从（地方）撤退，如The inhabitants evacuated the city last week。2.“使居民等从（地方）撤退”，如An order has been issued to evacuate the city within a week。3.“使（居民等）撤退”，如An order has been issued to evacuate the inhabitants within a week。

2.evacuate有时用作不及物动词，作“撤退”或“办理撤退事宜”解，如The inhabitants have begun to evacuate和The officer has entered the city to evacuate。

3.说“撤退到什么地方”，evacuate（不论及物动词或不及物动词）后面可以接to或into，如An order has been issued to evacuate the inhabitants to the seaside和They soon evacuated into the country。

evade

evade后面接动名词。例如：She tried to evade answering my question.

even

1.even是副词，不是连接词，如不可说Even you try again, you may not succeed。该在Even后面加上if。

2.even的位置往往影响全句的意思。例如：

Even I have not heard of him for a year. （即使我也一年没有听到他的消息了。）

I have not even heard of him for a year. （我一年来竟然也没有听到他的消息。）

I have not heard of him even for a year. （我没有听到他的消息竟然有一年了。）

evening

1.复数形式evenings有时用作副词，作“在每天晚上”解，主要是美国用法。例如：She reads the newspapers evenings.

2.in the evening里有the，但at evening里没有the。at evening作“在傍晚”解。

3.in the evening有时指经常的事，有时指一次的事，in the evenings一定指经常的事。例如：

He seldom goes out in the evening. （经常）

He is at home today, but will go out in the evening. （一次）

He seldom goes out in the evenings. （经常）

4.往往把中午到傍晚的一段时间看作evening，如four o'clock in the evening。这用法在美国南方尤其普通。

event

1.event指重大的事，如出生、毕业、结婚、死亡、战争和选举都是，但喝茶、看电影、游园、失窃、遇雨和借伞都不是。但复数形式events往往指某一时期发生的一切大小事件，如the events of the average day。

2.注意in the event of（假使有…发生）里有the, in the event that...（假使有…发生）里也有the。

3.at all events（不论怎样）和in any event（不论怎样）都是习语，不可作at any event或in all events。

ever

1.for ever（永久地）和forever相同。在英国通常作for ever，在美国通常作forever。

有人说for ever是“永久”或“终身”，forever是“时常”，如I shall love my work for ever里用for ever，但You are forever asking silly questions（你老是提愚蠢的问题）里用forever。但事实上没有这区别。关于第二句，参见always 1, 2, 3

2.下面各句里的ever都作always解，除了在有“过去这样，现在这样，将来还是这样”的意思的场合以外，现在不很普通：

Honesty ever pays.

I have ever been of opinion that honesty pays.

Shakespeare will ever be regarded as a great poet.

Helen is ever complaining of something or other.

3.ever用在过去时态或完成时态的疑问句里都可以，如Did you ever see such a grand parade? 和Have you ever seen such a grand parade? 都可以说。但第一句情感多于理智，往往用作修辞疑问句，如假使是真的提问（要对方回答），通常说Have you ever seen such a grand parade? 但假使含有“你当然不曾见过”的意思，只可说Did you ever see such a grand parade? Did you ever? 是习语，作“你曾经见过或听到过这种事吗”解，含有“你当然不曾”的意思，是用以表示惊奇的。

4.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

似乎用过去时态比用完成时态普通些。注意best属于最高级，不可改作good或better。

上面四句里的is假使改作了was，那heard或have heard不用改，改作had heard也可以，但不很普通。

5.下面各句里的ever都是用来加重语气的：

What ever do you want? Who ever wants this?

Which ever do you mean? When ever will he start?

Where ever does she live? Why ever are you laughing?

How ever has he done it?

这样用法的ever，只用在疑问句里，主要是英国口语。注意what ever, who ever等不该写作whatever, whoever等。

上面所举各例句里的what, who等词都跟ever相连，但偶尔也有不相连的。例如：What do you ever want?

下面每句可能有两个不同的意思：

What do you ever want? （1.你到底要什么？2.你可能在任何时候要什么？）

Who ever wants this? （1.到底谁要这个？2.谁在任何时候会要这个？）

6.下面两句都可以说，第一句普通些：

I do not remember ever having seen him before.

I do not remember having ever seen him before.

也可以说I do not remember ever to have seen him before，但似乎不说I do not remember to have ever seen him before。

7.下面两句都可以说，似乎第一句普通些：

I do not seem ever to have seen him before.

I do not seem to have ever seen him before.

8.下面两句都可以说，第一句比第二句合理：

Do you expect（或hope，或intend）ever to see him again?

Do you ever expect（或hope，或intend）to see him again?

9.This is the most terrible storm ever和These children are the most inquisitive ever等句子里的ever等于that ever was（或were），是口语用法。

10.下面两句都可以说，第一句只用在英国：

We must work as hard as ever we can.

We must work as hard as we ever can.

11.seldom if ever是习语，直译作“难得地，假使在任何时候地”，就是“难得地”或“绝无仅有”的意思。例如：She seldom if ever goes to the pictures. 注意seldom if ever和seldom or never意思相同，不可把两种表达方式混用而用seldom if never或seldom or ever。

12.Yours ever（或Ever yours）用作知己朋友之间的信函里的信尾客套语。

13.Don't ever do it是口语，在文字里该作Never do it。Not having seen him ever, I did not know who he was里的Not having seen him ever也是口语，最好改作Never having seen him。

14.not...for ever并不等于never，如I shall not do it for ever是“我将并不永远做它”。I shall never do it是“我将永远不做它”。

15.ever so（很）很普通，如I am ever so delighted to see you和We live ever so quietly。偶尔也有ever such。例如：Your brother and I used to be ever such chums.

everlastingly

everlastingly用在进行时态里跟always用在进行时态里相仿，语气重些，参见always 1, 2, 3

every

1.Every man is not honest是“并不每个人都是诚实的”。就是说“有些人诚实，有些人不诚实”。并不是“每个人都是不诚实的”。

2.关于every和any的不同，参见any 1。关于every和each的不同，参见each 1

3.every...and every...或every...and...属于单数形式，如Every man and every woman is admitted和Every man and woman is admitted。

4.下面每组里的两种表达方式意思相同。

现在every three days和every six trees等表达方式比every third day和every sixth tree等表达方式普通些。在口语里通常用every other day（每隔一天），不用every second day。

5.every有时用在抽象名词前面，作“完全的”解。例如：I wish you every success. He has every confidence in you. 和I owe every gratitude to my parents.

6.every可以用在my, your, his, her等词的后面。例如：my every wish, your every action, his every movement, her every thought

7.I read every day和Do you see him every week? 里在every day前面不可加上on，在every week前面不可加上in。

8.Every time (that) I saw him I admired him more里的that通常省去。

everybody

1.everybody不可写作every body。

2.everybody比everyone通俗些，口语里多用everybody。Hullo, everybody. Come on, everybody. Stop talking and listen to me, everybody. Everybody, stand up! Don't everybody talk at once！等句子里的everybody不可改作everyone。

3.everybody属于单数形式。例如：Everybody is here. 把everybody当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

下面两句里的everybody用得不很合理，最好改作all the people：

Everybody went to the show, myself included.

He questioned everybody - the neighbours, the tradespeople, the postmaster, etc.

4.Everybody cannot do it是“不是每个人都能够做这个”。并不是“每个人都不能够做这个”。参见every 1

5.关于everybody和anybody的不同，参见any 1

everyday

everyday是形容词，不可写作every day，如everyday English和everyday life。every day是状语短语，不可写作everyday，如He comes every day和I study English every day。Every day counts里的Every day也不可改作Everyday。

everyone

1.everyone作“每人”解，不作“每个”解。说“每个”该用every one，如every one of us和every one of these。把every one用作“每人”解也可以，但现在不很普通。

2.用了everyone，不可用one, one's等词代它，如不可说Everyone should do one's best，该把one's改作his。

3.everyone属于单数形式。例如：Everyone has signed already. 把everyone当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

4.Everyone cannot do it是“并不每个人都能够做这个”。不是“每个人都不能够做这个”。参见every 1

5.everyone和anyone不同，every one和any one也不同。参见any 1

everything

1.everything不可写作every thing。

2.Everythiing is not right是“并不每件事都好”。并不是“每件事都不好”。参见every 1

3.关于everything和anything的不同，参见any 1

4.下面两句里的everything用得不合理，最好改作all things：

We must consider everything about him, his dialect included.

We must consider everything about him - his political awareness, his cultural level, his health, and even his dialect.

everywhere

1.everywhere不可写作every where。

2.Everywhere I went, I found the same encouraging state of things里的Everywhere是口语用法，在正式文字里该改作Wherever。

3.everywhere有时用作名词，如Everywhere is frozen和Everywhere is covered with snow。

4.This plant is not to be found everywhere是“这植物不是到处找得到的。”并不是“这植物是到处找不到的。”参见every 1

5.关于everywhere和anywhere的不同，参见any 1

evidence

evidence（名词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：There is ample evidence that interplanetary travel（星际旅行）will soon be a reality.

evil

evil统指“祸害”，如do evil（作恶）。an evil是“一个祸害”。evils是“多个祸害”。例如：Wipe out the social evils!

exaggerate

Its importance cannot be exaggerated是“它是极重要的。”参见can 7

examination

1.说“某科考试”在指学科的词前面用in或on都可以，如examination in（或on）English grammar和examination in（或on）mathematics。用in比用on普通。

2.下面两句意思不同：

Have you entered for the examination? （你已经报名应考了吗？）

Have you sat for the examination? （你已经应考了吗？）

3.examination paper在英国是“考试题纸”，在美国是“考卷”，相当于英国的script。在美国说“考试题”用examination questions。

examine

说“考试（学生等）”在指学科的词前面用in或on都可以。例如：The candidates will be examined in（或on）Chinese, English, and mathematics.

exasperate(d)

关于an exasperated voice（被激怒的语声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

exceedingly

现在exceedingly和excessively不同：exceedingly是“很”，excessively是“太”。如可以说I am exceedingly obliged to you和I am sorry I was excessively annoyed。

excel

excel后面接in和动名词，不接不定式，如She excels (her sisters) in singing popular songs里的in singing不可改用to sing。

excellent

excellent是“极好的”，具有肯定意义，表示说话者的强烈意见。只能用在肯定句里，不能用在否定、条件、疑问等句子里。如可以说This is an excellent book。但不可说：

This book is not excellent.

Is this an excellent book?

If this is an excellent book, I should like to read it.

Can you recommend an excellent book?

I want to read some excellent books.

参见most 4

except

1.except用作连接词作unless解现在很不普通。

2.except用作介词后面不但可以接名词或代词，也可以接介词、副词或以that、when等词引导的从句。例如：

He has always been in good health except in the past few days.

He has always been in good health except quite recently.

He has always been in good health except that he has had a slight headache in the past few days.

He has always been in good health except when he had a slight headache.

3.except for作“除了…外”解。例如：The essay is well written except for a few mistakes in the last paragraph. 这句里的for不可省去，下面各句里的for也不可省去：

The boy was unhurt except for a few scratches.

The room was deserted except for a little girl.

The wall was bare except for some posters.

He went abroad and did not return to his country except for a short visit.

4.There is a pen on the table except a pencil里用except是错的，该改作besides。There is nothing on the table except a pencil里的except用得不错，但也可以改作besides。There is no pen on the table except a pencil里用except是错的，该把全句改作There is a pencil on the table, but there is no pen。

excepting

excepting用作介词现在只用在not或always的后面。例如：All my brothers are married, not excepting the youngest. 和All my brothers come here every day, always excepting the youngest.

exception

1.exception后面接to。例如：There is an exception to this rule.

2.the exception和the rule（习惯）相对。例如：In this village, early marriage used to be the rule, not the exception.

3.without exception或without any exception比without an exception普通。

exceptionable

exceptionable是“可以指摘的”或“不很好的”，exceptional是“非常的”。例如：He was admitted for his exceptional talent. 和There is nothing exceptionable in his conduct.

exceptional

参见exceptionable

excessively

参见exceedingly

exchange

1.可以说They（指两个人）exchanged caps（他们俩交换帽子），也可以说They exchanged gifts（或compliments, glances, smiles等）。对于行动，有时用单数形式。例如：They exchanged a compliment（或a glance，或a smile）.

2.in exchange for用在give和get或receive后面都可以。例如：I should like to give my pen in exchange for yours. 和I should like to get（或receive）your pen in exchange for mine.

3.mutual exchange, exchange mutually, exchange with each other（或one another）和exchange together该避免，单用exchange够了。

excite(d)

1.下面两句意思相同：

Your remark excited jealousy in him.

Your remark excited him to jealousy.

2.关于an excited shout（激动的喊声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

exclamation

exclamation point（感叹号）是美国英语，相当于英国英语note of exclamation, mark of exclamation或exclamation mark。

exclusive

1.exclusive of...是“…不计算在内的”。例如：He paid me ¥ 200, exclusive of expenses. （除了开支以外，他还给了我二百元）。exclusive to...是“…所专有的”。例如：Special articles exclusive to the magazine are included in every issue. （每期刊登专为本杂志写的专论。）

2.exclusive在美国往往作“优等的”或“高贵的”解，如exclusive restaurant, exclusive school和exclusive gown。

excuse

1.比较下面每组里的两句：

2.excuse（名词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He left us with the excuse that he had a meeting to attend.

3.Such conduct does not admit of excuse里的excuse是抽象名词。

4.下面三句意思相同：

He excused my not calling.

He excused my calling.

He excused me from calling.

但第一句里的excused作“原谅”解，第二句里的excused作“允许免除”解，第三句里的excused作“对于…免除某事”解。但第二句也可以作“他原谅了我去看他［他并不以为我去看他是不应该的］”解。参见5

5.Excuse me for being late和Excuse my being late两句意思相同。

6.不可说Excuse me, for I have not answered your letter。该改作Excuse me for not having answered your letter。

7.He excused himself to us and went away里的excused himself to us等于said 'Excuse me' to us。

8.Excuse me, but are you going to the party? 里的but不可改作其他词。

9.excuse比forgive语气轻，比pardon语气更轻。

exercise

1.exercise统指“运动”。例如：We take exercise every morning. We take several forms of exercise every morning. 和Walking is good exercise. an（或a...）exercise是“一种运动”。例如：Walking is a good exercise. exercises是“各种运动”。例如：Walking and riding are good exercises.

2.exercise在用作“习题”解的时候，后面接in和科目名称，或on或in和科目的部分的名称，如an exercise in English grammar和an exercise on（或in）the construction of conditional sentences。

3.graduation（或graduating）exercises（毕业典礼），inauguration exercises（就职典礼或开幕典礼）等是美国英语，exercises相当于英国的ceremony或ceremonies。

4.take exercise和exercise用作不及物动词都作“体操”或“运动”解，不指一般的“作练习”。

5.不可说We exercise in boxing once a week，该说We are exercised in boxing once a week。

exhibit(ion)

exhibit是“一件展览品或一宗展览品”。exhibition是“展览会”。

exist

exist有时有“仅能活命（不能好好生活）”的意思。例如：Some people in some poor countries receive wages that allow them to exist but not to live.

expect

1.expect所指的也许是极不愿意被实现的事，例如：We have planned a picnic for this afternoon, but I expect a storm. 和He expected his father, whom he loved deeply, to die before dark.

2.expect后面接不定式，不接动名词，如可以说I expect to see them tomorrow，不可说I expect seeing them tomorrow。参见anticipate 1

3.expect是及物动词，后面不可加for，如They have been expecting the conference for months里不可在expecting后面加上for。

4.下面两句都可能有两个不同的意思：

I expect you to do your duty. （1.我期待你尽你的责任。2.我要你尽你的责任。）

I expect that you will do your duty. （1.我期待你尽你的责任。2.我要你尽你的责任。）

往往必须看了上下文才能看出是哪一个意思。但I expect that you shall do your duty只作“我要你尽你的责任”解。

5.expect往往用作“以为”或“料想”解，如I expect you met her yesterday和The student, we expect, has improved a great deal since he entered the college。这种用法在口语里很普通。

6.注意下面各句里的tomorrow, soon, next Sunday和Some time next month并不修饰expect：

I expect him tomorrow.

I expect a letter from him soon.

I expect a visit from him next Sunday.

She expects her confinement some time next month.

这四句等于：

I expect him to come tomorrow.

I expect a letter from him to come soon.

I expect a visit from him to take place next Sunday.

She expects her confinement to take place some time next month.

7.假定你去看一个朋友，他家里的人开门，你对他说要见你的朋友，他问你Are you expected? 他的意思是“（你跟他约好）他知道你要来看他吗？”

8.expect it of him比expect it from him普通。

expectancy

expectancy是相当于形容词expectant的名词，expectation是相当于动词expect的名词，如I am looking forward to the event with expectancy和I am tidying up my room in the expectation that some friends will call this evening。

expectation

expectation习惯上往往用复数形式，例如：He has failed to come up to her expectations. We entertain great expectations of him. 和His expectations are not likely to be disappointed.

expend

expend后面接money或wealth现在不及spend普通。

expenditure

expenditure在用作“用款”解的时候可以有复数形式，如receipts and expenditures。

expense

1.说“（做某事的）经费”习惯用复数形式，如travelling expenses和development expenses。

2.at the expense of后面接的词通常是表示被损失或耗费的东西。例如：He walked the whole distance at the expense of his health. 但有时也接表示被经历的事物的词。例如：He walked the whole distance at the expense of much weariness. cost 1里的各例句里的cost改作expense也可以。

expensive

expensive作“高价的”解，如expensive clothes。但不可形容price，如不可说The price is too expensive，该把expensive改作high。

experience(d)

1.说“有某种经验”通常用完成时态。例如：I have had much experience of country life.

2.experience和动名词的中间用of或in都可以，如experience of teaching和experience in teaching。long experience, many years' experience等后面通常接of, many years of experience等后面通常接in，have had experience后面通常接of，gain experience后面通常接in。例如：

His long experience of teaching foreign languages is a great asset.

Many years' experience of teaching foreign languages qualifies him for this post.

Many years of experience in teaching foreign languages qualifies him for this post.

He has had much experience of teaching foreign languages.

He hopes to gain experience in foreign languages.

3.a very experienced teacher里用very比用much或very much普通。

experiment(ation)

1.make an experiment比try an experiment好。

2.experiment有时用作抽象名词，作“试验”解，如a great deal of experiment和ten years of study and experiment。这两种表达方式里的experiment可以改作experimentation，但通常用experiment。

3.experiment通常是不及物动词，后面接on或with。例如：The students are experimenting on（或with）a piece of metal.

expert

expert在用作形容词的时候后面接at或in，如He is expert at（或in）metallurgy。在用作名词时后面接on, at或in。例如：He is an expert on（或at，或in）skin diseases.

explain

1.explain用在以that引导的从句前面作“说…（作为说明）”解，并没有“说出…的原因”的意思，如He explained that he could not come是“他说他不能来”。不是“他说出他不能来的原因”。

2.explain不可有双宾语，如不可说He explained me all those words或He explained me that he could not come。这两句都该在me前面加上to。

exploit

1.exploit others（剥削别人）和exploit the labour of others都可以说。

2.相当于exploit的形容词是exploitative，如exploitative system（剥削制度）。

express

1.He expressed himself as satisfied等句子里的as用的多，不用的少。

2.express company（快递公司）是美国英语，相当于英国的carrier或firm of carriers。express在美国有时用作“快递事业”、“快递公司”或“由快递公司运（货）”解。

extend(ed)

1.extend在用作accord或give解的时候往往有双宾语。例如：They extended him a warm welcome.

2.extended在美国往往用作“长的”或“广泛的”解，如an extended list of new publications, an extended tour和an extended discussion。

extent

1.extent前面的介词是to，如下面各个习语：

to any extent, to some extent, to what extent, to a great extent, to a surprising extent, to the utmost extent, to a certain extent, to the same extent, to such an extent that..., to the extent of（或that...）

2.下面两句意思相同：

He grew more and more absorbed in his work, to such an extent that he almost forgot his meals.

He grew more and more absorbed in his work, to the extent that he almost forgot his meals.

extraction

a man of English extraction（英国出身的），of foreign extraction, a family of ancient extraction（出身古老的家族）等表达方式里没有a或the。

eye

1.每个人有两个眼睛，但在若干习语里着重在“视”而不着重在眼睛那东西，所以用单数形式。例如：

as far as the eye can reach（在视线以内），have an eye for（有…的鉴别力），have an eye to（照看、觊觎），keep an eye on（注视、留心），with an eye to（着眼于、试图），with a...eye（…地看待），in the eye of（从…的观点看来）

下面各句里也用单数形式：

There was a happy look in his eye.

The old man fixed me with his glittering eye.

She came to the door and her eye peeped in.

2.He was all eyes和He was all eye都作“他很注意地看”解。第一句里的all不可改作both。He stared at us with all his eyes里的all也不可改作both。

eye(-)glass(es)

1.eye(-)glasses原来指“没有脚的用弹簧夹在鼻上的眼镜”（就是pince-nez〔法语〕），spectacles指“有脚的钩在耳朵上的眼镜”，但现在在美国把eye(-)glasses指“一切新式眼镜（不论有脚或没有脚）”，把spectacles专指“老式眼镜”。在英国还是原来的区别。

2.eye(-)glass是“单片眼镜”（monocle）。

F

face

1.face用作“面子”解是抽象名词，如loss of face（失面子、丢脸）和He lost (his) face as a result of a piece of double-dealing。

2.注意下面各句里的face前面都没有a, the, his等词：

He came back with face clouded.

He came back with smiling face.

He came back with dejected face.

He has aged in face.

Every one of them is known by face.

He was lying face downwards.

第一句里face前面可以加上his。第二句和第三句里smiling和dejected前面可以加上a。

3.“面向南”有几种不同的说法。例如：

The house faces south.

The house faces the south.

The house faces to the south.

The house faces on the south.

The house faces southwards.

4.face the difficulty是“面对困难”，be faced with the difficulty是“遇到困难”。

5.face up to the difficulty=face the difficulty，但比较不普通。

6.in face of和in the face of相同，在英国通常不用the。in (the) face of the known facts是“面临着这些已知的事实”，“面临”是譬喻。in (the) face of the lake是“面临着湖”，“面临”是直解。第二种用法只用在英国。

facilitate

facilitate作“使（动作）容易”解，不作“使（人）易于动作”解，如可以说Electricity facilitates the work，不可说Electricity facilitates us in our work。

fact

1.in fact, as a matter of fact和in point of fact三种表达方式都作“实际上、其实”解。as a fact也有人用，但不算正当，该避免。as a matter of fact含有“虽然好像不是这样而实际是这样”的意思。

2.在谈话里有时用matter of fact代替as a matter of fact。例如：Matter of fact, I wouldn't do it if I were you.

3.下面第一句最正常，其他三句都有些口语性质：

The fact is that they do not know him.

The fact is, they do not know him.

Fact is that they do not know him.

Fact is, they do not know him.

4.fact有时指“实有的东西”。例如：The dominating fact of his early life was his mother.

5.the facts of life有时是“人生的一切事”，有时是“性和生殖基本知识（指受胎、分娩等）”。

faculty

1.faculty在英国指大学里的“科”或“院”，向来有四科：神学（Theology）、法律（Law）、医学（Medicine）和文科（Arts），叫做the four faculties。在美国指任何学校的全体教员。

2.the faculty of hearing（听觉），the faculty of vision（视觉），the faculty of speech（说话的能力）等表达方式里用of。the（或a，或his等）faculty（才能）后面接for和名词或动名词，如the（或a，或his等）faculty for versification和the（或a，或his等）faculty for writing verse。接of和动名词也可以，但不及接for和动名词普通。不可接不定式，如不可说the（或a，或his等）faculty to write verse。

fail

1.fail用作名词只用在without fail中，作“一定不误地、必定”解，用在命令和允诺句里，如Let me know without fail和I will let you know without fail。不可把fail改作failing或failure。

2.fail用在不定式前面有时作“不成功”解，有时作“不…”解，如He failed to obtain the information he had applied for和He failed to come that evening。在作“不成功”解的时候可以把那不定式改作in和动名词。例如：He failed in obtaining the information he had applied for. 在作“不…”解的时候不可把那不定式改作in和动名词，如不可说He failed in coming that evening。

3.He failed in the examination和He failed in Latin都是正常的英语。下面各句里的failed用作及物动词，是美国学校里的用法：

He failed the examination.

He failed Latin.

The professor failed him in Latin。

4.failed用作形容词作“已失败的”解在美国比在英国普通，如a failed author和a failed firm。

5.下面两句语法不同，意思也往往不同：

His arrival failing, I shall write again. His arrival failing是独立结构，通常作“因为他不到”解，但也可作“假使他不到”解。

Failing his arrival, I shall write again. Failing从现在分词转用作介词，Failing his arrival通常作“假使他不到”解，但也可以作“因为他不到”解。

failing

参见fail 5

failure

failure用在不定式前面作“不（实行）”解。例如：His failure to come that evening was due to ill health.

fair(ly)

1.fair作“美丽的”解现在很不普通。

2.fair knowledge, fair specimen, fair ability, fair health等表达方式里fair都作“还算好的”或“说得过去的”解。fairly good, fairly safe, fairly certain, fairly well, fairly soon等表达方式里的fairly都作“还算好地”或“说得过去地”解。只用于褒义，不用于贬义，如不可说fairly bad或fairly dangerous。

3.play fair（办事公正合理），hit fair（依照规则出击），fight fair（依照规则开打）等表达方式里用fair, treat him fairly, deal fairly with them（公平对待他们）等表达方式里用fairly。

fairy

fairy是“身材极小的妖精”，跟“八仙”、“飘飘欲仙”、“赛过活神仙”等表达方式里的“仙”不同。

fairyland

fairyland（仙境、奇境）前面有时有a或the，有时没有。

fairy-tale（或fairy tale）

1.fairy-tale有时统指一切为儿童讲的“神话或童话”，前面没有a或the，如a monster of fairy-tale。

2.fairy-tale有时被借用指“谎言”。

faith

faith后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：our absolute faith that peace will prevail.

faithfully

Yours faithfully（或Faithfully yours）用作写给陌生人的信里的信尾客套语，在英国比在美国普通。

fall(en)

1.fall作“秋”解是美国英语，相当于英国英语的autumn。参见autumn

2.falls（每逢秋天）用作副词是美国用法。例如：Falls he lives with his parents.

3.fall是不及物动词，但它的过去分词fallen有时用作形容词，作“落下的，陷落的”解，如fallen leaves（落叶）和fallen city（沦陷了的城市）。

4.fall to作“开始”解，后面接名词或动名词，如In a little while they fell to argument和Let us fall to reading。第二句里的reading不可改作read。这习语主要是文学用语，不很普通。

5.He fell wondering who she was.=He fell to wondering who she was. 但不很普通。

fame

1.fame通常用作抽象名词，前面没有a。例如：He won fame as a violinist. 但偶尔也有a。例如：He has achieved a national fame as an expert on speed cutting.

2.of...fame作“因…而有名的”解，不论那of后面是什么词，都没有the，如Thomas Gray, of Elegy fame。指以Elegy in a Country Churchyard出名的18世纪英国诗人Thomas Gray。

familiar

注意下面各句里的介词：

family

1.large family是“众多的子女”，small family是“很少的子女”，跟我们所说的“大家庭”和“小家庭”没有关系。

2.a family of five, the eldest of the family等表达方式里的family作“子女”解，父母不算在内。

3.member(s) of a family和member(s) of my（或your等）family都可以说，但不可说family member(s)。

4.of family和of good family都作“好出身的”解，注意没有a。

5.he and family合乎习惯，但不及he and his family普通。

6.我们所说的“张家”、“李家”等英语作the...family，如the Chang family和the Brown family。

famous

famous语气很重，有“天下闻名”或“举国皆知”的意思。说一般的“有名的”该用well-known, noted等词。

fanatic(al)

fanatic现在主要用作名词，用作形容词远不及fanatical普通。相当于这两种形式的副词都是fanatically。

fancy

1.take a fancy to作“爱好”解，注意有a。

2.I used to fancy myself (to be) a good judge of music里的to be可以省去。

3.Fancy...! （试想…！）里的Fancy后面接动名词，不接不定式，如Fancy being in London! 不可改作Fancy to be in London!

far

1.far和by far略有不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）far用在属于比较级或最高级的词前面都可以，如This is far better than that和This is far the best of the five。

（2）by far可以用在属于最高级的词前面，不可用在属于比较级的词前面，如可以说This is by far the best of the five，不可说This is by far better than that。但用了the便可以把by far用在前面。例如：This is by far the better of the two.

（3）by far可以用在属于比较级的词后面。例如：This is better by far than that. 但这种用法不很普通。

2.far from作“极不”解，如This is far from perfect和I am far from considering it perfect。注意第一句里在far from后面直接接形容词perfect，在那形容词前面加上being也可以，但不很普通。

3.下面三句意思相同：

She is so far from liking the man that she intends never to see him again.

Far from liking the man, she intends never to see him again.

So far from liking him, she intends never to see him again.

第三句原来是从第一句和第二句混合而来。

4.so far as, as far as和in so far as的意思相同，可以换用。例如：So far as（或As far as，或In so far as）I can see, they are all satisfied with the arrangement. 但in so far as比较不普通。

5.注意在He went as far as Tibet等句子里在第二个as后面没有to。在far后面加上afield或west也可以，但在as后面也不该有to。同样地，as far back as the fifteenth century等表达方式里在第二个as后面没有in。

6.How far did he go？是疑问句，He did not go far是否定句。He went far很不自然，最好改作He went a long way。

fare

car fare（电车费）是美国英语，相当于英国英语tram fare。

farewell

farewell通常译作“再会”，其实往往有“永不再会”的意思，如He bade farewell to his native town（他永别了他的故乡）。

farm

farm前通常用on，偶尔用at，如They work happily on（偶尔用at）a farm。

farther

farther和further不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）farther不及further普通，further delay, further details, a further search, something further to say等表达方式里现在几乎总是用further而不用farther。

（2）farther只在说到“距离”的时候用得普通些，如the farther side of the river比the further side of the river普通。

（3）farther用作动词极不普通。

fashion

1.in...fashion里通常没有a（或an），如in English fashion, in roundabout fashion和in thorough fashion。用a也可以，但不很普通。

2.people of fashion, man of fashion等表达方式是“上流社会的人”，就是“风云人物”，并不指衣服或装饰的时髦。注意fashion前面没有the。

3.in fashion和in the fashion相同，作“合乎时尚的”解。out of fashion和out of the fashion相同，作“不合乎时尚的”解。

4.下面两句意思略有不同。

He is in the fashion. （他合乎时尚。）

He is the fashion. （他被人看作标准的风云人物。）

5.He is dressed German-fashion和He talks woman-fashion等句子里的German-fashion, woman-fashion等词是副词。也可以写作German fashion, woman fashion等。

fast

1.fast是形容词，也是副词。fastly现在不用。

2.break my（或your等）fast（吃早餐）这语现在不普通，不该用。该用eat breakfast, have breakfast或take breakfast。

fat

fat用于人有“肥得难看”或“胖得可笑”的意思。对于同一个女子，说She has grown fat含有“她现在太肥了”的意思，但说She has grown plump含有“她现在丰满了”的意思。

fate

the Fates原来指希腊神话里三个管理人们命运的女神，现在往往用the fates指一切管理人们命运的神，如As the fates would have it, he died on the spot和She thought the fates owed her something。

fatherland

1.fatherland（祖国）跟motherland没有什么区别。

2.英国人通常不用fatherland而用mother country。

fault

1.at fault是“不知所措的”。也有人把这语用作in fault解，有人以为不正当。in fault是“有过失的”。to a fault是“过分的”。例如：She is cautious to a fault. cautious是好的，但过分地cautious就不好。to a fault不可用在原来指“不好”的词，如不可说She is careless to a fault。

2.find fault with（责备、挑剔）里的fault前面不可加上a，也不可改作复数形式，也不可把with改作其他词。注意下面每组里的两句意思不同：

3.可以说I wrote the wrong address on the envelope, so it was my fault that the letter miscarried。不可说The letter miscarried because of the wrong address on the envelope, so it was my fault that I had written the wrong address。It was my fault that I had written the wrong address只可以有“我写错了那地址，是我的不是（不能怪别人）”的意思。再如你把一个男孩推了一下，他摔了一跤，你可以说It was my fault that the boy fell。不可说It was my fault that I gave the boy a push，这句只可以有“我把那男孩推了一下，是我的不是（不能怪别人）”的意思。

4.The cup broke through no fault of the girl是“这杯子的打碎并不是由于这女孩子的过失”。

favour

1.your favour在商业信函里代替your letter, your order, your inquiry等。例如：Your favour of 6 August has been received. 也有用your esteemed favour, your valued favour或your kind favour的。在一般通信里该避免。

2.说自己为别人服务，不可用favour。

3.可以说I ask the favour of your doing it（请帮忙）或I ask you to do me the favour of doing it。不可说I ask your favour of doing it。

4.favour（动词）不可有双宾语，如不可说Please favour me an early reply。该在me后面加上with。

5.favour在口语里有时作“貌似”解。例如：John favours his father and his brother favours his mother. 注意favour只作“貌似（父亲而不似母亲）”或“貌似（母亲而不似父亲）”解，不作“貌似（父母）”解，如不可说John favours both his parents。favour更不作“貌似（父或母以外的任何人）”解，如不可说John favours his brother或John favours his friend Peter。

favourable

favourable作“赞成的”解后面接to。例如：He is favourable to our scheme. 作“有利（于事件或东西或人）的”解后面也接to，例如：This weather is favourable to our scheme. This weather is favourable to potatoes. 和This weather is favourable to us. 作“有利（于动作）的”解后面接for。例如：This weather is favourable for a start.

fear

1.fear（动词）后面接不定式或动名词都可以，如I fear to offend him和I fear offending him。接以that引导的从句也可以。例如：I fear that I may offend him. 但不可接宾语和不定式，如不可说I fear myself to offend him。

2.fear（动词）不及be afraid普通。fear后面接以lest引导的从句更不通俗，如We feared lest he should fail远不如We were afraid (that) he might fail通俗。

3.fear（名词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：I have a fear that I may offend him.

4.下面各句意思相同：

For fear of mispronouncing some words I read very slowly.

For fear that I should mispronounce some words I read very slowly.

For fear lest I should mispronounce some words I read very slowly.

For fear I should mispronounce some words I read very slowly.

注意fear前面没有the。把第二句、第三句和第四句里的should改作might也可以。第三句不很普通。

5.Many people fear the economy may collapse是“很多人担心经济会崩溃”。We fear for the economy是“我们为经济状况担心”。

fearful

fearful用作“感觉恐惧的”解现在不很普通。

feast

feast是非常丰盛而奢侈的宴会，有“华筵”两字的意味，通常不用于一般的宴会。如神话里说国王请客往往用feast，但报纸里记载宴会不用feast。

feature

1.feature指面孔的一部分，如眼是一个feature，鼻也是一个feature，嘴也是一个feature。复数形式features指“面貌、相貌”。

2.注意There was worry on his features（面有忧色，面带愁容）里用on。

3.feature用作动词可以作“有…的特色”解，也可以作“是…的特色”解，如This restaurant features excellent cooking和Excellent cooking features this restaurant都可以说。

February

参见April

feed

下面几句都可以说：

She feeds the cat on fish.

She feeds the cat with fish.

She feeds fish to the cat.

She feeds the cat fish.

第一句是正常的英语，第二句不及第一句普通，第三句原来是美国英语，现在也可算正常，第四句是比较新的用法。

feel

1.feel可以用作系动词，后面接表语，如feel cold, feel proud和feel sure。也可以用作使役动词，后面接宾语和表语，如He felt himself guilty和She felt it an honour that we should care for her。有时在宾语后面接to be。例如：He felt himself to be guilty. 在用作系动词的时候，feel有时作“使人有某种感觉”解，如The air feels cold和How does it feel to be in love? （恋爱使人有怎样的感觉？）

2.feel的宾语后面的不定式习惯省去to。例如：I felt someone touch me on the shoulder. 把touch改作touching也可以。

3.说到心理上的认识，feel后面通常接以that引导的从句，不接宾语和不定式，如通常说I feel that the picture fully agrees with the original，不说I feel the picture fully agree with the original。但假使那不定式是be，尽可以用这结构，to不可省。例如：I feel the picture to be in full agreement with the original.

4.在用作“触、摸”解的时候，feel在美国往往在后面加上of。例如：I felt of the pocket to see if the handkerchief was there. 在英国没有of。

5.feel for和feel with都作“同情”解。

6.feel like...ing通常作“想要…”解，如I feel like singing和I feel like weeping。有时作“觉得好像…”解。例如：Landing on those shores, one feels like having entered into a great silence. 注意like是形容词，后面省去介词to，不是动词。

7.feel like可以作“觉得好像是…”解，如I feel like a boy on his first day of school。也可以作“想要…”解，如I feel like a walk。下面的对话当然是笑话：

Husband: I feel like a pork pie tonight.

Wife: What a strange thing to say! You don't look like one。

8.I feel difficult是“我感觉我自己被人难于应付”。并不是“我感觉我难于应付某人或某事”。I feel pleasant是“我感觉我自己使人愉快”，并不是“我感觉愉快”。

9.关于feel bad和feel badly，参见bad(ly) 2

10.feel用作名词，并不和feeling完全相同，下面几点该注意：

（1）说“触、摸”该用feel，不可用feeling。例如：

Let me have a feel. （让我摸一摸。）

It is smooth to the feel. （它摸起来是光滑的。）

It has a smooth feel. （它摸起来是光滑的。）

I can tell that it is paper by the feel. （摸了我便知道它是纸。）

（2）说身体上的感觉用feel或feeling都可以，如a feel of cold和a feeling of cold。

（3）说精神上的感觉用feeling比用feel普通，如a feeling of joy比a feel of joy普通。

（4）The factory has a homely feel等句子里的feel作air或atmosphere解，不可改作feeling。

（5）He has a feel(ing) for good poetry等句子里用feel或feeling都可以。

feeling

1.hurt（或wound）his（或your等）feelings是习语（注意用复数形式），作“伤他（或你等）的感情”解。feelings指一般的感受性，跟“感情”不同。注意下面各句里都用复数形式：

He seems to have no feelings.

She has no regard for our feelings.

Please spare her feelings.

You ought to control your feelings.

The speech appeals to the feelings rather than to the reason.

2.参见feel 10

felicitate

felicitate不及congratulate通俗。

fellow

1.that fellow, the other fellow等表达方式里的fellow只指男，不指女。但schoolfellow, fellow student, fellow sufferer等兼指男女。

2.that watchman fellow等是口语用法。

3.a fellow在口语里有时指说话者自己，正如汉语里有时用“人家”或“别人”指说话者自己，如A fellow can't stand it any longer（人家［=我］再也忍耐不住了）和Let a fellow sleep a little（让别人［=我］睡一会）。

female

1.用female代woman现在往往表示轻视，该避免。但在统计男女的时候尽可以用。例如：The city's population includes about two million females.

2.female原来是名词，转用作形容词，着重在性别，feminine原来是形容词，着重在“女子所特有的”或“关于女子的”的意思。如在companion, friend, ruler, servant, ward等单词前面要用female，在companionship, friendship, rule, sympathy, weakness等单词前面要用feminine。female education是“女子教育”，feminine education是“宜于女子的教育”。注意该说female sex和feminine gender，不可说feminine sex和female gender。

3.heir female和female heir（女承继人）意思相同。issue female和female issue（女儿们）也意思相同。

feminine

参见female 2

fetch

1.fetch可以有双宾语。例如：Please fetch me a pencil.

2.严格说来，fetch作go and bring解，所以Please go and fetch me a pencil里的go and该删去。但习惯上用go and fetch很普通。

3.You're late for the meeting, and I've come to fetch you里的fetch是从会场的立场说的。

few

1.few和a few不同，参见a, an 32。但only a few或but a few等于few。

2.few和many恰恰相反，但a good few作“很有几个”解，现在比较少用，跟a good many几乎相同。quite a few主要用在美国，也可说相同。

3.not a few作“许多”、“许多人”或“许多的”解，不作“一些也没有”解。

4.few不可修饰number，如不可说There were a fewer number of pupils here a year ago。该把fewer改作smaller，或把全句改作There were fewer pupils here a year ago。

5.下面各句都不合习惯：

The books in the room are few. （该改作There are few books in the room。）

The books in the room are a few. （该改作There are a few books in the room。）

His books are few. （该改作He has few books。）

His books are a few. （该改作He has a few books。）

The books are few和His books are few有时可以说，但通常含有“虽然少”或“太少”的意思。例如：

The books are few, but the pictures are many.

The books are few, but they are all well selected.

His books are few, though his pictures are many.

His books are few, though they are all well selected.

6.Few people loved him, for they thought him unkind里的they在语法上指Few pepole讲不通，该改作many。

fiancé(e)

英语里没有适当的指“未婚夫”或“未婚妻”的单词，通常借用法语fiancé（男）和fiancée（女）。两个单词发音相同。

fiction

1.fiction统指一切“小说”。例如：Do you read fiction? 把a fiction指“一篇小说”或fictions指“多篇小说”也不算错，但不很普通。

2.fiction通常只指“小说”，不包括诗歌和戏剧，但有时也兼指诗歌和戏剧里的“故事”。其实fiction注重在“假”，所以历史不是fiction，新闻也不是fiction，诗歌和戏剧里的“故事”却是fiction。

3.short fiction或shorter fiction统指一切短篇小说。

4.fiction（虚构的事）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I have read of the English fiction that in leap-year, especially on leap-day, a proposal of marriage comes from the woman and not from the man.

fictional

fictional是“小说的”，如fictional literature（小说文学）和fictional material（小说素材）。fictionalized是“小说化的”，如a fictionalized biography（小说化的传记）。fictitious是“假的”或“小说中的”，如fictitious name（假名）和fictitious hero（小说中的英雄）。

fictionalize(d)

参见fictional

fictitious

参见fictional

field

field在用作“田”解的时候前面用in。在用作“战场”或“运动场”解的时候field前面习惯用on。

fifty

1.fifty有时用作“许多的”解。例如：I have already heard of it fifty times.

2.参见eighty

fight

下面三句意思相同：

They are fighting with their enemy.

They are fighting against their enemy.

They are fighting their enemy.

第二句着重“难于抵敌”的意思。

可以说They are fighting with each other against their enemy。

fighter

fighter单独用现在通常是“战斗机”，不是“战斗员”，说“战斗员”通常用combatant。但可以说freedom fighter（为自由而战斗者），peace fighter等。美国英语fire fighter是“消防员”。

figure

1.figure（动词）用作“计算”或“估计”解是美国英语，有时把figure out或figure up用作同一意思。例如：They have figured out（或up）how much will be required.

2.figure on是美国英语，作“把…考虑在内”和“指望”解。

file

file用作“提出申请”解是美国英语，如He has filed his resignation with the manager和The annual report has already been filed with the mayor。注意两句里都用with，不用to。也注意这样用法的file跟keep on file意思不同。

fill

1.fill通常用作“把东西放满在…里”解，如fill the cup with wine和fill the box with books，注意用with。用作“把…放满在器皿里”解现在很不普通，该避免，如fill wine into the cup和fill books into the box都不该说。

2.fill不可用作“把东西放满在…上”解，如不可说fill the table with books，该改作put the books on the table。同样地，可以说His head is filled with strange ideas，但不可说His head is filled with black hair。因为ideas在头的里面，但hair在头的外面。The page is filled with printed matter是可以说的，因为page被看作一个可以“容”得下文字的东西。

3.fill用作fulfil解在英国从前也有，现在不流行，但在美国仍流行。例如：This fills a long-felt want. This fills every requirement. 和He filled five engagements that day.

4.fill用作“配（药方）”解是美国英语，在英国用make up或dispense。例如：I have had the prescription filled at the dispensary.

5.fill有时有双宾语。例如：He filled me a glass of beer.

6.说“填写（表格等）”用fill in, fill up和fill out都可以。例如：I have filled in（或up，或out）the document. fill out是美国英语。说“填写在（空白处）”用fill, fill in, fill up和fill out都可以，如Please fill these blanks和Please fill in（或up，或out）these blanks。说“把…填写”只可以用fill in。例如：Please fill in your name and address.

film

1.the films有时指一次的电影开映，有时统指“电影”，如I am going to the films this evening和Do you like the films? films（没有the）统指“电影”。例如：Do you like films?

2.film指影片的材料，如a thousand feet of interesting film。有时统指“电影事业”。例如：There are two camps in the world of film.

finance

finance作“财源”解必须用复数形式，如the finances of the country, the family finances和his finances。

financial

financial year（会计年度）是英国英语，在美国用fiscal year。

find

1.find可以有双宾语，也可以用作使役动词，所以We have found him a good assistant可能有两个意思：“我们已经替他找到一个好的助手”。（found有双宾语）或“我们已经发现他是一个好的助手”。（found用作使役动词）当然，在John's parents have found him a good wife里的found有双宾语，在John's parents have found him a good husband里的found用作使役动词。在可能被人误解的场合，只须照着意思用for或to be，如We have found a good assistant for him和We have found him to be a good assistant都不会被人误解。

2.find的宾语后面的不定式可以有to，也可以没有to。例如：We have found the farm (to) do well. 但假使那不定式是to be，不可省去to。例如：I have found him to be friendly.

3.I have found him (to be) friendly和I have found him (to be) a good friend里的to be可有可无。

4.find作“发现”或“找到”解，不作“找寻”解，如I have found the lost book是“我已经找到了那失去的书”，I hope I shall find the lost book today是“我希望我今天将找到那失去的书”。不可说I have found the lost book for some time, but I have not discovered it或I shall find the lost book, though I may never discover it。该把found改作looked for或searched for，把find改作look for或search for。不但这样，find并不含有“曾经找过”的意思，如假定你失去了一本书，也没有去找，后来忽然发现了，也可以用find。I have found a fly in the soup是“我已经在汤里发现一个苍蝇”。并不含有“曾经在汤里找过苍蝇”的意思。下面告白里的Found作“（被）拾得”解，并不含有“曾经找过”的意思：

Found

Blue Gloves

Apply to the Secretary.

5.find out和find略有不同。find out作“故意去找而找到”解，通常用于难于找到的东西。例如：We must find out a way to deal with the situation. 和In spite of our efforts, we failed to find out the truth.

有时find out用作不及物动词，作“发现真相”解。例如：When I find out, I shall be glad. 和He soon found out about the disguised secret agent.

6.find和find out都是一时的动作，所以不可说I have found the lost book for some time和We have found out the truth for a week。该说I found the lost book some time ago和We found out the truth a week ago或It is some time since I found the book和It is a week since we found out the truth。

7.He found her out可能有三个意思：1.“他把她找了出来”。2.“他发现她的错误（或过失）”。3.“他发现她不在家”。

8.find out后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：I found out from his children that he was away in town. 也可以接以what, where等引导的从句。例如：I hope to find out what is keeping him in town.

fine

fine writing, fine language和fine speech三种表达方式里的fine作“矫饰的”或“过分华丽的”解，是贬义，不是褒义。a piece of fine writing是“一篇矫饰的文字”（贬义），a fine piece of writing是“一篇精致的文字”（褒义）。

finger

1.finger只指手指，不指脚趾。脚趾是toe。说“手指或脚趾”该用digit。

2.first finger是第二指，是“食指”，不是“拇指”（thumb），也作forefinger或index finger。second finger是“中指”，也作middle finger。third finger是“无名指”，也作ring finger。fourth finger是小指，也作little finger。

finish

1.finish后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I have finished correcting the composition，不可说I have finished to correct the composition。

2.finish有“吃完”、“做完”、“读完”、“写完”等意思，如可以说I have finished the dinner, I have finished the work, I have finished the book和I have finished the letter。在finished后面加上eating, doing, reading, writing等词也不错，但不必要。I have finished the book可能有两个意思：“我已经读完这本书！”或“我已经写完这本书”。I have finished the letter也可能有两个意思。在有可能被人误解时该加上writing, reading等词。

3.下面两句意思相同，都作“我已经完毕了”解：

I have finished with it.

I am finished with it.

第二句里的finished是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。finished在用作形容词的时候后面有时接with和动名词，偶尔省去with而使动名词成为现在分词。例如：I waited for him to be finished (with) dressing. Finished with his breakfast, he talked to us over a cup of tea里的Finished也是用作形容词。

4.If he is not interrupted, he can finish by five o'clock里的finish是不及物动词，在口语里通常改用get it done。

5.finish有时有表语，作“结果成为…”解，如He finished a famous scholar和He finished perfectly proficient。

6.finish up比finish语气强，例如：If I don't finish the work tonight, I'll surely finish it up tomorrow. 和When the children had finished up with the ices, he asked the waiter, for the bill.

7.finish是一时的动作，所以不可说I have finished the work for a week，该改作I finished the work a week ago或It is a week since I finished the work。

8.fight to a finish（打到底、战斗到底）比fight to the finish普通。

fire

1.set...on fire和set fire to都作“放火使…烧起来”解，如Someone set the house on fire和Someone set fire to the house。注意不可说set...to fire或set fire on。

2.Someone set a fire和Several fires were set in the town等句都是美国英语。

3.fire department在英国指保险公司的火险部，在美国指救火队，相当于英国的fire-brigade或fire brigade。

4.fire fighter（消防员）是美国英语，相当于英国的fireman。

5.fire或fire out用作“开除”解起源于美国，现在英国也用。

firm

1.firm是两人或两人以上合办的企业，一个人独办的企业不可叫做firm。可以说the firm of Harrison & Co. 等。

2.He is a clerk with the firm里用with。

first(ly)

1.除了在逐项分别说明的时候以外，不可用firstly，如下面各句里的first不可改作firstly：

I saw her first last Monday.

He first asked my name.

I have to post the letter first.

在逐项分别说明的场合，也有人用first而不用firstly，如First(ly), Lily had no clothes; secondly, she had no home; thirdly, she had no friends。Lastly也是这样。

2.A boy and a girl came in to tell me a story, the boy was the first to speak里的was the first to speak是“第一个讲”。A boy and a girl came in to tell me a story, the boy spoke first里的spoke first也是“第一个讲”。但The boy spoke first and then wrote down what he said是“那男孩先讲话，然后把他讲的话写下来。”I saw her first yesterday可能有三个意思：1.“我昨天第一次见她。”2.“我昨天第一个见她（我见了她以后才有别人见她）。”3.“我昨天先见她（然后见别人）。”

3.I am going to catch the first train back to Beijing里的first可以改作next。first是“（现在以后的）第一个”，就是“下一个”。

4.the first two, the first three等比the two first, the three first等普通，也合理。

5.the first thing或first thing是习语，用作状语短语，作“作为最先做的一件事”解。例如：I will answer his letter (the) first thing tomorrow morning.

6.at first=at the beginning, from the first=from the beginning, at the first不及at first普通。参见beginning 1

7.at first glance（最初看到时），at first hand（直接地）和at first sight（乍一看、一见之下）各种表达方式里都没有the。

fish

除在说“多种鱼”的时候以外，fish的复数形式fish比fishes普通，如three fish比three fishes普通。a book on Chinese freshwater fishes和a shoal of little fishes里的fishes都指“各种鱼”。

fisher(man)

1.fisherman通常指把捉鱼做职业的“渔民”，称垂钓的“雅人”最好用angler。

2.fisher远不及fisherman普通。

fit(ting)

1.I am fit to eat the meat和The meat is fit to eat都可以说。第二句改作The meat is fit to be eaten也可以。The young man is now fit to ride里的fit to ride是“（身体好或受过训练）可以骑马的”，The horse is now fit to ride里的fit to ride是“可以被骑的”。

注意下面各句里末尾的介词不可删去：

The weather is not fit to go out in.

The room is now fit to store things in.

Twenty-five is an age fit to get married at.

This paper is hardly fit to write an important letter on.

2.think fit to...（不定式）作“把…认为可行而果然…”解，假使是“把…认为可行而其实并不…”则不可用这语，如不可说He thought fit to do it, but did not do it。又这语所说的事往往指“不明智的”或“不该的”，有“偏要…”的意思。例如：In spite of my advice, he thought fit to make friends with that man.

see fit to...（不定式）=think fit to...（不定式），但不及think fit to...（不定式）普通。

3.下面各句里的fit＋不定式是口语用法：

She cried fit to break her heart.

He trembled fit to drop.

I laughed fit to die.

The little boy sang a comic song fit to make you forget your worries.

4.fit有时有双宾语。例如：The authorities fitted the explorer a fleet.

5.It is fit that the story should be told in the first person不及It is fitting that...普通。should可以省去。

fix

1.fix在美国往往用作“安排”、“布置”、“组织”、“预备”等解，与fix up意思相同。

2.We have to fix a date for the meeting和We have to fix (up) on a date for the meeting意思相同。

flag

flag-day（或flag day）只用在英国，指“公益事业基金募捐日”（捐款者得一小旗，故名），相当于美国的tag day。在美国Flag Day（前面没有the）是国旗纪念日——6月14日，纪念1777年6月14日美国国会采用星条旗为国旗。

flatter

1.You flatter me作“承蒙过奖”解，在口语里常用。

2.be flattered和feel flattered都作“感觉荣幸”解，如I hope you are properly flattered at his visit和I feel flattered by your kind invitation。

3.He flattered himself（自夸）on his English里用on，但He flattered himself（自慰）with the hope of recovering his pen里用with。

4.He was flattered into believing that he was improving里的into believing不可改作to believe。

flee

1.flee是现在式，过去式是fled，过去分词也是fled，现在分词是fleeing。但flee和fleeing在英国很少用，被fly和flying代替。例如：Samuel fled yesterday. Samuel has fled. Samuel will fly tonight. （不用flee）Samuel is flying. （不用fleeing）

2.Samuel has fled和Samuel is fled两句意思相同。第二句里的fled是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

3.Samuel fled the country last year和Samuel fled from the country last year两句意思相同。

fleece

fleece有时是“羊身上的全部羊毛”，有时是“从羊身上一次剪下的毛”，并不指“羊毛”（wool）那物质，一根羊毛不可叫fleece，大捆的羊毛也不可叫fleece。

flight

take flight和take to flight都作“逃”解，take your（或his等）flight和take a flight都作“飞”解。flight（逃）和flight（飞）实际是两个不相关的词。

fling

fling有时有双宾语。例如：He flung me a smile and went out.

flood

即使指一时一地的大水，往往也用复数形式。例如：Owing to the floods we have to postpone our departure.

floor

1.floor是“房间的底面”，也许是石的，也许是泥的，不一定是板的。

2.floor和storey（在美国用story）都指房子的“层”，但下面几点该注意：

（1）floor着重在底面，stor(e)y着重在空间，所以floor前面习惯用on，stor(e)y前面习惯用in。

（2）说房子共有若干层，习惯用stor(e)y，不用floor，说房子的外面看去的第几层，也习惯用stor(e)y，不用floor。但说第几层上有什么，习惯用floor，不用stor(e)y，如说The library is on the second floor。

（3）说房子的第几层，用stor(e)y英美相同，但用floor英美不同。第一层（就是在地上的一层）英美都叫first stor(e)y或ground stor(e)y，第二层英美都叫second stor(e)y，第三、四、五各层依次类推。在美国把stor(e)y改作floor也可以。但在英国ground floor虽然指第一层，first floor却指第二层，second floor却指第三层，其他依次类推。

3.floor偶尔用作物质名词，如a strip of floor。

floorwalker

floorwalker（百货商店中的铺面巡视员或导购员）是美国英语，相当于英国的shopwalker。

fluid

fluid并不专指液体（liquid），也包括气体（gas），如水、油、空气、电流和以太（ether）都是fluid。

flunk

flunk是美国口语，注意下面各句：

He flunked. （他考试不及格。）

He flunked the examination. （他考试不及格。）

His teacher flunked him. （他的教师使他不及格。）

He had a flunk in his entrance examination.

fly

1.fly和flying在英国往往用作flee和fleeing解，但flew和flown不可用作fled解。

2.The bird has（或is）flown是习语，作“那所要找的人已经离去了”解。用了is那flown是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

3.fly在用作“乘飞机旅行”解的时候往往用现在时态或现在进行时态指将来，如He flies to Moscow tomorrow或He is flying to Moscow tomorrow作He will fly to Moscow tomorrow解。

foe

foe（仇人、敌人）现在远不及enemy普通。

fog

fog是“雾”，a fog是“一阵雾”，fogs是“多阵雾”。

folk

1.folk和folks都指“人们”，不指一个人。例如：There were a number of country folk(s) at the fair. folks似乎比folk普通些，但两种形式都不及people普通。主要用在美国和英国北部。

2.a folk是“一个民族”、“一个部落”或“一个社会的人们（community）”，现在不普通。

3.my（或your等）folks是“我（或你等）的家属”，注意用复数形式。

folk(-)lore

Irish folk(-)lore, Greek folk(-)lore等表达方式前面没有the。

follow(ing)

1.as follows是习语，不论那句子的主语是单数或复数，只可用as follows，不可用as follow，如The rule is as follows和The rules are as follows。

2.A strange thing followed upon the incident等句子里的upon可有可无。

3.as follows和（as）in the following两种表达方式不可混用，不可用as following或in the follows。

4.the following有时单数，有时复数，随意思而定，如The following is my full name和The following are our full names。

5.the three following sentences, the five following rules等比the following three sentences, the following five rules等普通。

6.following有时用作介词。例如：Following the ceremony a reception was held. 这用法在报纸上特别多见。

7.follow后面不可接宾语和不定式，如不可说I followed him to go into the house和I followed him to read the sentence aloud。该改作I followed him into the house和I read the sentence aloud after him。

8.I followed my parents to Shanghai是“我跟随着我的父母到上海（父母先到，我后到）”。并不是“我和我的父母一同到上海”。

9.on the Tuesday following跟on the following Tuesday意思相同。

10.The following is a list of the books里的The following是主语，Following is a list of the books里的Following实际等于The following，但也可以把全句看作等于A list of the books is following。事实上不说A list of the books is following，而说A list of the books follows。Following is a list of the books是美国用法。

folly

在It is folly to（愚蠢）...（不定式）里的folly前面不用a比用a普通。假使folly前面加上了形容词，通常有a。例如：It is a great folly to try to persuade him.

fond

1.fond后面接of，如He is fond of his children和She is fond of reading aloud。不可接不定式，如不可说She is fond to read aloud。

2.说“很喜爱”该说very fond，不该说much fond。

3.fond指惯常的爱好，不指一时的爱好，如不可说I am fond of talk today或I shall be fond of seeing you again next Wednesday。也不可说always fond和often fond。

4.“不喜欢”习惯上不说not fond of，如习惯上不说She is not fond of reading aloud。可以改作She does not care to read aloud。

fondness

fondness前面有a，后面接for。例如：A fondness for children led to his organizing a children's theatre.

food

food统指“食物”。a food是“一种食物”，foods是“多种食物”。a food和foods从前除了指供给病人吃的特制的食品以外，不及an article of food和articles of food普通。但现在很普通，如a breakfast food和such vital foods as wheat, rice, and milk。

food(-)stuff

a food(-)stuff是“一种食料”，food(-)stuffs是“多种食料”。food(-)stuff不可统指食料，不是物质名词。

fool

1.fool在英国现在不用作形容词，但在美国还往往用作形容词，如fool idea和fool friend。

2.I was fool enough to do that里的fool前面没有a。

3.He is no fool的意思是“他很精明”。不是“他不是呆子”。

4.fool around（游荡）是美国英语，相当于英国英语fool about。

foolish

He was foolish to believe her是“他相信她的话，那是他的愚笨”。He was foolish enough to believe her是“他愚笨得相信她的话”。

foolscap

foolscap是切成某种大小（英：13½×17英寸，美：13×16英寸）的纸的总称，并不指那种大小的一张纸，可以说a sheet of foolscap，不可说a foolscap。

foot

1.foot统指步兵，如a regiment of foot和1000 foot（一千个步兵）。“一个步兵”该说a foot-soldier或an infantryman。

2.床的foot指人躺在床上那近脚部的一端，不是“床脚”。

3.on foot（步行）不可改作by foot。

4.a four-foot（四英尺的）pole和a four-footed pole都可以说。但只可说four-footed（四足的）animal，不可说four-foot animal。

5.说“英尺”往往用foot代替feet，如six foot（或feet）。说“几英尺几英寸”有下面各种说法：

six foot（或feet）three inches

six foot（或feet）and three inches

six foot（或feet）three

football

football有时指“足球”，“橄榄球”，有时指“足球运动”，“橄榄球运动”。在指“足球运动”，“橄榄球运动”的时候，前面不可加a或the。例如：We shall play football this afternoon. 参见base(-)ball和basketball

for

1.for two hours, for three weeks, for many years, for several miles等表达方式里的for有时省去，但在正式些的文字里最好不省去。有下面两点该注意：

（1）在句首通常不省去，如For two hours he had been waiting里的For通常不省。

（2）下面第一句可能有两个意思，第二句只有一个意思：

I have not studied English for two years. （1.我已经有两年不学习英语了。2.我学习英语以来还不满两年。）

I have not studied English two years. （我学习英语以来还不满两年。）

2.注意下面各句的意思：

This is the best book I have read for a long time. （1.这是过去的很长一段时期里我所读过的最好的书。2.我好久不曾读过这样的好书了。不作“这是我所读了好久的最好的书”解。）

This is the first book I have read for five weeks. （1.这是在过去的五星期里我所读过的第一本书。2.自从五星期以来我只读过这本书。不作“这是我所读了五星期的第一本书”解。）

I have not read any book for a long time. （我好久不读书了。不作“我不曾把任何书读了好久”解。）

I shall not read any book for five weeks. （1.在以后的五星期里我将不读书。2.我将在五星期以后才读书。不作“我将不把任何书读五星期”解。）

3.I have met him three（或four等）times等句子里的three times等表达方式的前面没有for。

4.下面各句都不合习惯：

I went there for seeing him.

They will come for hearing the music.

We work hard for building socialism.

该把for seeing改作to see, for hearing改作to hear, for building改作to build。注意I went there for sightseeing和They will come for pheasant shooting是可以说的，这里的seeing和shooting并不是临时用的动名词。

5.It is shameful for him to do so的结构原来是It is shameful for him, to do so。那for him属于shameful。但渐渐被人看作是It is shameful, for him to do so。那for him形容to do，因而有For him to do so is shameful的结构。又如For anything to happen here is hardly possible和For you to try again would be advisable。

那for...属于前面的词还是属于后面的不定式，有时在全句意思上有出入，如It is dangerous for him, to drive a car是“驾驶汽车对于他是危险的”。It is dangerous, for him to drive a car是“他驾驶汽车对于别人是危险的”。

6.for现在只用作并列连接词。除了在极短的句子里以外，它的前面通常用分号。for用作连接词在口语里很不普通。

7.for可以引导全句，把那全句跟前句相接。例如：We hold that the cause of all the motion and change in the world lies in the material world itself. For the world is by its very nature material. 有时用在自然段落的开首。

8.for既然是并列连接词，所以当用在句首的时候，它把那句子跟前句相接，决不可把它所引导的从句用作那句子里的状语从句，如不可说For I had something to tell him, I went to see him。该改作I went to see him, for I had something to tell him。

9.for有时引导一个插入从句。例如：

According to relevant regulations, for his mother was the widow of a national hero, he received a good education.

Tom bought a chain, one of silver gilt, certainly, for he had not the money for a gold one, but of very pretty workmanship.

10.下面四句都不对：

I am sorry, for I have not answered your letter.

Excuse me, for I have not answered your letter.

Forgive me, for I have not answered your letter.

Pardon me, for I have spoken rudely.

该改作：

I am sorry that I have not answered your letter.

Excuse me for not having answered your letter.

Forgive me for not having answered your letter.

Pardon me for having spoken rudely（或speaking rudely）.

11.下面各句里的for all...都作“尽管、虽然”解：

For all that he failed.

For all his efforts he failed.

For all he had done he failed.

For all he had worked hard, he failed.

For all that he had worked hard, he failed.

第一句和第二句里的all是形容词，第三句里的all是名词，第四句里的for all和第五句里的for all that都可以算作连接词。

12.下面两句里的for后面的过去分词的前面可以说省去了being，但事实上不可加上being：

I took your consent for granted. （1.我假定了你的应许。2.我以为你一定同意。）

He gave himself up（或over）for lost. （他自己想一定没有希望了。）

13.在书的题献（dedication）里一向用To，但近来有用For的。例如：

For

A. J. Brown

forbear

forbear（自制）后面接不定式，动名词或from和动名词。例如：You must forbear to complain（或complaining，或from complaining）of that. 用from不普通。cannot forbear和could not forbear后面通常接不定式，如I cannot forbear to go into detail。也可以接动名词。例如：I cannot forbear laughing.

forbid(den)

1.forbid比prohibit通俗。它的宾语后面接不定式。例如：His health forbids him to go. 不可接from和动名词，如不可说His health forbids him from going。prohibit后面接from和动名词参见prohibit。

2.forbid后面接动名词，不接不定式。如可以说The regulations forbid walking on the grass，不可说The regulations forbid to walk on the grass。

3.forbid有时有双宾语，如He forbids them tobacco（他禁止他们抽烟）和She forbids him her house（她不许他到她的家里）。He forbids them tobacco假使改作被动语态当然是They are forbidden tobacco或Tobacco is forbidden them。但Tobacco is forbidden them似乎不及Tobacco is forbidden to them普通。

4.forbid不用作祈使语气，如不可说Forbid the children to enter the room。该改作Tell the children not to enter the room。

5.Forbidden City（紫禁城）前面有the。

forceful

forceful在英国不及forcible普通。

forecast

forecast的过去式和过去分词forecast比forecasted正当。

foreign

英国的外交大臣叫Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs，简称Foreign Secretary。我国的外交部长叫Minister for（或of）Foreign Affairs。

forenoon

forenoon（上午）主要用在苏格兰，远不及morning普通。

forever

forever是美国拼写形式，在英国通常写作for ever。参见ever 1

foreword

foreword（前言、序言）不及preface普通。

forget

1.forget的过去分词现在在英国通常是forgotten，不是forgot，在美国两种形式都普通，但也是forgotten用得比较多。

2.I forget往往用作I have forgotten解，如I forget his address和I forget how much I paid him。下面有几点该注意：

（1）forget代替have forgotten，通常有“暂时忘记”的意思。例如：I forget his address-but no doubt it will come back to me later.

（2）forget代替have forgotten，不可用在不定式里，如不可说I seem to forget his address。该把forget改作have forgotten。

（3）forget代替have forgotten，后面不可接不定式，如不可说I forget to close the door。该把forget改作have forgotten。

（4）不可把forgot代替had forgotten。

（5）forget代替have forgotten，那主语通常是I，难得是we, you或they。用forgets代替has forgotten也很少见。

3.forget和forget about意思相仿，加上了about语气婉转些。例如：He often forgets (about) dates.

4.forget后面接不定式作“因忘记而不曾…”解。例如：He forgot to tell her about it. 后面接动名词作“忘记曾经…”解。例如：He forgot telling her about it. （他忘记曾经把这件事告诉她，他曾经把这件事告诉她，但后来忘记了。）

5.说“遗忘（某物）”可以用forget。例如：I forgot my stick and so sent my brother for it. 但说“遗忘（某物）在某处”不可用forget，如不可说I forgot my stick at his house。该把forgot改作left或left behind。

6.下面各句里都用进行时态：

I'm forgetting my glasses. （1.我在忘记我的眼镜。2.我几乎忘记我的眼镜。）

I'm forgetting my French. （我渐渐忘记了法语。）

His memory is going, and I'm afraid he'll soon be forgetting his French. （他的记忆力正在衰退，恐怕他不久将渐渐忘记法语。）

The world will be long forgetting the "9·11" incident. （1.人们将好久以后才渐渐忘记“9·11”事件。2.人们将好久记着“9·11”事件。）

forgetful

1.forgetful后面接of。例如：One must not be forgetful of one's social obligations. 用be forgetful of往往不及用forget自然，如Don't be forgetful of what I have just told you不及Don't forget what I have just told you自然。

2.forgetful后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：You seem to be forgetful that all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

forgive

1.forgive往往带有双宾语。例如：We shall forgive him his offences. 但forgive的宾语后面不可直接接动名词，该在动名词前面加上for。例如：Forgive me for leaving some of your questions unanswered.

2.不可说Forgive me, for I have left some of your questions unanswered。该改作Forgive me for leaving（或having left）some of your questions unanswered。

3.Forgive me, but I am too busy to go out with you里的but不可改作其他词。

4.参见excuse 9

forgo

forgo（放弃）后面可以接动名词。例如：You had better forgo using this word.

form

1.in book form（以书的形式），in popular form（以通俗的形式），in correct form（以正确的形式）等表达方式里习惯没有a。

2.good form（有礼貌）和bad form（没礼貌、无礼行为）前面都不可加a或the，那form没有复数形式。

3.下面各句都可以说：

a new form of dictionary（一本新型词典）

a new form of dictionaries（比较少见）

some new forms of dictionary

some new forms of dictionaries

4.form letter是“依照固定格式印成、打成或写成的（发给许多人的）信”，跟formal letter（正式的信）不同。

former

1.the former（前者）和the latter相对，只可用于两个人或物，不可用于两个以上的人或物，如不可说He has three friends in Beijing, A, B, and C, the former is a scholar。该把former改作first, firstmentioned，或first-named。

2.former Mayor...（前任市长…）。former Ambassador...（前任大使…）等里的former的用法，在美国比在英国普通。在英国通常用ex-。

formerly

formerly不可指一次发生的事，如不可说I met her at a meeting formerly。但可以说I used to meet her at meetings formerly。

formula

除了在数学和科学上以外，formula的复数形式formulas现在比formulae普通。

forth

1.and so forth（以及其他）不及and so on通俗。

2.and so on and so forth比单独用and so on或and so forth语气强。也有用and so forth and so on的。

3.back and forth是美国英语。参见back 1

forthcoming

forthcoming用于人，作“肯给人方便的”解。例如：She was civil and forthcoming.

fortnight

fortnight在英国很普通，在美国很少用，通常用two weeks。

fortunate

1.fortunate in...作“在…方面有幸的”解，就是“有好的…的”的意思。例如：He is very fortunate in his teacher of English. （他有很好的英语教师。）

2.He is fortunate to have such a son跟He is fortunate enough to have such a son意思不同（参见enough 3）。He was fortunate in having such a son和He was fortunate to have such a son意思相同。

fortunately

fortunately通常用在句子或从句的开首或末尾，作“幸而…”解。例如：Fortunately, I left the house before the fire broke out. 和The weather was fine, fortunately.

fortune

1.make a fortune是“发财”，make his（或my等）fortune是“发达”、“成功”、“得意”或“成家立业”。

2.fortune-teller是“算命先生”，fortune-telling是“算命”，注意用单数形式。tell fortunes（算命）中必须用复数形式，但tell (him) his fortune, tell (you) your fortune等表达方式里该用单数形式。“她请人给她算了命”该说She had her fortune told。

但说一个人的“遭遇”或“处境”往往用复数形式。例如：His fortunes soon took a turn for the better.

3.good fortune（好运）里的fortune是抽象名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。fortune单独用作“好运”解也是这样。a piece of (good) fortune作“一件幸运的事”解。

4.have the good fortune后面接不定式，例如：I had the good fortune to meet him there.

fortune-teller

参见fortune 2

fortune-telling

参见fortune 2

forty

参见eighty

forward(s)

1.在用作形容词、名词或动词的时候，只作forward，不可作forwards。在用作副词的时候，forward比forwards普通。

2.forward（动词）可以用作“转寄”或“转送”解。例如：Please forward the enclosed letter to Mr J. Hall. 在商业文件里也用作“送”或“寄”解，如We shall forward the goods this afternoon和We forwarded you the invoice the day before yesterday。有时竟用作不及物动词。例如：Please sign the card and forward together with a cheque for ¥20. 在一般文字里都该避免。

foundation

1.the foundation(s) of his career, the foundation(s) of her fortune等表达方式用单数形式或复数形式都可以。

2.lay the foundations of（建立…的基础）比lay the foundation of 普通，lay the foundation for比lay the foundations for普通。lay the foundations for最不普通。

3.foundation principles（基本原理），foundation vocabulary（基本词汇）等表达方式里的foundation用作形容词，是美国用法，在英国用fundamental。

fowl

a fowl指“一只鸟”，现在极不普通，fowls指“多只鸟”也极不普通。fowl统指一切鸟，通常用在sea-fowl, waterfowl和wildfowl里，如a flock of waterfowl。a fowl通常指“一只鸡”，fowls通常指“多只鸡”。

frankly

frankly（坦白地）有时修饰整个句子或从句。例如：Frankly, I do not bellieve it. 和I have attended the lecture, in which, frankly, I feel very much disappointed.

fraternity

fraternity用作“大学生联谊会”解是美国英语。通常指男生或男女生的联谊会，单独女学生的联谊会叫sorority。

free

1.free from和free of作“没有…的”或“免于…的”解，free from普通些。但在charge（费），duty（税），rent（租金）等词前面习惯用free of。

2.free（动词）的宾语后面用from比用of普通。例如：We freed him from（或of）his obligation. free the river from pollution

3.I am to receive, free, a copy of the book里的free是副词，作“免费地”解。近几年来也有把for free代free的。例如：I am to get a copy of the book for free. 注意He will give it free（他将免费把它送给人家）和He will give it freely（他将大量地把它送给人家）两句意思不同。

freight

freight在英国只指水运的货、水上运输和水运费，在美国现在几乎只指陆运和空运的货、陆上和空中的运输、陆运和空运的费用。freight train（货运火车）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的goods train。freight car（一节货车）也是美国英语，相当于英国英语的goods waggon。

French

Frenchman不可写作French man，但every French man and woman和French men and women里的French man和French men不错。the French作“法国民族”或“法军”解。

Frenchman

1.Frenchman不可写作French man，参见French

2.Frenchman指男子，不指女子，指女子该用Frenchwoman，但Frenchmen往往统指法国人。

freshman

freshman在英国只指大学一年级学生，在美国指任何学校的一年级学生，兼指男女。

Friday

1.关于“某月某日，星期几”的说法，参见April 4

2.Sunday, Monday, Tuesday等词前面加上next或last形成状语短语，如They will come next Monday和She came last Friday。这种词单独用作副词是美国用法，如They will come Monday（下星期一）和She came Friday（上星期五）。

3.on Sunday, on Monday, on Tuesday等通常作next Sunday, last Sunday等解，如They will come on Sunday和They came on Monday。有时统指一般的星期几等，如We used to meet on Saturday。on the Sunday, on the Monday, on the Tuesday等通常指定某个星期几等，如She came on a Monday and went on the Thursday。有时统指一般的星期几等，如We used to meet on the Saturday。on Sundays, on Mondays, on Tuesdays等统指一般的星期几等，如We used to meet on Saturdays。of a Sunday, of a Monday, of a Tuesday等统指一般的星期几等，如We used to meet of a Saturday。

下面四句意思相同，第一句最普通：

We used to meet on Saturdays.

We used to meet on Saturday.

We used to meet on the Saturday.

We used to meet of a Saturday.

在美国也往往说We used to meet（没有on）Saturdays和Saturday we used to meet。注意Saturday是单数形式，用在句首。

4.Good Friday（耶稣受难日）指耶稣复活节（Easter）前两天的那个星期五。前面没有the。

5.Friday通常译作“星期五”。其实是每星期的第六天。每星期的第一天是Sunday，第二天是Monday，第三天是Tuesday，依次类推。

friend

1.boy friend和gentleman friend都指女子的男朋友，girl friend, lady friend和woman friend都指男子的女朋友。在不须说明性别的时候都不该用，单用friend就是了。boy friend有时指“小朋友”。

2.He is a friend of mine当然不可改作He is a friend of me。He is my friend往往有“他跟我很好”的含意。He is a friend of Mr Shaw's比He is a friend of Mr Shaw普通，第二种形式往往有“他跟Shaw先生很好”的含意，多用在文字里，很少用在口语里。He is a friend to Mr Shaw是“他经常帮助或照顾Shaw先生”。

3.“交朋友”该说make friends，说“跟…交朋友”该说make friends with...。例如：She will be glad to make friends with him. 但“交一个朋友”可以说make a friend。She will be glad to make friends with him里的friends不可改作friend。但可以把make friends with改作make a friend of。不过make a friend of不及make friends with普通，而且着重在“使…做自己的朋友”的意思。

4.be friends作“友善”解，be friends with作“跟…友善”解，如She is still friends和She is still friends with him。get friends with和become friends with作“开始跟…友善”解。

5.信函里的称呼语用Dear Friend或My dear Friend现在很不普通，最好不用。

friendly

friendly用作副词现在很不普通。friendlily也不普通。最好用状语短语in a friendly manner。

friendship

复数形式指“许多朋友的交谊”，如college friendships，不可用来指两人之间的友谊，如the friendship between Henry and John里的friendship不可改作friendships。

frighten(ed)

1.Helen is frightened of Jack和He is frightened of the forest以及She is frightened of being left behind等句子里用of。

在指一时的惊恐的时候在frightened后面往往用at。例如：The boy dare not enter the gate because he was frightened at the dog.

2.关于a frightened cry（受惊的喊声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

from

1.from后面往往接介词或副词，如from behind the door, from under the table, from above和from below。

2.from five to eight men和from fifty to seventy feet等表达方式里的from往往省去。

3.from three o'clock to half past six和from three o'clock till（或until）half past six都可以说。

4.From the park to my house is only a quarter of a mile里的From the park to my house用作名词。

5.（from）May to October通常指5、6、7、8、9、10月，（from）May to October inclusive当然更明白。（from）May to October exclusive也很明白（5月和10月不算）。近几年来美国有from May through October的说法，意思是“从5月初到10月底”。

front

1.in front of作“在…的前面”解。例如：There is a hill in front of the house. in the front of作“在…的前部”解。例如：An artist's family live in the front of the house. 可以说The boy is sitting in front of the girl，不可说The boy is sitting in the front of the girl。也不可说The boy is sitting in the girl's front。

at the front of作“在…的前面近处”或“在…的前端”解。例如：There is a big tree at the front of the house. 和There are two doors at the front of the house.

2.front作“（战场）前线”解时前面用on或at都可以，但production front（生产战线），cultural front（文化战线）等前面习惯用on。

frost

1.注意下面两句里的frost意思不同：

There is frost on the ground. （地上有霜。）

There is frost in the ground. （地下冰冻着。）

2....degrees of frost作“冰点以下若干度”解， 冰点在华氏（Fahrenheit）寒暑表32度，所以ten degrees of frost指“华氏22度”。

fruit

1.单数形式fruit往往统指水果或某树上所生的水果，如Do you like fruit? 和Some trees have lost all their fruit in the storm。much fruit是“许多水果”，many fruits是“许多种水果”。

2.fruits of victory（胜利果实），fruits of labour（劳动果实）等表达方式里习惯用复数形式。

fuel

fuel统指“燃料”。说“一种燃料”通常说a kind（或form）of fuel，说“多种燃料”通常说kinds（或forms）of fuel。a fuel和fuels通常指工业、军事等用的各种燃料。

-ful

-ful加在名词后面形成名词，有“满”的意思。armful（一抱），bagful（满袋），boxful（满盒），cupful（满杯），glassful（满玻璃杯），handful（满把），mouthful（满口），spoonful（满匙）等词的复数形式是armfuls，bagfuls等，如two armfuls of wood（两抱柴）和three bagfuls of flour（三满袋面粉）。

full

1.full后面接of，如The bottle is full of water和The river is full of fish。注意不可说Water is full in the bottle和Fish are full in the river。

2.full of后面只接指容在里面的东西的词，不接指在外面的东西的词，如可以说His head is full of strange ideas，不可说His head is full of black hair，该把full of改作covered with。参见fill2

3.The tram is full to bursting里的to是介词，所以后面接动名词bursting，不接burst。

fume

复数形式fumes有时指“臭气”。

fun

1.fun是抽象名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。

2.make fun of（开玩笑）不可改作make fun with或make fun to。

function

function往往指正式的社交集会，前面用at。例如：He first met her at a social function.

funer(e)al

1.funereal只用作形容词，不可用作名词。funeral原来是形容词，但现在也用作名词。funereal作“悲惨得像丧葬般的”解，如funereal expression和funereal voice。funeral（形容词）作“关于丧葬的”解，如funeral procession（送葬队伍）和funeral rites（葬仪）。

2.funeral通常指“葬礼”。有时也指“丧礼”（主要在美国）。例如：A funeral was held at her home on Monday afternoon, and she was buried the next morning.

3.funeral home（殡仪馆）或funeral parlor是美国英语。funeral director（丧葬承办人）也是美国英语，相当于英国的undertaker。注意在英国没有相当于美国英语funeral home或funeral parlor的名称，只用undertaker(s)，只指人而不说“馆”。上述各名称都着重在办“葬”，跟我国的“殡仪馆”略有不同。

furlough

on furlough和on a furlough都可以说。

furnish

furnish（供给）原来不可有双宾语，如原来可以说We furnish them with food和We furnish food to them（第一句比第二句普通），但不可说We furnish them food。但近年来furnish后面接双宾语很普通，如They will furnish you the necessary materials和The essay has furnished us food for thought。

furnishings

furnishings（家具，复数形式）主要用在美国。它比furniture所指的广些，例如电灯、椅套、窗帘、茶壶等东西都可以包括在furnishings里。

furniture

furniture统指“家具”，不指“一件家具”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。“一件家具”该说a piece of furniture, an article of furniture或a bit of furniture。“多件家具”该说pieces（或articles，或bits）of furniture。a stick of furniture和sticks of furniture指简单的家具。“一套家具”该说a set of furniture或a suite of furniture。

further

参见farther

future

1.in future, in the future和for the future三种表达方式都可以说，但不可说for future。in future和for the future通常指全部的将来。in the future通常指将来的某一时期。for the future往往含有“跟以前不同”的意思。

2.in future和in the future都可以说，但in the near future, in the distant future等里必须有the。

3.future life有时是“死后的生存”，有时是“将来”。例如：We do not believe there is such a thing as a future life（死后的生存）. 和I do not think my future life（将来）will be much concerned with him.

G

gain

gain（取得）有时有双宾语，例如：Her talent and hard work gained her success as an artist.

gainsay

gainsay（否认）现在通常和否定词用在一起，如There is no gainsaying it（不能否认这句话）和That cannot be gainsaid（那是不能否认的）。

gait

gait在英国只指“步态”，在美国有时也指“走的速度”。例如：I wish you would walk at a slower gait.

gallop

at a gallop（飞跑）和at full gallop两种表达方式意思相同，注意用了full便没有a。有时用full gallop，没有at。

game

1.说足球等的比赛在英国通常用match，但在美国通常用game。

2.the football game是“这次足球比赛”，并不统指“踢足球”，可以说They played the football game yesterday afternoon，不可说They play the football game every afternoon。第二句里的the和game都该去掉，即使第一句里的the和game也最好去掉。

3.game指猎物前面不可加a，也没有复数形式，如The lion is big game里没有a, Lions and tigers are big game里不用games。I was fair game for the older children's teasing里也没有a。My brother and I were fair game for the older children's teasing里也不用games。

gang(ster)

gang在美国往往指在一起玩的一群人，有时也用作动词，作“在一起玩”解，如These boys form a little gang和This boy seldom gangs with his fellows。但gangster只指“一群暴徒里的一个”。

gaol(er)

1.在英国gaol(er）和jail(er）都普通。在公文里通常用gaol(er)，在美国jail(er)比gaol(er)普通。

2.He is in gaol是“他被关在监狱里”。He is in the gaol是“他在监狱里（工作，参观等）”。

garden

1.在英国有时用复数形式来指一个公园，例如英国著名的Kensington Gardens（前面没有the）。有时竟可说a botanical gardens （植物园）或a zoological gardens（动物园）。

2.garden有时用作物质名词，如his plot of garden（他的一块园地）和an acre of garden（一英亩园地）。

garret

参见attic

gas

gas用作“汽油”解是美国英语，等于gasoline。

gasolene（或gasoline）

gasolene用作“汽油”解是美国英语，相当于英国的petrol。

gate

gate指城墙或围墙的门或门口，不指房子的门或门口，房子的门或门口是door，不是gate。如城墙的“东门”、“西门”等表达方式里的“门”是gate。又如一所房子四周有围墙或篱笆，围墙或篱笆的门或门口是gate，那房子的门或门口是door。

gather

1.gather后面接that引导的从句，作“推想…”解。例如：I gather from his letter that he is very happy now.

2.gather（搜集）后面偶尔接双宾语。例如：They gathered him all the dry sticks they could find.

gender

gender（性）是语法名词，不作“男女性别的性”解。把of the masculine gender和of the feminine gender用作of the male sex和of the female sex解是戏谑的说法，该避免。

general

关于general knowledge，参见common 2

generally

generally往往用在属于复数形式的名词的后面。例如：I am interested in new books generally. 这样用法的generally在语法上虽然是副词，在意思上却有形容词的性质，new books generally=most new books。

Geneva

Geneva spirit（日内瓦精神）前面有the。

genius

1.genius（天才）指天生的高度的智力，不指一般的聪明，如学校里的“高材生”不可算作有genius.

2.genius在用作“有天才者”解的时候，它的复数形式是geniuses，在用作“鬼”或“仙”解的时候，它的复数形式是genii。

3.genius在用作“天才”解的时候，后面接for，在用作“有天才者”解的时候，后面接in。例如：He has a genius for poetry. 和He is a genius in poetry.

4.He is no genius的意思是“他是呆子。”不指“他不是有天才者”。

genteel

genteel原来作“有礼的”、“文雅的”、“高尚的”等解。现通常用作反语，含有“矫揉造作的”或“摆出绅士派头的”的意思。

gentleman

1.写信给两个或两个以上的陌生男子（如写信给委员会、董事会或公共团体）可以把复数形式gentlemen用作称呼语。注意：1.决不可用单数形式gentleman。2.前面决不可加上Dear或Messrs。3.写信给公司现在通常用Dear Sirs，不用gentlemen。

2.gentlemen friends, gentlemen students, gentlemen painters等表达方式用gentlemen比用gentleman普通。

3.ladies and gentlemen不可改作gentlemen and ladies。这并不意味着英国人尊重女性（lords and ladies不可改作ladies and lords），却因为在英国封建社会里lord和lady原来比gentleman和gentlewoman高一级，后来把lady借用指任何“上等女子”，把gentleman借用指任何“上等男子”，在兼称男女的时候仍旧把“高一级”的ladies用在gentlemen的前面。a gentleman and a lady的次序又不同，通常不说a lady and a gentleman。

4.gentleman's agreement（君子协定）和gentlemen's agreement都可以说，这语有时指“不很正当的协定”。

gentlemanlike

gentlemanlike现在不及gentlemanly普通。

gentlewoman

gentlewoman不及lady普通。

geographic(al)

geographical（地理的、地理学的）比geographic普通。相当于这两种形式的副词是geographically。

geometric(al)

geometrical（几何学的）比geometric普通。相当于这两种形式的副词是geometrically。

German

German（德国人）的复数形式是Germans，不是Germen。

get

1.get的过去分词gotten除了在ill-gotten等词语以外现在只用在美国，在英国只用got。

2.get him（或you等）...和get...for him（或you等）意思相同。例如：I asked him to get me tea (=get tea for me).

3.get后面接宾语和不定式作“劝服而使…”解。例如：I will get him to teach me. 这用法多用在英国，在美国通常不用get而用have，那不定式没有to，如I will have him teach me。

4.get后面接不定式或现在分词都作“最后做到…”解，如I soon got to know him very well和We soon got talking together。用不定式比用现在分词普通。I am sorry I did not get to see you when you were in town last week里的did not get to see you是“（原来想见你而）不曾见到你”。

比较下面三句：

We soon got to talk together.

We soon got talking together.

We soon got to talking together.

第三句有“进入谈话阶段”的意思。

5.比较下面四句：

I must get my hair cut today.

I must take care not to get my hair cut too short.

I am preparing an important report, and must get it done this afternoon.

I am preparing an important report, and I must take care not to get it done carelessly.

第一句和第二句里那做cut的行为的并不是I，第三句和第四句里那做do(ne)的行为的就是I。第一句和第三句里的get作“使得”解，是有意志的，第二句和第四句里的get是没有意志的。

6.假使把下面各句里的got省去，全句的意思不变：

I have got a new cap. I have got a cold.

I have got to do it. It has got to be done.

这样用法的have got多少有些口语性质，下面几点该注意：

（1）即使在美国也用have got而不用have gotten。

（2）不用在助动词后面，如不可说I may have got to do it，该把got删去。比较下面每组里的两句：

（3）have got在语法上属于完成时态，所以不可说have had got或had had got，该把got省去。

（4）在have a bath, have a chat, have a dance, have a look, have a smoke, have a swim, have a wash等表达方式里不可在have后面加上got。

（5）had got to...（不定式）很不普通，如通常不说I had got to do it，最好把got删去。had got to...（不定式）用在疑问句里更不普通，如通常不说Had you got to do it? 最好把got删去或把全句改作Did you have to do it?

（6）I have got a new cap和I have got to do it等句子里的have是助动词，got是过去分词，但在口语里有时把have省去而只用got。

gift

1.gift不一定是“礼物”，如birthday gift是生日礼物，Christmas gift是圣诞节礼物。但在某人需要某物的时候把某物送给他（例如一件旧衣服或一本旧书）也是给一个gift，却不是送“礼”。又如把几张古画捐给博物馆，也是给一个gift，却不是送“礼”。gift跟give有关系，着重在“给”的意思。present是“礼物”。

2.把东西送给他人，最好不用gift或present，却把那东西的名称说出，如可以说Please accept this little book和I am sending you a basket of peaches。

3.I would not have it at a gift（即使白送我也不要它）里的at改作as也可以。at a gift里的gift指“给”，as a gift里的gift指“给的东西”，但两句的意思相同。

4.gift在指“天赋的才能”的时候，后面接of或for和名词，或for或of和动名词，如a（或the，或his，her等）gift of（或for）wit和a（或the，或his，her等）gift for（或of）writing witty verse。

girl

young girl往往指二十来岁的女子。

give

1.注意下列各句的结构：

I shall give you a book. I shall give a book to you.

You will be given a book. A book will be given you.

A book will be given to you.

把it代a book也通。I shall give you it远不及I shall give it to you普通。在英国往往说give it you, give it me, give it him等，在美国通常说give it to you等。

2.give(n)在用作devote(d)或addict(ed)解的时候后面接to和名词或动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He gives his life to (serving) the cause of world peace和He is much given to exaggeration（或exaggerating）。不可说He gives his life to serve the cause of world peace或He is much given to exaggerate。

3.give of作“给出…的一部分”解，如He gave of his best和She is generous in giving of her time to help her neighbours。

4.They put up at the village and gave (it) out that they had come on a fishing holiday里的gave out作“向人家说”解，往往有“所说不一定可靠”的含意，那it可以省去。

5.Give up smoking at once! 和Give over smoking at once! 都是“立刻戒烟！”

glad

1.glad用作delighted或pleased解，是表语形容词，如可以说The man is glad，但不可说He is a glad man。

2.glad后面可以接of、不定式或以that引导的从句（that往往省去），如I am glad of your success, I am glad to hear of your success和I am glad (that) you have succeeded。

3.说未来的事，该说I（或We）shall（或should）be glad，不可说I am（或We are）glad。如可以说I shall（或should）be glad to see you tomorrow，不可说I am glad to see you tomorrow。

4.依照传统的“标准“英语，该说I（或We）shall（或should）be glad...不该说I（或We）will（或would）be glad...但在美国通常用will（或would）而不用shall（或should）。

5.glad后面有时接for和宾语和不定式。例如：I shall be glad for you to come.

6.可以说I am glad to say that I have finished the work，不可说It is glad to say that I have finished the work。也不可说Glad to say, I have finished the work。

7.不可说How glad it is! 该说What a blessing!

gladly

用了gladly习惯用I（或We）will（或would），不用I（或We）shall（或should），参见glad 4。比较I shall be glad to do so和I will gladly do so。

glamo(u)r(ous)

1.不论在英国或美国，名词用glamour（魔力）比用glamor普通，形容词用glamorous比用glamourous普通。

2.glamorous很少用，通常把glamour借用作定语形容词，如glamour boy和glamour girl。在表语用法里当然不可把glamour用作形容词，通常用名词而不用形容词。例如：All these girls possess glamour.

glance

1.at first glance（最初看到的时候，乍一看）里习惯没有the。偶尔用a。

2.glance指一“看”的那动作，glimpse指glance的结果。give（或take）a glance at的结果便是get（或catch）a glimpse of（瞥见）。

glass

1.a glass for beer是“一只装啤酒的玻璃杯”，a glass of beer是“一玻璃杯啤酒”。

2.英美人习惯用玻璃杯喝水，用瓷杯喝茶，所以习惯说a glass of water和a cup of tea，不说a glass of tea或a cup of water。英国16世纪作家兼政治家Sir Philip Sidney在战场上受伤将死的时候把一杯水让给另一个受伤的人，说Thy need is greater than mine。这故事里说a cup of water，不说a glass of water，那是因为当时用于盛水的是cup，不是glass。

glassful

参见-ful

glimpse

参见glance 2

go

1.go和come有时可以通用。参见come 1

2.go的过去分词gone有时被用作形容词，作“已去的”解，如He is gone. is gone着重在“已去”的状态，has gone便着重在“去”的动作。

He looks like a man suddenly gone mad里的gone也是用作形容词。

3.have gone是“已经去而不在这里”的意思，说“已经去（而又来了）”不可说have gone，所以下面各句都不对：

He has gone often recently.

He has gone twice this week.

He has gone only once.

该把各句里的gone改作been away。假使指定到那里去，那末该说He has been at Shanghai often recently和He has been there twice this week等。

have gone既然是“已经去而不在这里”的意思，所以不可说I have gone。这句作“我已经去而不在这里”解，明明在这里才说话或写字，怎能说“不在这里”呢？但I had gone是可以说的，因为在过去的某时“我”是可能“不在这里”的。又When I have gone也是可以说的，因为这个从句指将来，不指现在，在将来的某时“我”是可能“不在这里”的。

比较下面两句：

He has gone to Beijing. （他已经到北京去了。［也许已经到达，也许尚在路上］）

He has been to Beijing. （他近来去过北京。［已经回来了］）

4.He has gone for five days是“他已经去了，预备过五天回来”。不是“他已经去了五天”。He has been going for five days是“他已经有五天要去而未去了”。实际不曾去。说“他已经去了五天”该说He has been gone for five days或He has been away for five days。It is five days since he went和He went five days ago都没有“他还未回来”的含意。

5.go往往用现在时态或现在进行时态指将来，如I go to Beijing next Friday和I am going to Beijing next Friday，作I shall go to Beijing next Friday解。

6.go on后面接不定式和接现在分词意思不同，如go on to read lesson ten是“（读完了第九课）接着读第十课”，go on reading lesson ten是“继续读第十课”。go on后面接不定式指一个时刻（a point of time）的动作。例如：At half past three I went on to read lesson ten. go on后面接现在分词指一段时间（a period of time）的动作。例如：For half an hour I went on reading lesson ten.

go on with指一个时刻或一段时间的动作都可以。例如：After a little pause he went on with his speech. 和He went on with his speech for half an hour.

7.注意下面第一句里用to read，第二句里用to reading：

Having read lesson nine I went on to read lesson ten.

From reading lesson nine I went on to reading lesson ten.

from...to...里的to是介词。

8.He began to go all sorts of places（他开始到各处去玩）里的go用作及物动词。注意后面是places，假使把places改作schools, theatres等任何其他词，go后面必须加上to。

9.在口语里用作祈使语气或不定式的go后面的不定式有时没有to，如Go ask her和I'll go see my brother。

10.请别人先走时习惯上不说Go first，该说After you。

11.习惯上不说Let me go away for a minute，该说Excuse me a minute。

12.It is going to be fine tomorrow里的is going to...表示或然性。I am going to learn English里的am going to...表示意向。

Gobi

Gobi（戈壁）前面有the。

god

1.说“上帝”该用God，以大写字母开首，前面没有the，the gods指“众神”。

2.God knows直译作“上帝知道”，有时含有“我不知道”的意思，有时含有“我说这样，可誓天日”的意思。

gold(en)

说“金质的”现在用gold，不用golden。如gold coin, gold ornament, gold watch等表达方式里用gold，不用golden。golden作“金色的”或“宝贵的”解，如golden hair, golden sunset, golden hours, golden opportu-nity等。

gone

参见go

good

1.the good ship...和the good town of...里的good是惯用的词，可以说是没有意思的。

2.He is good to her是“他对她和善”。He is good for her是“他有益于她”。This food is good for children和A walk will be good for you等句子里的for不可改作to。

下面两句意思相同：

If you have a cold, this medicine will be good for you.

If you have a cold, this medicine will be good for it.

3.He is not good at the game里的good是形容词，作“擅长的”解，He is no good at the game里的good是名词，作“益处”或“用处”解，no good作“没有用的”解。下面两句意思相同，但语法不同：

He is not very good（形容词）at the game.

He is not much good（名词）at the game.

4.可以说It's no good trying again和It isn't much good trying again。也可以说There's no good in trying again和There isn't much good in trying again。说There's no good trying again和There isn't much good trying again是英美人常有的错误。

5.He is no good at the game和It's no good trying again以及It isn't much good trying again等句子里不可在no good和much good前面加上of。That's little good和That's scarcely any good以及What good is that? 等句子里也不可加上of。

6.It is most good of you to come（你的来到证明你的好意）里的most good不可改作best。He looks more good than you是“他比你好看”。He looks better than you是“他看来身体比你好”。

7.“好”是good，“坏“是“bad”，“不好不坏”是indifferent，可以说good, bad, and indifferent。

8.We work for the common good和He devotes himself to the public good里的the不可省去。

9.good用作“益处”解通常是抽象名词，但偶尔也用a good（一个益处）和goods（多个益处）。

10.for good跟for ever不很相同，如不可说I shall love my work for good或We shall live together for good，该把for good改作for ever。for good有“一…不再恢复”的意思，它所修饰的动词是表示一时的动作的。例如：

Philip left the country for good.

Philip will soon retire for good.

We are striving to end war for good.

11.good morning里的good有时省去，但good afternoon, good evening和good night里的good不可省去。

12.good是形容词，但as good as是状语短语，作“几乎”解。例如：He as good as said so. （他虽然不曾这样说，但可以算得这样说了。）

good-by(e)

1.在英国通常用good-bye，在美国通常用good-by。

2.good-by(e)里的good跟good morning, good afternoon等表达方式里的good不同，good-by(e)原来是God be with ye的简写形式，直译作“愿上帝跟你在一起。”就是说“愿（我们分别以后）上帝保佑你。”God成为good是因为受了good morning等表达方式的影响。

3.good-bye通常译作“再会”，其实往往有“永不再会”的意思。例如：Good-bye to poverty! （贫困一去不再来了！）

goodness

goodness knows和God knows相同。参见god 2

goods

在goods作“货物”解的时候该说many goods和these goods，不该说much goods和this goods。在goods作“布”或“织物”解的时候，this goods和these goods都可以说。

got(ten)

参见get 1

government

1.在英国government（政府）前面往往没有the。例如：Government will consider these things.

2.government当作单数和复数都可以。例如：The government has（或have）already made its（或their）decision. 当作复数主要是英国用法。

3.在英国往往在Government前面加上首相的姓，前面有the，如the Blair Government。

grade

grade用作学校里的“年级”解是美国英语，相当于英国的form（中学）和standard（小学）。用作动词作“给…评分”解也是美国英语，相当于英国的mark。

graduate

1.graduate在英国指取得学位的大学毕业生，在美国指任何学校的毕业生。graduation也有这区别。

2.graduate在英国指“在大学毕业，取得学位”，是不及物动词。例如：I graduated last year。在美国指“使…在（任何）学校毕业”，用作及物动词。例如：I was graduated last year。

在指学校的词的前面，在英国用at比用from普通，在美国用from比用at普通，如在英国通常说I graduated at the university last year。在美国通常说I was graduated from the university last year。

3.说“某科毕业生”或“在某科毕业”在指某科的词的前面用in，如He is a graduate in law和He has (been) graduated in law。graduate student后面也接in。例如：He is a graduate student in law.

4.graduate（动词）或be graduated后面可以接表示学位的词。例如：He (was) graduated M. A. （文科硕士）in 1934.

5.graduate是一时的动作，所以不可说He has graduated for two years，该改作He graduated two years ago或It is two years since he graduated。

6.下面两句是美国用法，不算正当。该在college和Harvard前面加上at或from：

Thomas (was) graduated college last year.

Thomas (was) graduated Harvard University last year.

graduation

参见graduate 1

grain

grain统指“谷类”，grains指“各种谷类”，如The ship carries a cargo of grain和China grows most of the grains that the world knows。

grammar

1.Chinese grammar, English grammar, historical grammar, comparative grammar等表达方式里都没有the。

2.a grammar是“一本语法书”或“一种语法”（如英语语法）。grammars是“多本语法书”或“多种语法”（如英语语法和俄语语法）。

3.bad grammar和not grammar都指“不通的文理”，如'I are' is bad grammar和'More better' is not grammar。

grammarian

English grammarian可能是“英国语法家”，可能是“英语语法家”，grammarian of English是“英语语法家”。

grammatic(al)

grammatical比grammatic普通。相当于这两种形式的副词是grammatically。

gramophone

gramophone在英国比phonograph普通。当Edison发明留声机的时候，叫做phonograph。gramophone是后造的。

grant

1.grant可以有双宾语。例如：I shall grant him his request. 和We have been granted a holiday.

2.下面两句意思相同：

Granted that he said so, he may not keep his promise.

Granting that he said so, he may not keep his promise.

第一句里的Granted that...等于It being granted that...，第二句里的Granting是现在分词，习惯上不必修饰一定的某词。

3.take for granted（假定、把…看作当然）是习语，granted的前面可以看作省去了being，但决不可加入being。例如：to take nothing for granted（1.不把什么事物看作是当然的。2.不把任何事物看作没有问题。）

4.I take it for granted that they have arrived there already里的it用的多，不用的少。

grasp

grasp（了解）后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：He wondered whether his friends grasped that he had done his best.

grass

grass统指“草”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。a grass是“一种草”，grasses是“多种草”。

grassland

grassland有时指“大草原”，有时指“供家畜用的草地”，不指花园里或住宅旁边的“草地”（lawn）。

grateful

1.grateful后面可以接表示原因的不定式。 例如：He was grateful to have someone to talk to.

2.grateful后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He was grateful that he had someone to talk to.

gratitude

gratitude后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He felt no bitterness, only gratitude that she had come back.

grave

grave（坟）着重在“穴”，tomb着重在隆起的坟头。

gray

在英国grey比gray普通，在美国gray比grey普通。

great

参见big

Grecian

Grecian（希腊的）现在很不普通，通常用Greek。

Greenwich

Greenwich Time（或time）前面没有the。

grey

参见gray

gridiron

gridiron用作“足球场”（football field）解是美国英语。

grievous

grievous作“使人悲伤的”、“使人痛苦的”等解，不作“感觉悲伤的”、“表示痛苦的”等解，可以说a grievous loss和a grievous wound，不可说a grievous man和a gricvous face。

grind

grind在英国有时用作“用功研究”解。例如：He is busy grinding for the examination. 在美国往往用作“用功研究（而不运动、不交际）的学生”解。

groom

groom用作“新郎”解现在在英国不普通，但在美国很普通。

ground

1.“一块地”不可说a ground，该说a piece of ground。复数形式不指“多块地”，却指“一块围地”，通常在屋的四周，有草地、矮树丛等，如school grounds和temple grounds。grounds前面用in，不用on。

2.on the ground that...和on the grounds that...相同，都作“以…为理由”解。例如：He was severely criticized on the ground(s) that he did not work hard. on the ground of（以…为理由）里不可用复数形式。on...grounds（以…的理由）里不可用单数形式ground，如该说on public grounds和on humanitarian grounds。

grow(n)

1.grow往往作“渐渐成为”解，如He grows old quickly和The weather is growing cold。把old和cold改作older和colder也可以，但不及用原级普通。

2.下面三句意思相同：

He has grown (up) a handsome young man.

He has grown (up) into a handsome young man.

He has grown up to be a handsome young man.

把各句里的has改作is也可以，但现在不普通。

3.不及物动词grow的过去分词grown有时被用作形容词，作“已长成的”解，如She is now quite a grown girl和He is going to live with his daughter, now grown and the mother of a family。It is a town grown prosperous and beautiful里的grown也用作形容词。

grudge

grudge往往有双宾语。例如：You should not grudge him his prize.

grumble

grumble（动词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：The old man grumbled that he could not walk without a stick.

guarantee

1.guarantee比guaranty普通。用作名词，guarantee通常指所作的“保证”或“接受保证的人”，guaranty指“作保”那行为或事实，有时也指所作的“保证”。说“保证人”通常用guarantor，不用guarantee或guaranty。

2.下面两句意思不同：

I guarantee that he will pay on 20 August.

I guarantee that he shall pay on 20 August.

第一句是“我确信他将在8月20日付款”。第二句是“我担保他在8月20日付款”。（有“假使他不付，我负责代付”的意思。）

3.guarantee有时有双宾语。例如：This guarantees you the right to use the typewriter.

guarantor

参见guarantee 1

guaranty

参见guarantee 1

guess

1.I guess是美国英语，作“我想”或“我以为”解，用来使语气婉转些，如I guess he cannot do it比He cannot do it婉转。

2.guess有时作“猜”解，不一定猜着，后面加上了at便含有“猜猜看”的意思，如I cannot even guess (at) his age和I can only guess (at) the height of the pagoda。但guess用在answer, riddle, thought等词的前面作“猜着”解。例如：She guessed the right answer at once. He failed to guess the riddle. 和I am sure I can guess your thoughts.

guide

参见guide(-)book

guide(-)book

“导游手册”或“旅行指南”用guide和guide(-)book都可以，但用guide(-)book普通些。说“指南”通常用guide，极少用guide(-)book。两个单词的后面都接to，如a guide to English composition和a guide(-)book to Shanghai。

guilt

guilt（犯罪）现在是抽象名词，指“有罪性”或“有罪状态”，不指一件一件的罪，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。

guilty

1.guilty是形容词，后面接of，如guilty of theft（犯偷窃罪）和guilty of a grammatical blunder（犯语法上的错误）。

2.guilty后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：Bob felt guilty that he had not made an attempt to save her.

gun(man)

gun在英国指各种枪炮，但不指手枪。在美国却往往指手枪，gunman是“携带手枪的歹徒”。

H

haberdasher(y)

haberdashery在英国指线、针等“缝纫用品”，在美国往往指男子的帽子、衣领、内衣等等“服饰用品”。haberdasher则指经营haberdashery的商人。

habit

habit后面接of和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说his（或the，或a）habit of reading aloud，不可说his（或the，或a）habit to read aloud。

had

had I seen him yesterday（=if I had seen him yesterday）和had he come earlier（=if he had come earlier）等在美国比在英国少用。

Hague

Hague（海牙，荷兰城市）前面有以大写字母开首的The，写作The Hague，很少写作the Hague。

hair

hair统指“头发（或毛）”，不论说一个人或几个人的头发都该用hair，不该用复数形式。a hair指“一根头发”或“一根毛”，hairs指“多根头发”或“多根毛”。the hairs of my hair作“我的许多根头发”解，这语不普通。但grey hairs（老年、老年人们）里的hairs不可改作hair。hair和beard性质不同。一个人有一个beard，两个人有两个beards，如This old man has a long beard和These old men have long beards。但不论说一个人或几个人的头发都用hair，如This old man has white hair和These old men have white hair。This old man has a white hair是“这个老人有一根白发”。These old men have white hairs是“这些老人有白发”。

half

1.关于half a...和a half...，参见a, an 33

2.one and a half feet和a foot and a half都可以说。

3.one and a half后面习惯接属于复数形式的名词和属于单数形式的动词。例如：One and a half apples is left on the table.

4.half of后面的名词或代词假使是单数形式，那动词也该是单数形式，名词或代词假使是复数形式，那动词也该是复数形式，如Half of it is good和Half of them are good。就理论讲，假使那个属于复数形式的名词或代词指两个东西，那动词该是单数形式。但未见过实例。在这种场合便不用half而用one了。

5.half (of) my time和half (of) the people里的of可有可无。half (of) what I have里的of用的多，不用的少。half (of) a mile, half (of) a cup等表达方式里的of通常不用。

6.half是“半”，但用作副词有两个不同的含意：“只有一半”或“竟有一半”，比较下面各句：

The glass is half full of water. （一半）

She spoke half aloud. （只有一半，不够）

I am half inclined to agree. （竟有一半，相当）

The bady is half asleep. （竟有一半，几乎）

It would half kill him not to see you again. （竟有一半，几乎）

not half也有两个不同的含意：“不到一半”或“不止一半”。

比较下面各句：

I don't half like it. （不到一半，一半也不到，极不）

That's not half bad. （不到一半，一半也不到，极不）

When I asked: 'Do you like chocolates?' he answered 'Oh, not half!'（不止一半，十分）

hall

1.英美人所说的hall通常指西式房子前门里面的那一间房间，那里通常有衣架、镜子等，也作entrance-hall，不指“厅堂”。在美国往往叫做hallway。

2.hall在美国有时也指大厦里的“走廊”（corridor），也作hallway。

3.hall指学校里的公共食堂是英国英语，dine in hall, go to hall等表达方式里在hall前面没有the，有时用Hall。有时hall指在公共食堂里的一餐。例如：Hall is at seven.

hallway

参见hall 1和2

halt

halt用作及物动词作“使…停止”解现在只用在美国。

ham

a ham是“一只火腿”，hams是“多只火腿”，ham是“火腿肉”。a ham有时指“一份（例如一盆）火腿”，hams有时指“多份（例如多盆）火腿”，但都不很普通。

hand

1.at hand, by hand, in hand, on hand, to hand, at my（或your等）hands, in my（或your等）hands和on（或upon）my（或your等）hands各种表达方式不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）at hand作“近”（指时间和空间都可以）或“在手头”解。例如：The holidays are at hand. The library is at hand. 和I have only a few reference books at hand.

（2）Your letter is at hand（接到）是美国商业信函里的用语，在一般通信里最好不用。在英国用Your letter is to hand。

（3）by hand作“用手”解，如made by hand是“手工做成的”（不是机器造的），delivered by hand是“亲手递送的”（不是邮寄的），written by hand是“手写的”（不是用打字机打的）。

（4）in hand作“在所有中的”、“在进行中的”或“在控制中的”解。例如：Jack has only a little money in hand. The work is now in hand. 和The situation is well in hand.

（5）on hand用作“在所有中的”或“亟待处理的”解，英美都用。例如：Jack has only a little money on hand. 和He has a task on hand. 用作“在场的”解是美国英语。例如：There was a foreigner on hand at the time of the accident.

（6）to hand作“（信）已被收到的”解，是商业信函里的用语。例如：Your letter is to hand.

（7）at my（或your等）hands作“受我（或你等）的动作的影响地”解。例如：She received something at his hands. at the hands of（某人）意思相同。例如：She received something at the hands of her brother.

（8）in my（或your等）hands作“受我（或你等）的管理、保存或控制的”解。例如：The child is in my hands. The documents are in your hands. 和She used to be entirely in his hands. in the hands of（某人）意思相同。例如：Christians believe that men are all in the hands of God. The documents are in the hands of his father. 和She was once entirely in the hands of the money-lenders.

（9）on（或upon）my（或your等）hands作“受我（或你等）照顾或处理的”解。例如：I have a family on（或upon）my hands. 和There is an important task on（或upon）his hands.

2.come to hand作“（信件等）被收到”解。例如：Your letter came to hand yesterday. 注意hand的前面没有the或my。这语多用在商业信函里。在一般通信里可以把came to hand改作came, arrived, came to me或reached me。

3.at first hand（直接地）和at second hand（间接地）两种表达方式里没有the。

4.hand往往有双宾语。例如：He handed me his book. 在商业信函里往往用作“寄”或“送”解。例如：I have pleasure in handing you the enclosed cheque. 在一般通信里该避免。

handful

参见-ful

handshake

handshake是类名词，不是抽象名词。

hang

1.除了作“把…绞死”解以外，hang的过去式和过去分词都是hung，不是hanged。在作“把…绞死”解的时候，有时也用hung而不是hanged。

2.下面两句意思相同：

He pointed to a picture hanging in the corner.

He pointed to a picture hung in the corner.

happen

下面三句意思相同：

I happened to be there when he arrived.

It happened that I was there when he arrived.

It so happened that I was there when he arrived.

happily

下面两句意思不同：

Happily the mice escaped the cat. （老鼠幸而逃避了那只猫。）

The mice escaped the cat happily. （老鼠快乐地逃避那只猫。）

happiness

1.happiness的前面偶尔使用a。例如：It would be a happiness even to look at him.

2.happy in作“在…方面是幸福的”解，就是“有好的…的”的意思。例如：She is happy in her children.

happy

1.happy后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He was happy that his suggestion had been accepted.

2.happy后面有时接表示原因的不定式。例如：He was happy to think that his suggestion had been accepted.

harbour

1.可以说Tom harbours evil thoughts，不可说He harbours good thoughts。该把harbours改作cherishes或entertains。harbour的宾语是grudge, ill feeling, malice, suspicion等。

2.in harbour（停在港里），into harbour（驶入港）和out of harbour（驶出港）里没有the。

hard

1.hard通常作“困难的”解。例如：This is a hard question (to answer). The question is hard to answer. 和It is hard to answer this question. 在hard of hearing（有些聋的）中作“艰难的”解，除了这一表达方式以外，这意思现在极不普通，该避免。如不该说I am hard to learn English，该改作I find English hard to learn或I find it hard to learn English。

2.注意This question is hard to answer和I find English hard to learn里用to answer和to learn，改用to be answered和to be learnt不是绝对不可能，但很少见，不算正当。

3.hard后面有时接of和表示动作的名词。例如：This food is hard of digestion.

4.hard通常不和impossible连用，如通常不说It is hard, if not impossible和I find it very hard, though not impossible。该把hard改作difficult。

5.a hard time指个人的“困难时期”，hard times指“不景气”。

hardly

1.hardly除了在跟其他以ly结尾的副词用在一起的场合以外，最好不用作“艰难地”解，如It is hardly and honestly earned里因为有honestly而用hardly，但It is hard earned里用hard比用hardly好。注意下面各句里都用hard，不用hardly：

He always tries hard. It froze hard.

Superstitions die hard. There is a well hard by.

2.注意下面各句里都用when：

I had hardly entered the room when he left it.

Hardly had I entered the room when he left it.

I was hardly shown into the room when he left it.

Hardly was I shown into the room when he left it.

不用when而用before也可以，但现在不很普通。不用when而用than，那是英美人常有的错误。注意假使把hardly用在主语的前面，便该把助动词也用在主语前，如用had I和was I，不用I had和I was。

harm

It will not harm you不及It will do you no harm合乎习惯。

haste

1.haste用作动词现在很不普通，该用hasten。

2.in haste, in great haste和make haste各种表达方式里都没有a。三种表达方式后面都可以接不定式。例如：I am in haste to get this letter to you. I am in great haste to get this letter to you. 和I am making haste to get this letter to you. 可以说I am in such haste to get this letter to you that I shall leave it short。

hasten

I（或We）hasten to...（不定式）是信函里的常用语。例如：I hasten to inform you of my sister's return from her trip.

hate

1.说“恨”把hate用作名词现在很不普通，该用hatred。但说“被恨的事物”该用hate，不可用hatred。例如：His chief hates are gambling and lying.

2.hate（动词）后面接不定式通常指一次的事，如I hate to disappoint you, but I'm afraid I can't help you in this matter。接动名词通常指经常的事，如I hate disappointing my friends。

3.hate后面有时接宾语和不定式。例如：She hates him to be laughed at. 有时接以that引导的从句，从句里用should。例如：She hates that he should be laughed at.

hateful

hateful现在通常作“可恨的”解，不作“怀恨的”解。

hatred

1.参见hate

2.hatred是抽象名词，但前面往往有a。例如：He soon conceived a violent hatred of（或for）exploitation. 偶尔用复数形式，如sectarian hatreds。

have

1.have done it和have it done在语法结构上不同。have done it里的have是助动词，have done是完成时态，have it done里的have是使役动词，done是表语。have it done的完成时态式是have had it done。比较下面三句：

I have cut my hair. （我已经剪了头发。）

I have my hair cut every week. （我每星期使我的头发剪去。）

I have had my hair cut. （我已经使我的头发剪去。）

在第二和第三句的译文里我都用“使”字。其实不一定有“使”的意思，假使说“我每星期被人剪去头发。”也可以说I have my hair cut every week。大概看了全句可以看出是否有“使”的意思，如I have had my pen mended有“使”的意思，I have had my pen stolen没有“使”的意思。当然并没有绝对的标准，假使说“我已经‘故意’使我的笔被人偷去”也可以说I have had my pen stolen。

下面第一句和第二句有“使”的意思，第三句和第四句没有：

I should like to have my son taught English.

He had a tooth pulled out yesterday.

The house had one of the windows broken in the storm last week.

The boy is sorry to have had his dog struck by a neighbour.

在have it done这种结构里，过去分词的动作者通常不是have的主语，如I have had my pen mended和I have had my pen stolen里的“修笔者”和“偷笔者”都不是I。

但把have it done的结构用在祈使语气里，那过去分词的动作者往往就是have的主语，如Have this pen mended可能是“叫人把这枝笔修一下”，也可能是“自己把这枝笔修一下”。

2.have后面接宾语和没有to的不定式有时有“使”的意思，有时没有。例如：

I have him write to me every week. （我要他每星期写信给我。）

I shall have him write to me every week. （我将要他每星期写信给我。）

I will have him write to me every week. （我要使他每星期写信给我。）

第三句在美国比在英国流行，have him作“请他”或“吩咐他”解都可以。在英国说“请”通常用get，后面的不定式有to，如I will get him to write to me every week。说“吩咐”通常用make，后面的不定式没有to，如I will make him write to me every week。

是否有“使”的意思，并没有绝对的标准。“他弄死了她”也可以说He had her die。

下面第一句和第二句有“使”的意思，第三句和第四句没有：

I will have someone to translate the story for me.

I must have the boy clean out the drawers.

I had an extraordinary thing happen to me when I was a little boy.

We shall be sorry to have you leave us.

下面两句里的have作“允许”解：

I won't have him write to me every week.

I won't have you say such things.

3.比较下面三句：

We shall soon have a young man work with us. （我们不久将有一个青年跟我们一道工作。）

We shall soon have a young man to work with us. （我们不久将有一个跟我们一道工作的青年。）

We shall soon have a young man working with us. （我们不久将有一个青年继续跟我们一道工作。）

实际上这三句的意思可以算没有区别。

下面两句意思相同：

I would have you know that you must not make the mistake again.

I would have you to know that you must not make the mistake again.

下面两句里的现在分词不可改作不定式，因为都有“正在进行”的含意。

We shall soon have the mist rising.

In a few minutes he had us all laughing again.

下面每组里的两句意思相同，但第二句比第一句生动：

4.have往往用作“收到（信件）”或“已经收到（信件）”解，如I have had two letters from him recently和I have your letter。

5.I have something to say是“我有一些话要讲”。I have to say something是“我不得不讲一些话”。比较：

I had something to say, but I had no chance to say it.

I had to say something, but I could find nothing to say.

That is the only thing that I have to say可能有两个意思：“那是我能讲的唯一的话。”（that是have的宾语）或“那是我不得不讲的唯一的话。”（that是say的宾语）

但下面每组里的两句在意思上很少区别：

6.比较下面各句：

I should like to see him. （1.我将乐于见他。2.我很想见他。）

I should like to have seen him. （1.我将乐于曾经见他。2.我巴不得曾经见他［实际不曾见他］。）

I should have liked to see him. （1.我将曾经乐于见他。2.要是当时我见了他，当时我将感到快乐［可惜当时不曾见他］。）

I should have liked to have seen him. （1.我将曾经乐于曾经见他。2.要是在当时以前我曾经见他，我在当时将感到快乐［可惜当时以前我不曾见他］。）

英美人往往在该用第三种形式的场合误用第四种形式，有时在该用第三种形式的场合误用第二种形式。

7.下面各句都可以说：

He intended to come yesterday.

He had intended to come yesterday.

He intended to have come yesterday.

He had intended to have come yesterday.

第一句没有“他实际不曾来”的意思，第二句往往有这意思，第三句和第四句总有这意思，第四句不算正当。把intended改作hoped, expected, meant, feared等词也是这样。

8.下面三句里的have...都表示“实际不曾…”的意思：

We were to have met at five o'clock, but somehow I had to cancel the appointment at the last moment.

He was clever enough to have answered all the questions.

I was going to have knocked, when the door opened.

9.比较下面各句：

He seems（或appears）to be interested in our work. （他［现在］好像关心我们的工作。）

He seemed（或appeared）to be interested in our work. （他当时好像关心我们的工作。）

He seems（或appears）to have been interested in our work. （他［现在］好像曾经关心我们的工作。）

He seemed（或appeared）to have been interested in our work. （他当时好像在当时以前曾经关心我们的工作。）

英美人往往在该用第三种形式的场合误用第四种形式。

10.关于助动词do和have用在一起，参见do 9和10

hazy

hazy有时作“不明了的”解。例如：I am hazy about the meaning of this word.

he

he who（或that）...作“…者、…的人”解，如He who commences many things finishes but few（谚语）和He that desires honour is not worthy of honour（谚语）。现在远不及one who...普通。参见that 9 (4)

head

With bent head John made a full confession里的bent head前面通常没有a。

headache

have a headache（头痛）里必须有a, suffer from (a) headache（患头痛）里的a可有可无。a bit of headache（一点头痛）和a bit of a headache都可以说。liable to headache（容易发生头痛的）比liable to a headache普通。

headquarters

1.headquarters前面习惯没有the，如He is working at headquarters和They rushed to headquarters里的headquarters前面都没有the。

2.headquarters是复数形式，如可以说these headquarters。但有时被用作单数，如a headquarters和this police headquarters。Headquarters are in the city和Headquarters is in the city都可以说。

health

1.泛指“健康”时health前面用the和不用the都可以。例如：Fresh air is good for (the) health. public health前面习惯有the。

2.his state of health和the state of his health都可以说。

3.His health does not permit him to come和He is unable to come owing to his health里的health都指“不健康的状态”。Owing to age and health, he has to live in the country里的age and health是“年老而体弱”。

4.下面三句意思相同：

We drank the health of our mother.

We drank to the health of our mother.

We drank a health to our mother.

5.We drank (to) the health of our parents和We drank (to) the healths of our parents都可以说。

healthful

healthful通常作“有益于健康的”解。例如：healthful food和healthful exercise。用作“健康的”解现在不普通，如healthful man和healthful body都不普通。

healthy

1.healthy通常作“健康的”解，如healthy man和healthy body。作“有益于健康的”解现在主要用在英国，如healthy food, healthy exercise, healthy climate和healthy town。

2.healthy不指一时的健康状态，如不可说I hope he is healthy today，该把healthy改作well。

heap

heaps of...用在口语里作“许多的”解，那动词的数依照of后面的名词的数决定，如There is heaps of coal here和There are heaps of tractors here。注意heaps of time和heaps of times意思不同：

I have heaps of time. （我有充分的时间。）

I have seen him heaps of times. （我曾经看见他多次。）

hear(d)

1.hear的宾语后面的不定式没有to。例如：I often hear her sing. 但假使把hear改作被动语态，那不定式便该有to。例如：She is often heard to sing.

2.I often hear her sing跟I often hear her singing意思相仿。在有“故意听…”的意思的时候通常用不定式。例如：I should like to hear her sing. I heard her sing不论指“故意听”或“偶然听”都有“我听着她继续唱”的意思，I heard her singing有“她原来在唱，我偶然听到”的意思。

3.hear him是“听见他”，不论说听见他讲话、唱歌、读书、走路、敲门都可以。hear of him是“听说过有他那个人”，不必真正在耳朵里听到，即使在书报上看到也可以。可以说I have heard of the hero through the press（我曾经在报纸上读到这个英雄）。

4.下面两句意思不同：

I heard her singing in her room. （我听见她在她的房间里唱歌。）

I heard that she was singing in her room. （我听说她在她的房间里唱歌。）

5.I hear (that) he is in England和I have heard (that) he is in England里的hear和have heard都作“听说”解。

6.hear from作“接到…寄来的信”解，后面接指人或指地方的词都可以，如I hear from him every week和I have not heard from England for several months。Be sure to let me hear from you是“请你一定要让我接到你的信。”就是“请你一定要写信给我。”但在复信的开首提及接到对方的信，习惯不用hear from，如不说I have heard from you，该说I have received your letter等。

hear from...that（或how等）...不一定指“收到…的信”，如I have heard from your father that you are in Beijing和He soon heard from his sister how their parents were getting along里的heard from不一定指收到信，也可以指听人说。

7.I hear say that there will be an election soon和You have no doubt heard tell of the United Nations里的say和tell都是没有to的不定式，似乎只有say和tell可以这样用。

8.hear的宾语后面有时接过去分词。例如：I have often heard you spoken of as a model student.

9.说“听懂英语”不可说hear English，该说understand English when (it is) heard。几年前有些美国人主张造出aud表达“听懂”的意思，也主张用aural或auditory表达“被听到的”的意思：如aud English, aural English和auditory English。把aural跟auditory比较起来，aural顺口些，但有一个大缺点：它的发音跟oral一样。

heart

1.heart有时指“情感”，跟head（理智）对比，例如：This book appeals not to the heart but to the head. 和His head corrects his heart in the choice of friends.

2.With beating heart she rang the bell里的beating heart前面通常没有a。

3.lose heart作“失去勇气”解，lose my（或your等）heart（to...）作“爱上…”解。

4.I cannot find it in my heart to refuse him（我不忍拒绝他）里的it现在不可省去。

heaven

1.说“天空”用复数形式，前面有the，如a map of the heavens和the starry heavens。说“天堂”用单数形式，前面没有the。说“上帝”用单数形式，往往用大写字母开首，前面没有the。在for heaven's sake, in heaven's name等表达方式里用小写字母开首。

2.Heaven指“上帝”的时候有时用it代它，有时用he代它。

heavily

The time hangs heavily on his hands（1.他度日如年。2.他百无聊赖。）里的heavily不及heavy普通。

hedge(row)

hedge（树篱）和hedgerow（围篱）偶尔用作物质名词，如a patch of hedge和a long line of hedgerow。

heed

give（或pay）heed to（留心、注意）里用to。take heed of里用of，也可以用to，但不普通。

height

1.above（或below，或of，或about）the middle（或medium）height里的the用的多，不用的少。

2.They are (of) much the same height等句子里的of通常省去。

heir(ess)

1.heir后面接介词to，偶尔接of。例如：

Jack is heir to（或of）his father.

Jack is heir to his father's property.

Jack is heir to his father's strength and his mother's grace.

We Chinese are heirs of honesty and industry.

2.heir是阳性形式，heiress是阴性形式，但事实上现在heiress通常指西方社会里的“已得到或将得到大宗遗产的女子”，尤其指这种作为男子求婚的对象的女子。除了这种意思以外，说女性的继承人往往不用heiress而用heir。例如：Their only heir was their daughter.

3.heir不可用来指“已得到或将得到大宗遗产的男子”。

hell

hell（地狱）前面没有the。但what（或where, why等）the hell里的hell前面必须有the：

What the hell are you doing? （你究竟在做什么？）

Where the hell are you going? （你究竟到哪里去？）

Why the hell are you going? （你究竟为什么去？）

the hell加重前面的词的语气，是口语。

hello

hello主要用在美国，hullo主要用在英国。

help

1.用作“帮助”解的时候，help后面接不定式或宾语和不定式，不可接动名词，如可以说This book will help to improve your English和This book will help you to improve your English。不可说This book will help improving your English。那不定式的to往往省去，如This book will help improve your English和This book will help you improve your English。这种省略在美国比在英国普通。但当helped用在被动语态的时候，后面的不定式的to不可省去。例如：You will be helped to improve your English.

不可说This book will help your improving your English，也不可说This book will help you improving your English，该改作This book will help you in improving your English。

照上面看来，下面两句都可以说：

This book will help to improve your English.

This book will help improve your English.

下面三句也都可以说：

This book will help you to improve your English.

This book will help you improve your English.

This book will help you in improving your English.

但下面两句里的to通常不省去：

This book will help to use（或write，或speak，或read）English.

This book will help you to use（或write，或speak，或read）English.

因为书只能improve，却不能use, write, speak或read。比较下面四句，第四句不很自然：

He helped me to plant trees.

He helped me plant trees.

His advice helped me to plant trees.

His advice helped me plant trees.

2.在用作“避免”解的时候，help后面接动名词，不可接不定式，如可以说I cannot help thinking so，不可说I cannot help to think so。

3.cannot help（不能避免、不得不）后面接动名词和cannot but后面接没有to的不定式意思相同，如I cannot help thinking so和I cannot but think so。第一种形式比第二种形式通俗。也有人在cannot help but后面接没有to的不定式。例如：I cannot help but think so. 主要用在美国。

4.照字面讲，下面两句都不对（两句都作“请尽量少说话”解）：

Don't talk more than you can help.

Talk as little as you can help.

照理该把第一句里的can改作cannot，把第二句里的help去掉。但事实上这两句都合乎习惯，而且第一句里用了cannot反而不自然。假使要兼顾习惯和理论，该把第一句里can help改作need或must，或者把more than you can help改作too much或unnecessarily。

5.help在美国往往指“佣工”，指一个或多个都有，往往看不出指一个或多个，如His help is a young man里的help指一个，All his help are young men里的help指多个，但His help left him last week里的help看不出指一个或多个。all his help和all his helps意思相同。有时用a help。

help这种用法原来是为了避免servant等单词。

6.with（或without）the help of others里用of，有the, with（或without）help from others里用from，没有the。

7.Will ¥ 50 be (of) any help? 和I'm afraid the book will not be (of) much help to you等句子里的of用的少，不用的多。

helpless

1.helpless通常作“不能自助的”或“弱的”解，如a helpless child。有时作“不受他人的帮助的”或“孤立无助的”解。例如：He was left alone and helpless。有时作“无能为力的”、“爱莫能助的”解。例如：He was drowning, and I was helpless.

2.helpless（无能为力的）后面有时接不定式。例如：He was helpless to do anything. （他对于干任何事都无能为力。）

3.不可说It is helpless，该说It cannot be helped或There is no help for it。

hence

1.hence（所以）后面接上名词就成了完整的句子，如Hence this book（所以有这本书）和Hence the advisability of trying again（所以再试一下是好的）。Hence后面偶尔加上逗号。

2.five years hence（五年以后），two months hence（两个月以后）等是比较正式的说法。不及five years from now, in two months等通俗。

henceforth

1.henceforth比henceforward普通，但除了在正式的文字里以外，现在也比较少用。

2.henceforth和thenceforth不同。henceforth作“从现在起”解。例如：Henceforth I shall be more careful. thenceforth作“从那时候（指过去或未来的）起”解，如Thenceforth I was more careful和He will graduate next year, thenceforth he will do his best to serve the people。

henceforward(s)

henceforward不及henceforth普通。henceforwards现在不用。

here

1.Here he comes! Here comes the bus! Here comes our lunch! 等句子里的comes不可改作is coming。

2.Here's to...! 是“我在这里喝酒祝…健康（或成功等）！”这句没有主语，或者可以说等于Here's a health to...!

3.Here goes! 或So here goes! 是“我将有所举动了！”往往有“姑妄试之”的意思，这句没有主语。

4.Here you are! 有时是“你（们）到了！”但通常是“这就是你（们）所要的（或正在找的）东西”。Here we are! 有时是“我们到了！”但通常是“这就是我们所要的（或正在找的）东西”。Here I am只作“我到了”解，不可作“这是我所要的（或正在找的）东西”解。

下面每组里的B说的话都可能有两种说法：

A: Where is my pen?

B: Here it is! （或Here you are!）

A: Has anyone seen my glasses?

B: Here they are! （或Here you are!）

A: Where is our camera?

B: Here it is! （或Here we are!）

A: Where are our sticks?

B: Here they are! （或Here we are!）

但下面每组里的B不可说Here it is! 或Here they are!

A: I've left my pen at home.

B: Here you are! （不可说Here it is!）Use mine.

A: I have broken my glasses!

B: Here you are! （不可说Here they are!）I hope this spare pair of mine will help you for the present.

A: We've left our camera at home.

B. Here we are! （不可说Here it is!）My brother has brought his with him.

A: I wish we had some sticks to walk with on this wet road!

B: Here we are! （不可说Here they are!）These branches might serve our purpose.

因为A说Where is my pen? B说Here it is! 那it指A的pen。A说I've left my pen at home，B把B的笔借给A用，当然不可说it，说了it却指A的pen了。

hereby

hereby往往用在通告或公文里。例如：Notice is hereby given that our office hours will be changed as follows on 18 May. 在一般通信里该避免。

herewith

herewith往往用在公文和商业信函里。例如：I sent you herewith a cheque. 在一般通信里该避免。

hesitancy

hesitancy是相当于形容词hesitant的名词，hesitation是相当于动词hesitate的名词，如He accepted the offer without hesitation和He felt hesitancy about accepting the offer。但往往可以用hesitation代hesitancy。

hesitant

比较下面三句：

He was hesitant to seek advice. （他不大肯请教别人。）

He was hesitant about seeking advice. （意思跟上句相同）

He was hesitant in seeking advice. （他在请教别人的时候踌躇不前。）

hesitate

He seems to hesitate to answer和He seems to hesitate about answering意思相同。

hesitation

参见hesitancy

high(ly)

1.说人和动物的“高”，不可用high，如不可说a high man和a high horse，该把high改作tall。但说人的“怎样高”，用high和tall都可以，如I am six feet high和I am six feet tall。a high mountain当然是“一座高山”，a high building在英国是“一栋高房子”，在美国是“一所在高处的房子”，如在山顶上，也许它本身并不高。在美国说“一栋高房子”通常说a tall building。

2.highly是副词，high也可以用作副词。现在highly不指实际的“高”，如不说a highly walled city，该把highly改作high。fly high, climb high, aim high（力争上游）, play high（进行输赢很大的赌博）等表达方式里也都用high，不用highly。highly指抽象的“高”，如highly cultivated, highly amusing和speak highly of。

highness

highness指“高”的性质，不指“高度”，说“高度”该用height。如the highness of the wall指墙的“高（而不低）”，the height of the wall指墙的“高度”。又如the highness of his ambition指志向的“高”，就是指立志的“高尚”，the height of his ambition指志向的最高点。

highway

highway有时统指“公路”，如miles of highway。

hill

1.参见mountain 1

2.up the hill跟up hill略有不同。up the hill作“上山”解。up hill作“向高地上去”解，不一定有山，也许只有斜坡或地势略高的平地。up hill往往写成uphill。注意在up hill and down dale中没有the。

3.在山名...Hill里，假使那名字是没有意思的，前面没有the，假使那名字是有意思的，前面有the，如Bunker Hill（美国的邦克山）和the Coal Hill（煤山）。...Hills前面有the，如the Berkshire Hills（美国的伯克希尔山）和the Western Hills（西山）。

4.the hills往往指印度的山区夏季疗养地，就是所谓hill station或hill-station。

Himalaya(s)

Himalayas（喜马拉雅山）比Himalaya普通，前面都有the。也可以说Himalaya Mountains，前面也有the。

hinder

1.hinder的宾语后面接from和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说That hindered him from going further，不可说That hindered him to go further。

2.That hindered him from carrying out his plan比That hindered him in carrying out his plan语气重，用in含有“暂时阻挡”的意思。

hint

1.hint（动词）后面通常接at，偶尔接of。例如：The letter hints at（偶尔of）his anxiety to do well.

2.hint（动词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He hinted that he was not interested.

3.hint（名词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：You had better give her a hint that she would do better to call again.

historic(al)

1.现在说“历史的”只用historical，不用historic，如下面各种表达方式里都用historical：

historical materialism historical dialectics

historical science historical document

historical method historical novel

historical evidence historical event

historical training historical account

historical interest historical truth

historical principles historical fact

historic作“在历史上有名的”或“必成为史料的”解，如historic spot, historic city of art and culture和This speech will become historic。

语法术语historic present和historical present都可以用。

2.相当于historic和historical的副词都是historically。

history

1.English literature has a history of over a thousand years等句子里通常用has，偶尔用has had。

2.ancient history, modern history, world history, Chinese history等前面没有the。

hither

1.除了在hither and thither（到各处）中以外，hither现在很少用。不论说“到这里”或“在这里”，现在通常都用here。

2.hither and yon是美国英语，作hither and thither解。

hobby

hobby是“嗜好、业余爱好”，如My hobby is collecting old coins和Mathematics is my hobby。另有用I have a hobby for etchings and engravings的，这种结构是少有的。

hog

hog（猪）在英国现在很不普通，但在美国很普通。在英国通常用pig。

hold

1.下面各句意思相同：

We hold him innocent.

We hold him to be innocent.

We hold that he is innocent.

2.下面两句都可以说：

He holds out no hope of recovery. （他没有复原的希望。）

The doctors hold out no hope of his recovery. （医生们以为他没有复原的希望。）

3.take hold of比take hold (up) on普通。

hole

该说a hole in the wall，不可说a hole on the wall。

holiday

1.holiday不一定指“一天”，如We have a holiday every Saturday里的holiday指一天，但We take a month's holiday every year里的holiday并不指一天，却指“假期”。所以We have five holidays this term是“在本学期里我们有五次放假。”未必指五天放假。但复数形式holidays往往被用来指一天以上的假期，所以summer holiday跟summer holidays意思相同，a holiday of two months, a two-month holiday和two months of holiday(s)也意思相同，其中，第三种表达最不普通。

“连续五天放假”不可说five holidays，该说a holiday of five days, a five-day holiday或five days of holiday(s)，第三种表达最不普通。

2.holidays有时用作单数，如One Christmas holidays she visited us。

3.holiday有时用作抽象名词，如the joy of holiday和six months' holiday。

4.可以说a few days' holiday, three whole days' holiday等，那days后的撇号省去也可以。

5.星期日往往不算作holiday，如可以说on Sundays and holidays。

6.on holidays里的holidays指元旦、国庆节等放假日，in the holidays里的holidays指“假期”。

7.make holiday里没有a, take a holiday里有a（两种表达方式都作“休假”解）。on holiday和on a holiday都可以说。各种表达方式都含有“玩”的意思，不论指一天或多天都可以。例如：

They are making holiday（或taking a holiday）in the country today.

When they were making holiday（或taking a holiday）in the country last month, they read together every evening.

They are on (a) holiday today.

They have been on (a) holiday for days.

holy

1.Holy Land（圣地，指巴勒斯坦）前面有the。

2.Holy Ghost或Holy Spirit（圣灵）前面有the。

3.Holy Father前面有the，指天主教皇，不指“三位一体”（the Trinity）里的“圣父”（the Father）。

4.Holy Scripture或Holy Writ（基督教圣经）前面没有the，但Holy Scriptures（基督教圣经）前面有the。

home

1.at home里用at，不用in。in the home里用in，不用at。例如：The book is for use both in the office and in the home. 和This industry can be easily carried on in the home. 不可说I am in the home或He is studying in the home。at my home, at the Browns' home等表达方式里的at偶尔改用in。

2.come home, go home, arrive home, bring home, send home等表达方式里的home是副词，前面不可加to或at。

3.He is home和Is he home yet? 等句子里的home都作“到家了的”解，不作“在家的”解。“他在家（还不曾出去）”不可说He is home，“他还在家（不曾出去）吗？”不可说Is he home yet? 都该在home前面加上at。Is he home yet? 是“他已经到家了吗？”

比较下面各句：

You must be home to tea. （你必须回家吃茶点。）

I shall be home by ten this evening. （我今天晚上将至迟在10点钟回家。）

The boy is home from school. （这男孩已经放学回家了。）

He has not been home for a week. （1.他已经一星期不回家了。2.他回家到现在不满一星期。）

He was home for a month on leave. （他请假在家一个月。）

4.home在英国指“家”。有钱人住着大房子，那大房子便是home，有些人家住着一两套公寓，那一两套公寓也便是home，穷苦人家住在贫民区里的一间小房子，那一间小房子也便是home。不论怎样大小的房子，假使没有人住着，便不叫做home。但在美国往往指“住宅”，所以有build homes, buy a home等语。

5.the Smith home, the Jones home等是美国英语，作“Smith家，Jones家”等解，相当于英国英语Mr Smith's, Mr Jones's等。

6.home city, home town, home county等都是美国英语，在英国通常用native而不用home。

7.his letters home是“他写给家里的信”，his home letters是“他的家里写给他的信”，就是his letters from home。

homesick

homesick后面接for。例如：Sometimes he is homesick for England and old friends.

homework

1.homework有时指学生的“家庭作业”，有时指“工人在家替工厂做的工作”。不可指煮饭洗衣等“家务事”。“家务事”该用housework。

2.homework通常统指“家庭作业”或“工人在家替工厂做的工作”，但偶尔也有a homework, three homeworks等。

honestly

honestly有时修饰整个句子或从句，作“老实说”解。例如：Honestly, this is all I have. 和I received your letter about a month ago, which I honestly do not know whether I have yet written to acknowledge.

honeymoon

They are on their honeymoon和They came on their honeymoon等句子里的on不可改作in。

honour

1.下面各句都可以说：

I shall do myself the honour to call（或of calling）on you next Sunday.

May I have the honour to call（或of calling）on you next Sunday?

I have the honour to acknowledge（或of acknowledging）your letter.

在第三句里似乎用不定式比用of和动名词普通些。

2.I（或We）have the honour to...（不定式）或I（或We）have the honour of...ing是公文用语。在一般通信里该避免。

3.honours student（优等生），honours man（优等生）等表达方式里的honours不可改作honour。

hope

1.hope（名词）后面接of和动名词或接以that引导的从句，偶尔接不定式，如可以说I have the hope of seeing him again和I have the hope that I shall see him again。偶尔有人说I have the hope to see him again。

2.hope（动词）后面接不定式或以that引导的从句，不可接动名词，如可以说I hope to see him again和I hope that I shall see him again，不可说I hope seeing him again。

3.hope（动词）后面极少接宾语和不定式，如最好不说I hope you to see him again，可以改作I hope that you will see him again。同样地，最好不说You are hoped to see him again，可以改作It is hoped that you will see him again。有人说I hope for you to see him again。

4.hope很容易犯双重被动的毛病，如不可说All these plans are hoped to be carried out next year。该改作It is hoped that all these plans will be carried out next year。

5.hope是及物动词，但后面极少接名词，如通常不说We used to hope better times。该在hope后面加上for。

6.in the hope of...ing和in hopes of...ing意思相同，in the hope that...和in hopes that...也意思相同。注意用了the便用单数形式hope，不用the便用复数形式hopes。同样地，have the hope of...ing和have the hope that...改作have hopes of...ing和have hopes that...也可以。have hopes后面有时接不定式。例如：I have hopes to see him again.

7.比较下面三句：

I hope to see him again.

I shall hope to see him again.

I am hoping to see him again.

三句意思相同，第三句比较不正式些。

8.比较下面三句：

I hope he will arrive safely.

I hope he arrives safely.

I hope he may arrive safely.

第二句最不正式，主要用在美国，第三句最正式。

9.比较下面两句：

I had hoped that you would come. （我原来希望你来［实际你未曾来］。）

I had been hoping that you would come. （我原来［在继续］希望你来［直到现在还希望你来］。）

第二句里有过去完成时态的特别用法，说这句话的人有些羞怯，不敢说I have been hoping...更不敢说I hope...或I am hoping...

horrify

关于horrified surprise（极度受惊的诧异），参见much 3 (5) E

horse-race

horse-race是类名词，horse-racing是抽象名词。

horse-racing

参见horse-race

hospital

在英国通常说in hospital（住院），to hospital（入院）和out of hospital（出院），说in the hospital, to the hospital和out of the hospital便暗示某一医院，但在美国通常说in the hospital, to the hospital和out of the hospital。

hostility

说“战争”通常用复数形式。例如：Hostilities broke out in the morning.

hot

hot water bottle是装着热水取暖的“热水袋”（通常是橡皮的），不指装热水预备喝的“热水瓶”。“热水瓶”叫thermos flask, thermos bottle, thermos, vacuum flask, vacuum bottle或vacuum vessel。

hotel

...Hotel和Hotel...前面有the，如the Grand Hotel和the Hotel Waldorf。

hour

1.复数形式hours指“工作时间”，所谓long hours和short hours都指工作时间的长短，并不说每一hour有长短。

2.the hours有时指时间。例如：When one has nothing to do, the hours seem to pass very slowly.

3.within an hour是“在一小时以内”，within the hour是“在本点钟以内”，例如在3点15分说或在3点50分说都指在4点钟以前。

4.The train leaves on the hour是“这列车准时离站”。

house

1.keep house有时作“当家”或“主持家务”解，有时作“有固定住址”解。keep the house作“足不出户”解。

2.Bush House, Australia House等（前面没有the）是英国英语，是大厦的名称，Apsley House, Hatfield House等（前面没有the）也是英国英语，是大住宅的名称，the American House, the Eagle House等是美国英语，是大旅馆的名称。the Johnson House等和the Johnson house等都是美国英语，但意思不同：the Johnson House（House用大写字母开首）用在城市，是大旅馆的名称，the Johnson house（house用小写字母开首）用在乡村，是Johnson家的住宅。现在the...House指大旅馆几乎不用，改用the...Hotel。

3.“在家”不可说at my house, at your house等，该说at home。

household

可以说the Lamb household（Lamb家）等。

householder

householder是“家长”或“户长”，通常是男子。housekeeper有时是“女主人”，有时是“女管家”。

housekeeper

参见householder

housemaster

housemaster通常是“（英国）学生宿舍的男舍监”，极少指“家长”或“户长”（master of the house）。

house(-)room

house(-)room是“屋内的空间”，如There is enough house(-)room for the goods，不可指“房间”。

how

1.how about...? 和what about...? 意思相同，作“…怎样？”解，如How（或What）about the weather? 和How（或What）about doing a show?

2.How beautiful a sight! 和What a beautiful sight! 都可以说，但第一种表达方式不普通，不可说How a beautiful sight! 或What beautiful a sight!

3.How do you do? 是相见时的口头语，双方都说这句，不需要I'm quite well, thank you等答语。

4.how ever和however不同。参见ever 5

hullo

hullo主要用在英国，hello主要用在美国。

human

1.human race前面有the，指全人类，不可用复数形式指各个人种。

2.human nature（人性）前面没有the。

humanity

1.在用作“人类”解的时候，humanity前面没有the，代它的代词是it，不是they或he。

2.humanity有时不指全人类而指许多人。例如：The ship is already packed with agitated humanity.

humour

1.humour（幽默）是抽象名词，但有时前面用a指“一种幽默”。例如：He used to have a delicious whimsical humour.

2.sense of humour（幽默感）原来指“对于别人的行为的幽默性的感觉”，有了它的人能够在别人的行为里找到有趣的地方。但现在往往指“对于自己的行为的幽默性的感觉”，有“自知之明”的意味。

hundred

1.前面用了数字，不论后面有of或没有of，都用hundred，不用复数形式，如five hundred men和five hundred of them。five hundreds和five hundred意思不同。five hundred是“五百”，five hundreds是“五个一百”。

2.several hundred men里用hundred，但several hundred of them和several hundreds of them都可以说。

3.some hundred作“一百左右”解，不作“几百”解，some hundreds才作“几百”解。

4.关于a hundred和one hundred，参见a, an 20 (5)

hundredweight

复数形式用hundredweight比用hundredweights普通。

hunt(ed)

1.hunt用作“射鸟”解是美国英语，在英国说“射鸟”用shoot，不用hunt。

2.hunt不是抽象名词，如不可说They are fond of hunt或The book describes the glories of hunt。该在hunt前面加上the，或把hunt改作hunting。

3.hunt about for和hunt after等于hunt for，但不及hunt for普通。hunt down是“追捕或追杀（罪犯、敌人等）。”hunt for是“找（失物、资料等）”。hunt out是“找出（难于找到的东西或人）”。hunt up=hunt out，比hunt out普通。

4.关于a hunted look（被人追迫的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

hunter

说“猎人”在美国用hunter，在英国通常不用hunter，而用huntsman。在英国hunter通常是“猎马”或“猎狗”。

hurry

1.in a hurry里有a，不可省去。但without hurry里没有a。

2.be in a hurry是没有意志的，hurry（动词）是有意志的，所以不可说I advise you to be in a hurry或Don't be in a hurry。该改作I advise you to hurry up和Don't hurry。

不论用作不及物动词或及物动词，hurry用在肯定句里后面通常加up，用在否定句里，后面不加up。例如：

I advise you to hurry (up). Hurry up!

Shall I hurry him (up)? Hurry him up!

I won't hurry. Don't hurry.

I wish you would not hurry him. Don't hurry him.

3.hurry call, hurry visit, hurry message等都是美国英语。

hurt

1.hurt（伤…的感情）的过去分词hurt后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He felt hurt that she had left his letters unanswered. 有时接表示原因的不定式。例如：He was hurt to learn that she had made up her mind never to answer his letters.

2.My back still hurts（我的背还是痛）里的hurts是口语用法，可能有两个不同的解释：“受到痛的感觉”或“给（我）痛的感觉”。

3.关于a hurt tone（痛苦的语调）等，参见much 3 (5) E

husband

在英国提到自己的丈夫通常用my husband，在很正式的场合才用Mr..., Dr...等。但在美国似乎用my husband不及用Mr..., Dr...等普通。

hypothetic(al)

hypothetical比hypothetic普通得多。相当于这两种形式的副词是hypothetically。

hysteric(al)

hysterical比hysteric普通。相当于这两种形式的副词是hysterically。

I

I

1.许多尺牍书里说不可用I开首。可是在事实上英美人写信经常用I开首。在信里用I过多，当然不好，但故意避免I是无意识的，要是为了故意避免I而弄得开首不自然，更加不好。

2.在日记和给熟人的信里往往把I省去。例如：

Received letter from Tom.

Joggod along the waterfront this morning.

Hope to hear from you soon.

在口语里也往往省去I。

3.between you and I是英美人常有的错误，该把I改作me。

4.习惯说he and I，my brother and I等，不说I and he和I and my brother等。但在承认错误的时候往往先说I，如I and he are to blame和I and my brother made the mistake。

ice

1.参见a，an 7

2.ice water（冰水）主要用在美国，iced water主要用在英国。

ice(-)box

ice(-)box（冰箱）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的refrigerator。

icily

icily cold（冰冷）不及icy cold普通。

-ics

（指以-ics结尾的名词，如acoustics，dynamics，ethics，mathematics和politics。）

就语源讲，以-ics结尾的名词属于复数形式，但习惯上不一定被看作复数。虽然意见并不一致，但大概遵守着下面几条规则：

（1）科学名称被看作单数。例如：Mathematics deals with space and number. 和Politics is now taught in all schools.

（2）科学名称前面加了my、the、such等词被看作复数。例如：My mathematics are weak. Their politics are now on a high level. 和Such ethics are of little value.

（3）行为等的名称被看作复数。例如：Aerobatics take a lot of learning. 和Heroics are out of place here.

（4）如果后面有属于单数形式的表语，便看作单数。例如：Mathematics is your strong point. 和Dramatics is his hobby.

icy

参见icily

idea

1.下面各句里的of，不用的多，用的少：

He must have some idea (of) what happened last week.

I have no idea (of) whose house this is.

We have not the remotest idea (of) how they have done it.

Have you any idea (of) when he will come?

假使把idea改作notion，也是这样。...idea (of) what..., ...idea (of) whose ..., idea (of) how ..., idea (of) when... 等表达方式里的of不用的多，用的少，但I have no idea (of) the sort of man he is等句子里的of用的多，不用的少。

2.可以说He has little idea of it和She has put aside all idea of going。

idealist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

identic(al)

1.除了在identic note，identic declaration，identic action等表达方式（都是外交用语）里以外，通常用identical而不用identic。

2.identical后面通常接with，偶尔接to。例如：The synthetic vitamins are identical with（偶尔作to）those naturally present in our food.

3.参见same 4

identification

identification certificate（身份证），identification card（身份卡），identification disk（身份圆牌）等里的identification改作identity也可以。但identification和identity意思不同。identity是“身份”，identification是“身份的证明”。He refused to reveal his identity和His identity has not been established里的identity不可改作identification。As he has gone away, his identification is hardly possible里的identification不可改作identity。

identity

参见identification

ideology

Islam ideology, Fascist ideology等前面可以有the，也可以没有the。

idiom

idiom这词的意思在各书里不一致，词典里也不详细。据我看来，有下面八种意思：1.指一个语言的全体，2.指一个地方的方言（dialect），3.指一个社会或职业界的词汇的全体，4.指一个作家所特有的语式的全体，5.指一个语言所特有的语式，6.指一个语言所特有的语式的总量，就是一个语言的特性，也就是一个语言的纯粹性或“精神”，7.指某词或某若干词的特性，8.指一篇文字或一个语句的是否合乎那语言的特性。5.和6.两种意思最普通，注意在5.里idiom是类名词，如说an idiom，this idiom，two idioms，many idioms等，在6.里idiom是抽象名词，如说idiom和English idiom，但不可说an idiom，this idiom，two idioms，many idioms等。下面是上面所讲的八种意思的例句：

(l) English is an old idiom.

(2) This word is peculiar to the idiom of the district.

(3) I know nothing about the idiom of his profession.

(4) This poet's idiom is often obscure.

(5) 'Had better' is a common idiom.

(6) We must not violate idiom.

(7) I am interested in the idiom of these verbs.

(8) The idiom of his letters is perfectly correct.

idiomatic(al)

1.idiomatic比idiomatical普通得多。相当于这两种形式的副词是idiomatically。

2.The sentence is perfectly idiomatic可能有两个意思：“这个句子是完全合乎习惯用法（所以是正确）的。”或“这个句子是完全合乎习惯用法（却不算正确）的。”第二个意思比较不普通。但idiomatic有时竟然跟correct对立。例如：To say "who do you take me for?" is idiomatic but grammatically incorrect.

i. e.

1. i.e. 是拉丁语id est的简写形式，作“就是…”解，不作“例如…”解，如可以说This is a proper noun，i.e. the name of a particular person or thing。不可说There are several proper nouns in the lesson, i.e. China。该把i.e. 改作e.g.

2.i.e. 印作斜体或不印作斜体都可以，后面用逗号或不用逗号也都可以。

if

1. if有时作“即使”解。例如：If he is old, he is at any rate strong. He has read widely, if superficially. 和I will do it if it kills me!

2.有些书里说if不该用作whether解，如I asked him if he knew her。其实这种用法很合习惯。但有下面两点该注意：

（1）if...or not除了在美国口语里以外，现在不普通，如最好不说I asked him if he knew her or not。可以把or not删去或把if改作whether。

（2）把if用作whether解有时会引起误解，如Write to tell me if I am to come可能有两个意思：“写信告诉我我是否应该来。”或“写信告诉我，假使我应该来。”

3.比较下面两句：

I asked him if he knew her. （我想他并不认识她。）

I asked him if he did not know her. （我想他大约认识她。）

4.比较下面两句：

I shall do better only if I have another chance. （我将做得好些，但必须再有一个机会。）

I shall do better if only I have another chance. （我将做得好些，只要我再有一个机会。）

第一句可以改作I shall only do better if I have another chance。第二句可以改作I shall do better if I only have another chance。

下面两句里的If only或If ... only都从“只要…”转作“巴不得…”或“可惜不…”解：

If only I had my life to live over again!

If I only had come a few minutes earlier!

5.Well, well, if this (或it) isn't our old friend Mr King的意思是“这个大约就是我们的老朋友King先生。”

6.下面各句里以if引导的从句并不真正表示条件：

If you ask my name, it is Henry Mee.

If you wish to see my father, he is in the study.

If you want to take a walk, there is a little garden behind the house.

If you allow me to say so, I am afraid you are not qualified.

We had fine weather last Friday, if you remember.

各句里的主句所说的都是客观事实，并不靠着那以if引导的从句，如第一句是“假使你问我的名字，它是Henry Mee。”其实即使“你”不问，“我”的名字还是Henry Mee。if的这种用法却是很普通的。

7.if and when是公文里的陈套语，通常用if或when就够了。

8.when or if（或when，or if，）表示这语引导的从句所说的也许不会实现。例如：I shall call on you again next week when (,) or if (,) I have a chance.

9.在以作“假使”解的if引导的从句里，虽然指将来，动词却用现在式，不用将来式，如If you see him tomorrow, give him my new address里用see不用will see。if you will see him tomorrow作“假使你明天要见他”解。

但注意下面两句：

Never use a long word if a short word will do. (if a short word will do=if, if a short word is used, it will do.)

I'll call you up at eleven this evening if that won't be too late. (if that won't be too late=if, if I call you up at eleven this evening, it won't be too late.)

10.下面各句里用虚拟现在式，现在远不及用陈述现在式普通：

If it be (或is) fine tomorrow, we shall sail.

If he study (或studies) harder, he will not lag behind.

If she have (或has) already done her best, she deserves the prize.

11.在定义（definition）的开首不该用if，如不该说Home-sickness is if one longs for one's home。

ignorant

I am ignorant (of) what they are doing和She was ignorant (of) whom she was going to work with等句子里的of可有可无。第一句里改用do not know自然些，第二句里改用did not know自然些。

ill

1.ill在用作“有病的”解的时候，通常不用在定语用法里，如可以说He is ill。但通常不说He is an ill man，却说He is a sick man。“病人”该说the sick而不说the ill。

2.iller和illest都有人用，more ill和most ill也都有人用，但不及worse和worst普通。

3.ill with pneumonia等表达方式里现在习惯用with，比较少用of。

4.speak ill of里的ill看作副词或名词都可以。

5.下面两句意思相同，似乎第一句比第二句普通：

He was taken ill last night.

He took ill last night.

illegal

illegal作“不合（当时当地的）法律的”解，却不问那法律是否合乎正义，往往含有“地下的”的意思。

illiterate

1.illiterate现在是“不识字的”或“不识字的人、文盲”，并不是“没有知识的”（ignorant）或“没有知识的人”（ignoramus），也不是“没有受过教育的”（uneducated）或“没有受过教育的人”（uneducated person）。

2.“扫除文盲”是wipe out illiteracy，决不可说wipe out illiterates（消灭不识字的人）。

illustrative

illustrative后面接of。例如：This sentence is illustrative of the particular usage.

imaginable

1.imaginable是“可以想象得到的”，imaginary是“只存在想象里（而并非实有）的”，imaginative是“想象的”或“富于想象力的”。imaginary和imaginative很容易混用，注意下面各语：

an imaginary man（1.一个想象中的人2.一个虚构的人）

an imaginative man（一个富于想象力的人）

a tale of imaginary illness（一段关于虚构的病的话）

an imaginative tale of illness（一段关于病的想象的话）

2.imaginable通常用在名词的后面，那个名词的前面有all，every，only或属于最高级的词。例如：

all the wealth imaginable, every resource imaginable,

the only reason imaginable, the smallest house imaginable

有时那名词被省去。例如：The house in which we passed the night was the smallest imaginable in that large city.

imaginary

参见imaginable 1

imagination

imagination前面往往有the。例如：What we call imaginary exists only in the imagination.

imaginative

参见imaginable 1

imagine

1.You can imagine how happy I was to receive your letter和You cannot imagine how happy I was to receive your letter在字面上看来当然是相反的，可是两句都说自己接到了对方的信很快乐。

2.imagine的宾语的后面有时接表语。例如：The little girl sometimes imagines herself a bird. We imagine her grievance a trivial one. 和Can you imagine that old man fighting with a tiger?

immediately

1.immediately有时用作连接词，作as soon as解。例如：I handed him your letter immediately he came. 这用法主要用在英国。

2.不可说as immediately as possible，该说as soon as possible或单独用immediately。

impact

impact用作“影响”解近几年来很普通，如the impact of science on（或upon）modern development和the impact of cartoons on（或upon）children。可以说The book made an impact，也可以说The book made much impact。注意用made。

impatience

impatience后有时接不定式。例如：The boy's impatience to go with us was simply amusing.

impatient

1.impatient of... 是“对于…不耐烦的”，impatient for...是“急欲的、切望的”，如I am impatient of all this waiting和I am impatient for his arrival。impatient with是“对于…急躁的”。例如：I am sorry that I was a little impatient with her this morning. impatient to ... （不定式）是“急欲的、切望的”。例如：I am impatient to see him. 注意impatient后面不可接for和动名词，如不可说I am impatient for seeing him，该把for seeing改作to see。

2.impatient后有时接for和宾语和不定式。例如：The children are impatient for the train to start.

3.不可说He is impatient to wait for her，该说He is impatient in waiting for her或He is waiting for her impatiently。

imperative

It is（或was）imperative that...里习惯用should或虚拟现在式。例如：It is（或was）imperative that he (should) do it over again. 不用does和did。

imperialist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

implement

implement用作“实行”解原来是苏格兰法律用语，但近几年来用得很广泛，它的宾语除了contract，agreement，engagement（约定、保证），act（法令）和resolution（决议）以外，还有policy，scheme，intention，promise，proposal等。有人以为该用carry out，fulfil，make effective等调剂一下。相当于这动词的名词是implementation。

important

It is（或was）important that...里习惯用should或虚拟现在式。例如：It is（或was）important that the regulations (should) be revised. 不用are和were。

impossibility

impossibility后面接of和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说the impossibility of being in two places at once，不可说the impossibility to be in two places at once。可以说the impossibility of his doing this，不可说the impossibility for him to do this。It is an impossibility to do this是可以说的，但注意这里的to do this指第一词It，跟impossibility没有关系。

impossible

1.下面两句都不可说：

This is impossible to be done.

We are impossible to do this.

第一句该改作It is impossible to do this。第二句该改作It is impossible for us to do this。This is impossible to do和The question is impossible to answer和He is impossible to live with等句现在比以前普通。

2.impossible的后面有时接of和表示动作的名词。例如：This is impossible of attainment. 和The mountain seems to be impossible of conquest.

impractical

1.在英国通常用unpractical，不用impractical。

2.impractical在美国兼作unpractical（不切实际的）和impracticable（不能实行的）解，如an impractical（英国用unpractical）man和an impractical（英国用impracticable）scheme。

impress

1.impress有时作“给…以极深的印象”解。例如：He did not impress me at all. 和Did the girl impress the young man?

2.impress后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：His parents try to impress upon him that it is necessary to be perfectly honest. 这种结构不算正当，可以把that it is necessary to be perfectly honest改作the necessity for perfect honesty。

impressible

impressible（易打动的、易动感情的）很不普通，通常用impressionable。

impression

1.impression有时指“印象”。例如：He thought he had made an impression on her.

2.his impression of her=her impression on him。his impression of the city和my impression of the book里的of不可改作on。但在美国往往在复数形式impressions后面用on，如his first impressions on the performance。

impressionable

参见impressible

imprison

1.说“把…关进牢里”用imprison当然不错，但不及用put in prison或put into prison或send to prison普通。

2.可以说Many coal-miners got imprisoned in a pit accident和The old man seemed to be imprisoned by prejudices。

improbable

不可说He is improbable to come today，该说It is improbable that he will come today。注意也不可说It will be improbable that he will come today。

improve

1.下面五句都可以说：

I hope your health will improve.

I hope your health will be improved.

I hope you will improve in health.

I hope you will be improved in health.

I hope you will improve your health.

第二句不及其他各句自然。第五句跟其他各句略有不同，含有“没法增进健康”的意思。

2.improve跟improve upon不同。如He has improved her poem是“他已经修改了她的诗”。He has improved upon her poem是“他已经作了比她的诗好的一首诗”。This poem cannot be improved是“这首诗好（或坏）得不能修改了”，This poem cannot be improved upon是“这首诗好得没有更好的了”。

3.He hoped to improve himself是“他希望在知识或学问上进步”。He hoped to better himself是“他希望在境遇或地位上进步”。

improvement

说“…上的进步”在improvement后面接in。例如：He is showing some improvement in health. 和I am glad to hear of your improvement in English. 说“比…好的事物”在improvement后接on或upon或over。例如：This poem is an improvement (up) on（或over）that.和The present typist is an improvement (up) on（或over）the last.

impulse

1.impulse（［情感的］冲动）后面接不定式，不接of和动名词，如可以说I cannot resist the impulse to write you again。这里的to write不可改作of writing。

2.可以说My first impulse was to say no和His first impulse was to ring me up。

3.On (an) impulse he asked me what I thought of him里的on可有可无。

in

1.月或年的前面的in有时可以省去。例如：The book was first published (in) March 1951. 和The book was first published (in) 1951.

2.in a week, in three years等表达方式里的in有时作“在…以后”解，有时作“在…以内”解，比较下面每组里的两句：

再比较下面两句：

He will get married in a year（一年以后）.

He will get married within a year（一年以内）.

see him again和graduate和get married都是一时的行为，see him several times和learn another language都是持续的行为。

3.in a week from now不及a week from now普通。in three years after his graduation不及three years after his graduation普通。

4.下面各种表达方式里都用in，不用on：

in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, in the night

但注意下面各种表达方式里都用on，不用in：

on the next morning, on the following afternoon,

on the preceding evening, on the night before,

on the morning of 6 January, on the afternoon of his birthday,

on the evening of her marriage, on the night of the event

5.the best novel that has appeared in years（几年来出版的长篇小说中的最好一本）和the coldest day in ten years（十年来最冷的一天）等表达方式是美国英语，在英国通常用for。

6.关于指地方的词前面该用in或at。参见at 1

inability

inability后面接不定式。参见ability 1

inadequate

inadequate后面接不定式或接for和动名词。参见adequate

inadvisable

在美国通常用inadvisable，在英国通常用unadvisable。

incapable

incapable后面接of和动名词，不可接不定式。参见capable

incapacity

incapacity后面接不定式或接for或of和动名词。参见capacity

incentive

下面三句意思相同：

His example gave them an incentive to more efforts.

His example gave them an incentive to make more efforts.

His example gave them an incentive to making more efforts.

-in-chief

1.editor-in-chief等词的复数形式是editors-in-chief等。

2.editorship-in-chief等比editor-in-chiefship等普通。

incident

1.参见accident 1

2.incident有时用作抽象名词，统指一切“事件、事故”。例如：That day was crowded with incident. 和Incident often brings out character. （1.小事情往往显露品质。2.一个人的品质往往可以在小事情里看出。）

3.the enthusiasms incident to youth和the diseases incident to old age和married life and the incident troubles等表达方式里的incident是形容词，改作incidental也可以。有人以为在着重“易于发生”的场合该用incident，在着重“偶然（而非主要）”的场合该用incidental。

incidental

参见incident 3

incidentally

incidentally往往修饰全句或整个从句，作“顺便谈及”解。例如：Incidentally, I happen to know him. 和I happen to know this man, who, incidentally, was my next-door neighbour years ago.

incline

1.I am inclined to think（或believe，go等）比I incline to think（或believe，go等）普通得多。

2.He was inclined to take things easy里的take改作taking也可以，但用不定式比用to和动名词普通。

inclose

inclose不及enclose普通。

include

1.include的宾语有时指全体，有时指一部分，如假定五男四女组成一个团体，说The body includes five men and four women或The body includes five men或The body includes four women都可以。在有可能被人误解的场合，该避免用include。

2.下面两句意思相同：

Fifteen persons were present, including the chairman.

Fifteen persons were present, the chairman included.

income

income有时统指“进款”，有时指个人或商店等的某时期里的进款，不指“一项进款”，如不可说He has three incomes。

incomplete

incomplete是“不完全的”，uncompleted是“未完成的”。

incredible

可以说His industry is incredible（1.他的勤奋使人不能相信。2.他非常勤奋）。但不可说：

His industry is not incredible.

Is his industry incredible?

If his industry is incredible, I hope to profit by his example.

I want to work with someone whose industry is incredible.

参见most 4

indebted

1.注意下面三句里的介词：

I am greatly indebted to you.

I am greatly indebted for your help.

I am greatly indebted to you for your help.

不可说I am greatly indebted to your help。

虽然不可说I am greatly indebted to your help，却可以说I am greatly indebted to your kindness和I am greatly indebted to your courtesy和I am greatly indebted to your suggestions and criticisms。

2.注意I am greatly indebted to you for giving me so much help里的giving前面没有your，也注意giving me不可改作receiving。giving是you的动作，receiving是I的动作。

3.indebted比obliged语气重些，但也通常用于小事，不用于大事。

4.indebted作“蒙恩”解，不一定有“感激”的意思。如I am indebted to you作“我蒙你的恩”解，自己承认“蒙恩”当然含有“感激”的意思，但He is indebted to you作“他蒙你的恩”解，也许他并不“感激”。

5.可以说much indebted或very much indebted，不可说very indebted。

independence

1.Independence Day（美国国庆日，7月4日）前面没有the。

2.The independence of the American colonies was declared里用of，The American colonies declared their independence of Great Britain里也用of，注意这两个of意思不同，第二个of有from的意义。

independent(ly)

independent和independently后面都接of，不接on或upon，如Matter objectively exists independent of human consciousness和He completed the work independently of anybody's help 里都用of，不可用on或upon。

index

an index to the book等表达方式里用to，不用of或in。

indication

1.Indications are that there will be a good harvest里习惯用复数形式，前面习惯没有the。

2.There is not much indication that there will be a typhoon和There are not many indications that there will be a typhoon意思相同。

Indies

East Indies（东印度群岛）和West Indies（西印度群岛）前面有the。

indifferent

1.indifferent不可用作“并非不同的”或“相同的”解。

2.indifferent（不关心的、不介意的）后面接to，偶尔接towards，如indifferent to（或towards）pleasure和indifferent to（或towards）discomfort。

indignant

1.indignant并不统指“发怒”，而指发怒者遇到他所认为卑鄙、残暴、不公平的事而发怒，他感到“岂有此理”才会indignant。但注意说某人对于某事indignant，只说那个人把那件事看作“岂有此理”而发怒，并不意味着说话者跟那个人对那件事有同样的看法。如假定甲因为工作粗枝大叶而受到弟弟乙的善意批评，甲竟把弟弟的批评哥哥看作“岂有此理”，因而发怒起来。丙对丁说甲was indignant with his brother for critisizing him，并不意味着丙对甲表示同意或同情。

2.indignant后面有时接以that引导的从句。

indignation

参见indignant 1

individual

individual作“个人”解，是和“家庭”、“社会”、“团体”等相对的。该避免泛用作“人”解。

indorse

参见endorse

induce

induce作“劝诱成功”解， 假使劝诱而不成功便不可用induce。例如：He has induced her to go是“他已经劝诱她而她真的去了”。又如I shall induce him to go是“我将劝诱他而使他真的去”。没有“姑妄劝之”的意思。I shall try to induce him to go才有这个意思。

industry

industry有时统指“工业”，有时指一种“工业”，“多种工业”用industries。例如：Industry is of more importance than commerce. 和He is in the cotton industry. 注意第二句里有the。heavy industry（重工业）和light industry（轻工业）也是这样。

industry有时不指“工业”而指各种“行业”，如the shipping industry和the broadcasting industry。也可以说Hunting，fishing，and farming were the industries of these people。但单用industry总是指“工业”，不指其他“行业”。

infamous

infamous（名誉恶劣的）不可用作“不著名的”解。

infant

往往用it指infant。

infection

参见contagion

infectious

参见contagious

infer

参见deduce 2

influence

1.在用作“影响”或“感化”解的时候，influence后面接upon或on。例如：This example has great influence upon（或on）young people. 和The moon has an influence upon（或on）the ocean.

2.He used to have great influence over that man和He used to have great influence with that man略有不同，用over表示对于那个人有权力，可以控制他，用with表示对于那个人有影响力，可以暗中左右他。

inform

1.inform不可有双宾语，如不可说He has informed me his new address，该在his前面加上of。

2.inform不可用作“报告（事件）”解，如不可说He has informed his new address to me，该改作He has informed me of his new address。

3.inform后面不可没有宾语而直接接以that引导的从句，如不可说I have to inform that I have removed to the above given address，该在inform后面加上you。

4.Please inform me where to get tickets和I should like to be informed when the meeting is to take place等句子里在where，when等词前面通常没有of。

5.inform不及tell通俗。

information

1.information除了指“控诉”以外，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。可以说a bit of information和a piece of information和an item of information。

2.information后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：I rang him up on getting the information that he had returned from his trip.

We have received the information that...和I have the reliable information that...等句子里的the往往省去。

3.for your information是公文和商业通信里的常用语。例如：For your information I may say that we have already done our best.

4.问讯处前面的Information的意思是“这里有‘讯’，大家可以来‘问’”。

informational

参见informative

informative

informative是“报告消息的、提供资料的”，informational是“属于供给information的种类的”。an informative book是“一本资料丰富的书”，an informational book是“一本供给材料（而不是供人消遣或从事宣传）的书”。

informer

informer现在通常作“密探、告密者”解，不指“提供消息、情报的人”，说后者以及“检举者”用informant。

infrequent

infrequent似乎比unfrequent普通。

infringe

infringe（侵犯、违犯）原来是及物动词，后面不该有upon或on，但infringe (up) on现在很普通。

injury

1.injury，an injury和injuries都可以用。

2.injury后面接to，如an injury to his back，injuries to his legs和an injury to his feelings。

ink

说“多种墨水”可以用复数形式inks。

-in-law

father-in-law, son-in-law, brother-in-law等词的复数形式在英国通常是...s-in-law，在美国往往是...-in-laws。

innovation

a new innovation里的new是多余的，该去掉。

inquire

1.inquire后面不可接指人的词，如不可说I have inquired him about the matter，该在inquired后面加上of。这句里的inquired是不及物动词，下面两句里的inquired是及物动词，注意也有of：

I have inquired of him the address of his brother.

I have inquired of him whether he could help me.

2.inquire his name, inquire the time, inquire the way, inquire the address, inquire the price, inquire the reason等表达方式里的inquire是及物动词。下面两句意思不同：

We must inquire the reason. （我们必须问这理由。）

We must inquire into the reason. （我们必须审查这理由［看看它是否能成立］。）

3.He inquired after you是“他问（别人）你近况怎样。”不是直接问“你”。

inquiry

1.make inquiries比make inquiry普通得多。说“问（某人）”该说make inquires of。例如：I have made inquiries of him.

2.在inquiry用作“查究”解的时候，后接into，如an inquiry into the matter。

inscription

说“某人的碑铭”在inscription后面接to。例如：The inscription to the poet was written by his brother.

inside

inside the room和inside a week等表达方式里的inside后面有时有of，这主要是口语用法。

insist

1.insist后面接on或upon。例如：He insists (up) on the importance of accurate pronunciation. He insists (up) on his innocence. 和He insists (up) on learning to swim.

2.insist后面接on或upon和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He insisted (up) on going with me，不可说He insisted to go with me。

3.insist on或insist upon后面不可接宾语和不定式，如不可说He insisted (up) on me to go with him，该把me to go改作my going。

4.下面两句意思不同：

He insists that she is careful. （他力言她是小心的。）

He insists that she shall be careful. （他坚持她该小心。）

这两句里的insists后面都可以加上on（或upon）it。shall be改作should be，must be或be也可以。假使把insists改作insisted，第二句里该用should be或must be或be。

instal(l)ment

1.instalment 主要用在英国，installment 主要用在美国。

2.pay by instal(l)ments和pay in instal(l)ments（分期付款）都可以说。pay by monthly instal(l)ments of ¥800和pay in monthly instal(l)ments of ¥800也都可以说。但The novel appears in instal(l)ments（分期发表）里的in不可改作by。

buy（或sell）on the instal(l)ment plan（用分期付款办法购买［或出售］）主要是美国英语，注意用on和the，不用an。

instance

He speaks several European languages, as instance Spanish和He speaks several European languages, instance Spanish里的instance是动词，似乎用as比不用as普通些。

instant(ly)

1.instant（简写作inst.）作“本月的”解，用在注明日期，如the 28th instant（或inst.）。现在不及从前普通，最好不用，该用of this month或说明月份，如the 28th of this month和28 October。注意instant是形容词，不是名词，所以不可说of instant。也有人用of this instant October等，但不很普通。事实上简写形式inst. 用得比较多些。

2.instantly有时用作连接词，作as soon as解，例如：Instantly the bell rang, I got up to open the door. 这用法主要用在英国。

3.instantly不可修饰属于将来时态的动词，如不可说I'll come instantly，该把instantly改作immediately。

4.参见instantaneous(ly)

instantaneous(ly)

instantaneous是“一刹那间的”，instant是“一刹那以后的”，就是“立刻的”。instantaneous explosion是“极快的爆炸”，instant explosion是“立刻发生的爆炸”，前者着重在“一发即成”，后者着重在“一触即发”。instantaneous death是“猝死”（没有将死不死的过程），instant death是“立刻即死”（如受伤或中毒以后没有间隔）。The two movements are instantaneous是“这两个行动同时极快地发生”。The two movements are instant是“这两个行动跟着（某事）立刻发生”。

instantaneously和instantly有同样的区别。

instead

instead后面的of当然是介词，但instead of后面也往往接名词和代词以外的词，如下面第一句里接形容词，第二句里接副词，第三句里接动词，第四句里接介词：

Things are now better instead of worse.

He walks slowly instead of quickly.

That increased instead of decreased our anxiety.

He laughed with instead of at us. （他跟我们一同笑，并不是嘲笑我们。）

instinct

可以说an instinct for art和an instinct for diplomacy等。有时用复数形式，如the landlord's acquisitive instincts。

institute

机关名称里用Institute或Institution并没有标准，我们该依照每个名称写，不可更改。

institution

参见institute

instruct

1.可以说His father instructed him in mathematics，不可说His father instructed mathematics to him或His father instructed him mathematics。

2.instruct作“通知”解的时候，后面接宾语和以that或what等词引导的从句。例如：The Bureau of Education has instructed us that our term will end next Saturday. 和Please instruct me what to do with the damaged goods. 这样用法的instruct比inform严谨。

instruction

1.说“教育”或“训练”用单数形式，后面接in。例如：He gives her regular instruction in mathematics. 说“命令”或“指示”通常用复数形式。例如：We have not yet received instructions from the authorities. We must follow the instructions closely. 和As the book is designed for classroom use, it contains instructions for the teacher. 但有时也用an instruction。例如：We have received an instruction to inquire into the case.

2.instructions后面有时接不定式，如We have received instructions to resume the work。有时接以that引导的从句，如We have received instructions that we are to meet twice a month。那从句里往往用shall或should或虚拟现在式。例如：We have received instructions that we (shall或should) meet twice a month. 和We received instructions that we (should) meet twice a month.

3.instructions后面偶尔接for和宾语和不定式。例如：He has given instructions for the books to be sent at once.

instructional

参见instructive

instructive

instructive是“有教育意义的”，instructional是“属于教育一类的”。an instructive book是“一本有教育意义的书”，an instructional book是“一本教科书或以教育为目的的书”。

instructor

1.instructor（教师）后面通常接in，极少接of，如an instructor in English里的in最好不改作of。

2.美国大学里的instructor地位比教授（professor）低，也比英国大学里的tutor或lecturer低。

insurance

He wants insurance（保险）on his furniture里的insurance后面习惯接on。

insure

下面各句都可以说：

He is going to insure his life（保寿险）.

He is going to have his life insured.

The insurance company is going to insure his life.

每句里的life改作house，furniture，goods等词也可以。

intellect

1.intellect在跟emotions等相对的时候前面有the。例如：The book appeals to the intellect rather than to the emotions.

2.说某人的“智力”有时在intellect前面有an。例如：He has a keen intellect.

3.the intellect of the age和the intellects of the age都是“当代的知识分子们”。说“一个知识分子”通常不用an intellect而用an intellectual。an intellect指伟大的思想家，不指一般的知识分子或高级知识分子。如可以说Albert Einstein was a great intellect和William Shakespeare was a rare intellect，不可说Every professor is an intellect。

4.intellect比intelligence高，人类以外的动物可能有intelligence，只有人类才可能有intellect。猴子会做戏，表示有intelligence，却并不表示有intellect。人会写字或算账，表示有intelligence，也并不表示有intellect。人会创作文艺或掌握高等数学，才表示有intellect。一个人只要不是呆子，就可以叫做man（或woman）of intelligence，却未必是man of intellect。参见intellectual 3

intellectual

1.intellectual和intelligent的不同，相当于intellect和intelligence的不同，参见intellect 4

2.intellectual是“知识分子”，the intellectuals指某时某地的一切知识分子。

3.比较下面各语：

an intellect（一个有极大才智的人，如Einstein和Shakespeare）

an intellectual man（一个才智出众的人）

a man of intellect（一个有才智的人）

an intellectual（一个知识分子）

古今中外称得上an intellect的人当然极少。称得上an intellectual man的人也不多。说某人是intellectual man往往有“高不可攀”、“自命不凡”等含意，说I am an intellectual man或I am intellectual简直是自高自大。

intelligence

参见intellect 4

intelligent

参见intellectual 1

intelligentsia

1.intelligentsia指某时某地（尤其指某国）的一切知识分子，前面有the，如the intelligentsia和the Chinese intelligentsia。

intend

1.intend后面接不定式比接动名词普通，如I intend to go比I intend going普通。

2.下面每组里的第一句比第二句和第三句（第三句里用虚拟现在式）普通。

3.I had intended to come, but was prevented by the bad weather比I intended to have come, but was prevented by the bad weather合理。

intense

参见intensive

intensive

intensive跟extensive相对，作“集中的”解，不作“强烈的”解，说“强烈的”该用intense。如intensive bombardment是“向某地集中的炮轰”，未必是“强烈的”，intense bombardment是“强烈的炮轰”，未必是“集中的”。

intent

1.intent（名词）除了在to all intents（and purposes）（实际上、几乎在一切方面）中以外，现在几乎只用在法律用语with intent to ...（不定式）（以…为目的）里。说“目的”或“意志”通常用intention而不用intent。

2.intent（形容词）后接on或upon和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说She is intent (up) on helping you all，不可说She is intent to help you all。

intention

1.intention在单独用的时候，后面通常接不定式，如intention to be useful和intention to help everybody。intention前面用了my，your，no，the，an，some，any，all，every等词，后面通常接of和动名词，如my intention of going，no intention of doing so，some intention of trying again和every intention of seeing them。复数形式intentions后接of和动名词，如intentions of doing good。

2.intention in ...ing和intention of ...ing意思不同，比较下面两句：

My intention in writing this book is to tell the story of the poet's life from my personal knowledge of him.

I have told the poet of my intention of telling the story of his life from my personal knowledge of him.

3.intentions并不专指“多个意图”，如下面各句里的intentions并没有“多个”的意思：

I don't doubt your intentions, but I wonder whether you are doing it in the right way.

Philip meditated a fresh attempt, but concealed his intentions.

Everybody believes in the good intentions of the promoters of the plan.

interchange

mutual interchange, interchange mutually, interchange with each other（或one another）和interchange together该避免，单用interchange够了。

interest

1.in the interest(s) of truth（为了真理），in the interest(s) of peace等表达方式里用interest或interests都可以。

2.注意下面两句里所用的介词不同：

I have（或take）no interest in this subject.

This subject has no interest for（偶尔用to）me.

第一句里的interest指一种感觉，第二句里的interest指引起那种感觉的特质。下面第一句里的interest用在第一种意思，注意前面用with，with ...interest是状语短语，第二句里的interest用在第二种意思，注意前面用of，of...interest是形容词短语：

I study this subject with great interest.

This subject is of great interest to me.

3.scholarly interests和intellectual interests等表达方式里的interests指各种被注意或关心的事物。

4.interest（动词）作“引起…的注意或关心”解，它的主语也许是那被注意或关心的事物，也许不是。例如：This subject interests him greatly. 和I shall try to interest him in this subject. 注意第二句里用in。

interested

1.interested（感兴趣的、注意的、关心的）后面接in。例如：Everybody should be interested in politics.

2.interested后面接不定式或接in和动名词都可以。例如：I am interested to hear（或in hearing）about cosmic rockets（宇宙火箭）.

3.much interested和very much interested和very interested都可以说。参见much 3

4.interested后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：He was deeply interested that I had bought so rare a book.

5.关于an interested look（一个关心的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

interfere

interfere with是“打扰”或“妨碍”。例如：You must not interfere with him. 和You must not interfere with his work. interfere in是“干涉”。例如：You must not interfere in what does not concern you.

interject

interject的后面偶尔可以接以that引导的从句。例如：She interjected that she had never heard of him before.

interval

1.at frequent intervals直译作“频频”，就是“时常间断”的意思，用作frequently解是错误的。

2.比较下面两句：

We shall meet at not less than weekly intervals. （我们将每星期集会一次。意即至多每周一次。）

We shall meet at not more than weekly intervals. （我们将每星期集会一次。意即至少每周一次。）

3.注意下面各句里的intervals of...的意思：

Much rain fell, though with intervals of fair weather. （晴天的时间）

After many days of mental misery there would come intervals of peace. （安静的时间）

In the intervals of conversation he used to sing a little. （谈话中间的间隔时间）

She learnt French in the intervals of housework. （做家务事中间的间隔时间）

interview

1.interview通常作“访问（人）”解，不作“接见”解，如Brown interviewed Robinson是Brown访问Robinson，不是Brown接见Robinson。是Brown去看Robinson，不是Robinson去看Brown。写信给人，假使说if you wish to interview me是不很客气的，该说if you allow me to interview you或if you grant me an interview。但可以说I have three callers to interview today。

2.interview有时用作抽象名词。例如：There were five candidates for interview.

inter-war

inter-war现在通常作“第一次世界大战和第二次世界大战之间的”解。

into

1.He walked into the room等句子里现在通常用into，不用in，但He walked in and out of the room等句子里用in比用into普通得多。

2.注意下面两句里都用in to，不可改作into：

He took her in to dinner.

The news came in to us.

introduce

1.introduce不可有双宾语，如不可说Allow me to introduce you my friend Mr P. D. Porter，该在introduce后面加上to。写介绍信该把收信人做to的宾语，如该说Allow me to introduce to you my friend Mr P. D. Porter，不可说Allow me to introduce you to my friend Mr P. D. Porter。

2.说“介绍”（书报）该用recommend，不该用introduce，如可以说Can you recommend (me) a dictionary? 不可说Can you introduce a dictionary? He introduced me（或you等）to the dictionary（或poem等）是可以说的，但这里的introduced作“使…注意或认识”解，跟“介绍（书报）”的意思不同。

3.He introduced English poetry to Chinese readers和He introduced Chinese readers to English poetry都可以说，意思相仿。

introduction

1.introduction和preface略有不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）一本书如果只有序言，那末称introduction或preface都可以，但用preface普通些。

（2）一本书如果兼有preface和introduction，那末preface一定在introduction的前面。preface说明全书的目的、范围、编辑方法、材料来源等，introduction总论本题，往往成为全书的第一章。

2.不论用作“序言”或“导论”解，introduction后面接to。例如：There is a long introduction to the book. 和This book is an excellent introduction to English composition.

intrust

intrust远不及entrust普通，参见entrust

invade

invade往往用作“（许多人）拥入（某地）”解，不含“进攻”或“侵犯”的意思。例如：A crowd of visitors invaded the little house.

invaluable

invaluable并不跟valuable相反，却作“宝贵得不可估量的”解，就是说“极宝贵的”。

invent

参见discover

inventory

inventory用作“清查存货”（stock-taking）解是美国英语。

invitation

invitation后面有时接不定式。例如：We have sent him an invitation to deliver a lecture on the international situation.

invite

1.说“请人教授”、“请人诊病”、“请人帮忙”等都不可用invite。invite通常用在不很劳苦而使人高兴做的事，如演讲、唱歌、跳舞和聚餐。

2.写信给被请的人通常不用invite，如不可说I invite you to dinner tomorrow，该把invite改作ask。但可以说He has invited me to dinner tomorrow。

3.He invited me to tea比He invited me for tea普通。

IOU

IOU（借据）代表I owe you（我欠你）三个词的发音，并不是任何词的简写形式，所以每个字母后面照理没有句号。但也有人用句号。

Irish

Irishman不可写作Irish man，但every Irish man and woman和Irish men and women里的Irish man和Irish men不错。

Irishman

Irishman指男子，不指女子，指女子该用Irishwoman，但Irishmen往往统指爱尔兰人。

irritate(d)

关于an irritated voice（一个恼怒的语声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

is

as is是美国商业用语，用于出卖次货，它的意思是“按照现状出卖，不加变更，也不能保证质量”。例如：We will sell it as is for ¥50. The car was sold as is. 和These chairs are to be sold as is. 注意：即使指过去的事也用is，不用was。即使指两个或两个以上的东西也用is，不用are。

island

1.island前面通常用on。偶尔用in。英国人所说in this island（指“在英国”）中用in，极少用on。in these islands里用in。

2.在群岛名的前面该有the，如the Channel Islands。假使群岛名里并没有Islands这词，前面也该有the，如the East Indies。

issue

1.issue统指子女，指一个或多个都可以，但不指某个“子”或“女”。

2.下面三句都可以说：

The authorities issued clothes and shoes to them.

The authorities issued them with clothes and shoes.

The authorities issued them clothes and shoes.

有人以为第二句不好。

-ist(ic)

communist，socialist，capitalist，imperialist，materialist，idealist等词原来是名词，指“…者”，相当于它们的形容词是…istic，如communistic和socialistic。但现在把…ist用作形容词比用…istic普通。

it

1.it往往用作主语或宾语，预示后面的不定式，如It is my duty to help him和I consider it my duty to help him。it有时用作主语或宾语，预示后面的动名词，但不及预示不定式的普通，如It is my duty helping him和I consider it my duty helping him。那动名词前面往往有my，your，this，that等词，如It is no good my telling him so和I consider it no good, this telling him so。注意this前面有逗号。下面的两句里it is有时省去：

What a bore it is to be kept waiting for an hour!

What a bore it is being kept waiting for an hour!

2.it 有时用作主语，预示后面的一个或多个名词。例如：It is very curious, that story. 和It is known to none of us, his name and nationality. 这两句里的逗号可以省去。

3.it往往用作主语或宾语，预示后面的以that引导的从句，如It is true that he is a foreigner和I consider it true that he is a foreigner。那that有时省去。

4.it有时用作主语或宾语，预示后面的一个以how，what，when，where，whether，why等词引导的从句，如It is not known how he came here和I want to make it clear whether she is related to him or not。比较下面两句：

It is not known what he said yesterday. （不知道他昨天说了什么话。）

It is not true what he said yesterday. （他昨天说的话是不确实的。）

第二句里的what he said yesterday不是疑问句，等于2所讲的名词。

5.3里所举的It is true that he is a foreigner里的true是形容词，不是副词。下面三句里It is和that中间的不是形容词而是副词、状语短语和状语从句：

It is there that accidents often occur.

It is through carelessness that accidents often occur.

It is when the lights have gone out that accidents often occur.

这三句是下面三句的强势式：

Accidents often occur there.

Accidents often occur through carelessness.

Accidents often occur after the lights have gone out.

Although the work progresses, it is but slowly里用slowly而不用slow，因为it is but slowly等于it is but slowly that the work progresses。

6.下面两句意思不同：

It is help that I need. （我所需要的是帮助［不是其他东西］。）

It is I that need help. （需要帮助的就是我［不是别人］。）

这两句语气都比I need help强。

就语法讲，that是关系代词，它的先行项是It，所以在第二句里在理论上该用needs而不用need，但习惯上那动词的人称是依照那表语（例如第二句里的I）而不依照那先行项It的。

第一句里的that改作which和第二句里的that改作who都可以，但都不及用that普通。

7.5和6里所讲的都是强势式。两种句法似乎相同而实际不同：5里所举的句子里的that是连接词，引导用作It的同位语的名词从句，那主句里的动词（例如is）后面接副词、状语短语或状语从句。6里所举的句子里的that是关系代词，引导修饰It的形容词从句，那主句里的动词（例如is）后面接名词或代词。

8.下面每句里的it和用作它的同位语的名词从句贴近，却不可把it省去：

I take it that you are about twenty-five.

He will have it that he has always done his best.

I will answer for it that my brother is honest.

You may depend (up) on it that he will be persuaded before long.

He insisted (up) on it that he was innocent.

I will see to it that everything is ready by five o'clock.

You may rely (up) on it that things will come right.

Can you swear to it that you saw him enter the room this morning?

There is no doubt about it that the weather is perfect today.

I took his word for it that he would make another effort.

第五句里的 (up) on it，第六句里的to it，第八句里的to it和第九句里的about it都可以省去。

9.A teacher's duty is to teach和It is a teacher's duty to teach意思相同，但语法结构不同。下面第一句里的whose duty is to teach和第二句里的whose duty it is to teach在语法结构上的不同相当于上面两句的不同：

A teacher is a person whose duty is to teach.

A teacher is a person whose duty it is to teach.

10.可以说give it me，send it him，bring it us等，但通常不说give me it，send him it，bring us it等。在美国通常说give it to me，send it to him，bring it to us等。

11.下面各句里的it代表前半句所说的情况：

He is thirty years old, and looks it.

You are much stronger now, though you may not look it.

She is a nurse, and she looks it.

12.下面各句是爱尔兰语，不是正当的英语：

It is very happy that he is. (=He is very happy.)

It is pleased I am to see you home again. (=I am pleased to see you home again.)

Is it writing a letter you are? (=Are you writing a letter?)

italic(s)

1.The sentence is printed in italics比The sentence is printed in italic普通。

2.The italics are mine的意思是“上面引语里的斜体部分是我加上的，原文并不印作斜体”。

it's

it's现在只用作it is的简写形式，不用作it的所有格形式。it的所有格形式是its，没有撇号。

itself

She is tidiness itself（她很整洁）和The sentence is simplicity itself（这句子很简单）等句是合乎习惯的。

ivory

复数形式ivories有时用作“各种象牙做的物件”解。

J

jade

复数形式jades有时用作“各种玉器”解。

jail(er)

参见gaoler

January

参见April

jealous

jealous of后面接指人的词有三种意思：1.“妒忌（他）”（例如妒忌他比我漂亮）。2.“惟恐被人夺去”（例如惟恐自己的丈夫被别的女子引诱）。3.“惟恐（他）夺去自己所爱的人”（如惟恐别的男子引诱自己的妻子）。假定Henry有爱人Helen，惟恐被John夺去，依照第二种意思可以说Henry is jealous of Helen。依照第三种意思可以说Henry is jealous of John。

jeer

jeer（嘲笑）在英国通常用作不及物动词，后面接at。例如：They jeered at him. 在美国通常用作及物动词，后面没有at。例如：They jeered him.

job

1.说一个人“失业”该说out of a job，不可省去a。说多个人“失业”该说out of a job或out of jobs都可以。

2.the job of (a) literary critic等表达方式里的a可有可无。

3.I had a job keeping calm是“我保持安静是很不容易的。”注意keeping前面没有in。把keeping改作to keep也可以。

join

1.说“加入（党派、社会、团体等）”用join，不可用join in。例如：He joined the Pupils' Association last year. 说“加入（某种活动）”用join或join in都可以，如Will you join (in) the game? 和We shall be glad to join (in) the discussion。说“加入（某种活动）”而那“活动”用动名词表达，用join in，不可用join。例如：I joined in rowing.

2.join（参加）是一时的动作，所以不可说He has joined the club for five weeks，该说He joined the club five weeks ago或It is five weeks since he joined the club。

joy

1.注意下面第一句里有a，第二句里没有a。

This is a great joy to me.

This gives me great joy.

2.sing with joy, dance with joy, jump with joy等表达方式里的with改作for也可以。

joyous

joyous似乎不及joyful普通。通常指性情上的经常的“高兴”。例如：a joyous family和joyous children。

jr

在美国往往在父子同名的场合用Jr（=Junior）指儿子，如Henry Milton, Jr。逗号有时省去，Jr有时作jr。在公告里有时在父亲死后多年以后还用。复数形式有两种：The Henry Milton, Jrs和The Henry Miltons, Jr。

judge

1.judge him（评论他）和judge of him都可以说。

2.下面三句意思相同：

I judge him to be a perfect student.

I judge him a perfect student.

I judge that he is a perfect student.

judg(e)ment

1.Judg(e)ment Day前面的the可有可无。

2.a judg(e)ment of him是“对于他的一个判断”，a judg(e)ment of his是“他（对于某事或某人）所作的一个判断”。

July

参见April

jump

参见leap

June

参见April

junior

junior用作“大学三年级生”解是美国英语。

just

just now有三个意思：“片刻以前”、“眼下”和“片刻以后”。第一个意思用在过去时态，第二个意思用在现在时态，第三个意思用在将来时态。例如：

She was here just now.

I can do nothing just now.

I shan't write to him just now.

注意：第一个意思不可用在完成时态，如不可说He has been here just now。第二个意思主要用在美国。

justice

下面两句意思相同，注意第一句里有the：

I must do him the justice to say that he did do his best.

I must say in justice to him that he did do his best.

K

keen

1.keen to go（极想去）和keen on going都可以说。

2.keen（热望的）后面有时接for和宾语和不定式。例如：His parents are keen for him to work on the farm.

keenness

keenness（热望）后面可以接不定式。例如：There was keenness to work and to study.

keep

keep后面接现在分词和keep on后面接现在分词都作“持续地或反复地…”解。例如：The boy kept (on) trying.

注意：用on比不用on语气强些。keep或keep on后面的现在分词表示动作，如working，walking，talking，writing，smiling和losing，不可表示静止的状态，如standing，sitting，lying和sleeping。

kid

kid（欺骗）后面有时接宾语和以that引导的从句。例如：You must not kid yourself that you are much more clever than your brother.

kidney

1.kidney是左右两个肾中的一个，每人有two kidneys。

2.a disease of the kidneys里的the不可省去。

kill

1.kill是“杀死”，“杀而不死”便不是kill，如不可说The landlord killed him, but he did not die。该把killed改作tried to kill。

2.They killed him dead和They killed him to death里的dead和to death是多余的，最好去掉。

kin

在法律上只用next of kin，在法律以外用next of kin或nearest of kin都可以。

kind

1.下面两句意思不同：

You are kind to come. （你的来足以证明你的好意。）

You are kind enough to come. （你好意而肯来。）

第一句相当于It is kind of you to come。第二句相当于You are so kind as to come。

2.a kind of rose，the best kind of pen，this kind of bed等表达方式里的rose，pen，bed等词前面没有a。但what kind of a...有时也用，参见a，an 10。

3.a kind of rose，the best kind of pen，this kind of bed等表达方式里的rose，pen，bed等词都是单数形式。用复数形式的也有，但很不普通。two kinds of rose，these kinds of pen等表达方式里的rose，pen等词改作复数形式也可以。these kind（不是kinds）of roses，those kind（不是kinds）of pens等表达方式英美人用得很多，但不算正当，最好改作roses of this kind，pens of that kind等，或such roses，such pens等。

4.all kind of和all kinds of都可以说。

5.kinds of...是“几种…”，不是“几个…”，如three kinds of book(s)是“三种书”，不是“三本书”或“三册书”。

kindergarten

kindergarten（幼儿园）有时用作抽象名词，就如school用作抽象名词一样，如in kindergarten。

kindly

1.kindly用作形容词和kind没有绝对的区别，但下面几点该注意：

（1）下面各句都是常用的客气话，不可把kind改作kindly：

It is kind of you to come.

You are kind to come.

Will you be kind enough to come?

Will you be so kind as to come?

Please give your brother my kind regards.

（2）kind比kindly语气重，说“对…和善（或仁慈）”该说kind to...，不说kindly to...。例如：He is kind to all he knows. We all ought to be kind to one another. 和Be kind to animals.

（3）kind着重在本质，有“宅心忠厚”的意思，kindly着重在倾向、行为或容貌，有“和蔼可亲”的意思。a severe but kind teacher是“一个严格而忠厚的教师”，a severe but kindly teacher是“一个严格而和蔼的教师”。a kind act是“一个表示仁爱的行为”，a kindly act是“一个与人方便的行为”。kind criticism是“出于善意的批评”，kindly criticism是（出于善意而且）和风细雨般的批评。

2.Please kindly call again等表达方式最好避免，可以改作Please call again或Kindly call again。Kindly call again等句往往含有“你还是…的好，别违背我的话啊！”的意思，外表虽然客气，实际有命令性质。

3.kindly requested to...（不定式）有时在商业文件里见到。例如：You are kindly requested to keep the receipt. 实际是错误的，因为该说对方的动作kindly，不该说自己的请求kindly。You are requested to be so kind as to keep the receipt当然不错，但不很自然，还是用原句而把kindly删去的好。

但下面两句里的kindly是合乎习惯的：

We thank you kindly for your help.

I should take it kindly of you if you would tell me whether I might call on you tomorrow evening.

kindness

your（或his等）kindness后面接in和动名词。例如：I am greatly indebted to him for his kindness in lending me his book. have the kindness和do me（或him等）the kindness后面接不定式。例如：He had the kindness to lend me his book. 和Will you do me the kindness to lend me your book?

kiss

1.kiss指一个一个的吻，如a kiss和three kisses，不是抽象名词，如不可说the art of kiss，该把kiss改作kissing。

2.下面两句意思相同：

He kissed the baby on the mouth.

He kissed the baby's mouth.

knock

1.knock at the door似乎比knock the door普通。a knock at the door似乎比a knock on（或upon）the door普通。

2.a knock是“一下敲门”，a double knock是“连续两下敲门”，a knocking是“一次敲门”，不论一下、两下或几下。

3.He opened to my knock是“他听到我的敲门就开门。”

know

1.know作“认识（某人）”解，know of作“知道有（某人）”解。例如：I know of him, but do not know him (personally). 说“知道有…”必须用of。例如：Do you know of any such shop in your city? 但know the fact和know of the fact都可以说。

2.I am glad to learn that...等句子里通常用learn，不用know。

3.Who do you think he is? 等句子里该用think，不可用know。

4.have known后面接宾语和不定式的时候，那不定式可以有to，也可以没有to。例如：I have known him (to) say this before. never knew和have never known后面接宾语和不定式的时候，那不定式没有to，如I never knew him say this before和I have never known him say this before。假使have known，never knew或have never known改成被动语态，那不定式必须有to。例如：He has been known to say this before. He was never known to say this before. 和He has never been known to say this before.

假使have known，never knew或have never known的宾语后面的不定式是be，必须有to。例如：I have known him to be too busy to study. I never knew him to be too busy to study. 和I have never known him to be too busy to study.

5.注意下面第一句里用I know it，第二句里用I know：

He is going to get married, and I know it.

When his sister said that he was going to get married, I said, 'Yes, I know.'

knowledge

1.复数形式knowledges现在很少用，如a man of many small knowledges。但前面可以用a。例如：He has a perfect knowledge of English. 和I have only a slight knowledge of Shanghai.

2.knowledge of English（或Chinese等）不可改作knowledge in English（或Chinese等），也不可改作English（或Chinese等）knowledge。

3.knowledge后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He was surprised at the knowledge that his wife was dead.

4.knowledge后面有时接以how，what等词引导的从句。例如：The boy found himself in a boat without the slightest knowledge how he had got there.

5.to my knowledge和within my knowledge意思略有不同。例如：

They have met three times, to my knowledge. （据我所知，他们会见过三次［不是三次以上或以下］。）

They have met three times within my knowledge. （据我已知，他们只会见过三次［不是三次以上］。）

6.关于common knowledge，参见common 2

known

This is the best system known比This is the best known system普通。

Koran

Koran（可兰经）前面有the。

Kremlin

Kremlin（克里姆林宫）前面有the。

L

labour

Labo(u)r Day（劳动节）前面没有the。

lack(ing)

1.lack是名词和动词，不是形容词，如不可说He is lack of experience，该改作He lacks experience。这里的lacks是及物动词。在用作不及物动词时lack现在只用现在分词lacking。这个lacking用作形容词，它有两个意思：“缺乏（某物）的”和“（某物）缺乏的”，如I am lacking in strength和Strength is lacking。注意第一句里lacking后面用in。lacking in ... 后面所接的名词通常是抽象名词，如strength，courage，perfection，interest，humour和variety。

2.There is no lack of ...（有很多的…）里总是用is（或was），而不用are（或were），不论of后面的名词是单数或复数。例如：There is no lack of literature on this subject. 和There is no lack of books on this subject.

3.for lack of（因缺乏…）里没有the。

4.lack可作“不足”或“没有”解。例如：

He cannot do this work for lack（作“不足”或“没有”解）of skill.

He cannot do this work because he lacks（作“不足”或“没有”解）skill.

He cannot do this work because he is lacking（作“不足”或“没有”解）in skill.

Skill is lacking（作“没有”解）.

下面两句当然都是说“没有”，而不是说“不足”：

Lack of a fire keeps the room cold.

The house lacks a kitchen.

lady

1.ladies and gentlemen不可改作gentlemen and ladies。参见gentleman 3

2.lady doctor，lady author，lady clerk等表达方式里的lady表示性别，作“女…”解。lady cook，lady nurse，lady help等表达方式里的lady表示社会地位，含有“干的工作虽然似乎不高尚，却被当作上等人看待”的意思。第二种用法只在英国流行。

lake

1....Lake和Lake...前面没有the，如Oneida Lake和Lake Erie。但中国的湖名不论音译或义译，前面往往有the，如the Dongting Lake（洞庭湖）和the West Lake（西湖）。

2.the Lakes是英格兰西北部一个风景优美的多湖泊地区，也作the Lake Country或the Lake District。the Great Lakes是美国和加拿大之间的五个大湖。the Great Lake是大西洋的别名。

lament

1.lament（动词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：He lamented that he could never see his friend again.

2.his lamented death in l950里的lamented没有多大意思。

land

复数形式lands可以用作“地产”解。例如：The landlord had all his lands confiscated. 但不可说a land，two lands，five lands等。

landlord

在英语民族的人们中用landlord几乎总是指旅馆主人或房东，不指地主。

landscaper

landscaper是landscape gardener（园林学家）的俗称，landscapist是landscape painter（风景画家）的别称。

landscapist

参见landscaper

landslide

landslide指竞选中的“大胜利”，不指“大失败”，如a Democrat landslide指“（美国）民主党的大胜利”。

lane

... Lane（…弄）前面没有the，如Park Lane前面没有the。

language

1.Chinese language，Russian language，English language等表达方式前面有the。但在着重“语文”的场合往往不用the，如an elementary course in Chinese language和graduates in Russian language。假使后面接and literature，也可以不用the，如（the）Chinese language and literature。注意the Chinese language and its literature里有the。

2.下面各句都不错，但不很自然，最好把the和language删去：

He is learning to write the Russian language.

She speaks the English language very well.

This novel has not yet been translated into the Chinese language.

3.spoken language和written language前面有the。

4.相当于language的形容词是linguistic，但language往往用作形容词，如language study，language student，language analysis，language usage和language difficulties。

5.English-language newspaper是“英语报纸”，English newspaper有时指“英语报纸”，但通常指“英国报纸”。

lap

lap是“坐着的人从腰到膝的那部分”，就是抱小孩的时候小孩坐着或站着的那部分。注意：人坐着才有lap，站起来就没有lap。lap并不是肉体的一部分，决不可说lap里痛或痒。一个人只有一个lap，不可能有两个。

large

参见big

last(ly)

1.关于lastly的用法，参见firstly。但lastly往往用作“末了”解。例如：Lastly，I must explain that I fully agree with what the chairman says. 用Lastly并不意味着上文用过First(ly)，Secondly，Thirdly等。firstly没有相当于这用法的用法。

2.the last two，the last three等表达方式比the two last，the three last等表达方式普通，也合理些。

3.last往往用作last letter（最近的信）解。例如：As I said in my last, I am in good health.

4.When did you see him last? 和When did you last see him? 都可以说。

5.at last比at the last普通。at long last和at the long last都作at last解，但含有“虽然经过了长时期”的意思。

at last，at the last等表达方式都只指时间，不指文章里的“末了”，如不可说At (the) last, I have to repeat my advice。该把At (the) last改作Finally或Lastly。

6.last Monday，last night，last evening，last week，last month，last April，last year，last spring，last Christmas等都可以说，但不可说last morning，last afternoon或last day，该说yesterday morning，yesterday afternoon和yesterday。

7.在6里所说的几个last...都可以用作状语短语，前面不加介词，如可以说They arrived last Monday和I saw him last April。不可说...on last Monday和...in last April。但把last Monday，last Tuesday，last Wednesday等改成了Monday last，Tuesday last，Wednesday last等便该加上on。例如：They arrived on Monday last. 同样地，把last April，last May，last June等改成了了April last，May last，June last等便该加上in。例如：I saw him in April last. 注意不可说night last，evening last，week last，month last，year last，spring last，Christmas last等。

8.last Monday，on Monday last等里的last作“最近过去的”解，并不作“上星期的”解，如假定今天是10月30日星期四，所说last Monday或on Monday last是指10月27日，并不指10月20日。说“上星期的星期几”该说on ...last week，如on Friday last week。当然有时...last week等于last...或...last，如假定今天是10月30日星期四，所说last Friday或Friday last是指10月24日，Friday last week也是指10月24日。同样地，last April，in April last等里的last作“最近过去的”解，并不作“去年的”解，如假定现在是10月，所说last April或in April last是指今年的4月，并不指去年的4月。说“去年的某月”该说in ... last year，如in April last year。当然有时...last year等于last...或...last，如假定现在是10月，所说last December或December last是指去年的12月，December last year也是指去年的12月。

9.可以说the last week or two，不可说the last one or two weeks，但可以说the last two or three weeks。

10.You don't look a day older than the last time I saw you years ago里的the用的多，不用的少。The last time I heard of him he was in the army里的The也用的多，不用的少。The last I heard of him he was in the army里的The也用的多，不用的少。

11.the last thing是习语，用作状语短语，作“作为最后做的一件事”解。例如：We must lock the door the last thing, before we go to bed.

12.of the last importance和in the last degree里的last都作“极端的”解。

13.说“末第二”，“末第三”等不可说last second，last third等，该说last but one，last but two等。last but one直译作“除了一个以外的最后”，就是“末第二”。

14.至少有了三个人或物才有一个是last，例如在A，B，C里，C是last，在A，B，C，D，E，F里F是last。只有两个就没有last，如在A，B里的B是second或latter，不是last。所以可以说the last quarter of the century和the last third of the century，该说second half或latter half。

15.在理论上讲last是“最后的”，latest是“截至现在（或当时）为止最后的”，就是“最近过去的”。例如：This is his latest book, I hope it is not his last. （这是他的最新著作，我希望它不是他的最后的［著作］。）但事实上并不这样简单，下面几点该注意：

（1）last是“最后的”，latest是“最晚的”，要是把The last train on Sunday leaves at 11.50里的last train改作了latest train，在事实上没有区别。

（2）上面6，7，8里所举的所有例子里的last，在理论上都该改作latest，但在事实上都不可改。

（3）下面两句里用latest好些，但也可以改用last：

The latest news is that the floods are subsiding.

The latest number of the magazine came out yesterday.

16.last作动词用，作“持续”、“足够”解。下面四句都可以说：

The supply will last five days.

The supply will last me five days.

The supply will last for five days.

The supply will last me for five days.

late(ly)

1.late用作形容词或副词，lately只用作副词。说“晚”或“迟”只可以用late，不可用lately，如come late，sit up late，marry late in life等表达方式里的late不可改作lately。说“近来”该用lately。例如：He has arrived lately. 用late现在很不普通，该避免。说“不久以前…但现在并不…”用late。例如：Mr J. C. Jones，late of London, has arrived in China.

2.too late for the train（赶不上火车）等表达方式里的too可以省去。He got here three minutes late里在late前通常没有too。He is never late for（或to）school里在late前面不可加too。

3.at latest和at the latest都作“至迟”解。例如：We must finish the work on Friday at (the) latest.

4.as late as l952，as late as 6 May等表达方式里不该在1952前面加in或在6 May前加on。

5.later和later on都可以用，如That happened later (on) 和I shall call again later (on)。注意不可从现在算起说明若干时间而用later，如不可说I shall call again a week later，该把a week later改作in a week。

下面各句里的a week later都不是从现在算起，所以用得不错：

I called on him on 24 July, and called again a week later.

I shall call on him on 20 October and shall call again a week later.

When you see him for the first time, you may think him rather inaccessible, but when you see him again a week later you are likely to find him quite likable.

As you have some extra work to do today, you'll have to leave the office an hour later里的an hour later作“比平时（或比原定计划）迟一小时”解。

6.lately和of late都作“近来”解，lately比of late普通。lately可以修饰属于完成时态或过去时态的动词，那动词也许指一时的动作，也许指持续的动作，如He (has) arrived lately和He (has) stayed at home lately。of late通常修饰属于完成时态而表示持续动作的动词。例如：He has stayed at home of late. lately和of late有时修饰属于现在时态的动词。例如：I do not read much lately（或of late）. 但不很普通。

7.the late prime minister，the late headmaster等表达方式里的late有时作“已死的”解，有时作“已退职的”解。在有可能被人误解的场合，该避免这用法。下面几点该注意：

（1）the late Mr Smith（已死的Smith先生）等表达方式里也有the。

（2）my late father，his late brother等里的late当然作“已死的”解。

（3）late作“已死的”解，只指死了不久的人，不可指死了好久的人，如可以说the late George Bernard Shaw，但不说the late John Milton。

later

参见late(ly) 5

latest

参见last(ly) 15

latter

the latter（后者，和the former相对）只可以用于两个人或物，不可用于两个以上的人或物，如不可说He has three friends in Beijing, A, B, and C, the latter is a doctor, 该把latter改作last，last-mentioned或last-named。

latterly

latterly现在不及lately普通。

laugh(ter)

1.laugh通常用作类名词。例如：He gave a loud laugh. 和He gave three loud laughs. laughter在现代英语里几乎只用作抽象名词，前面不用a，也没有复数形式。可以说Listening to my story，he gave a laugh from time to time, I don't know how my story caused so much laughter。He broke into a low clear laughter里用a，比较少见。a ...laughter是“一阵…的笑声”，比a ...laugh长些。

2.The laugh was against him是英国用法，The laugh was on him是美国用法。

law

1.Chinese law，Roman law，commercial law，international law等表达方式前没有the。说某国或某时的法律，law前面该有the。例如：This is forbidden by the law.

2.说“法律学”，law前面有时有the，有时没有the。说“律师界”，law前面通常有the。

lay

1.lay（放置）是及物动词，它的过去式和过去分词都是laid。lie（躺）是不及物动词，它的过去式是lay，过去分词是lain。注意lay的现在式和lie的过去式完全相同。把laid用作不及物动词是英美人常有的错误。注意下面各句里的lie，lay，lain和laid：

The books still lie where I laid them a month ago.

The books still lay where I had laid them a month before.

The books have lain here ever since they were laid here.

Let us lay the books here.

2.lain比较少用，上面第三句里的lain改作been lying普通些。

lazybones

lazybones（懒汉）的单数和复数同一形式，如a lazybones和these lazybones。

leading

leading可以作“主要的”解，如leading author和leading topic。但最好不用在question前面，因为leading question有它的特殊意思，就是“有诱导或提示性的发问”。

leap

关于leap和jump的不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）leap不及jump普通，但Look before you leap和a leap in the dark和by leaps and bounds各种表达方式里的leap或leaps不可改作jump或jumps。

（2）leap比较客观，jump比较主观。例如：We watched him leap across the brook. 和I was afraid to jump.

（3）leap着重在跳的距离或过程，jump着重在跳的动作。例如：We watched him leap across the brook. 和We saw him jump up and run away.

learn

1.learn有时是“学会”或“学得”，有时是“学习”，比较下面每组里的两句：

2.learn后面接不定式比接动名词普通，那动名词通常指一种技术，比较下面各句：

I advise you to learn to swim（或swimming）.

I advise you to learn to speak（不用speaking）more slowly.

I advise you to learn to be（不用being）polite.

3.I advise you to learn to be polite跟I advise you to learn how to be polite略有不同。第二句着重在“怎样…”

4.说“从（某人）学习…”在表示某人的词前面通常用from，有时用of，偶尔用with。例如：I am learning English from（或of，或with）an excellent teacher.

5.说“得悉”现在除了在whereabouts和cause（原因）两个词的前面以外，似乎总是用learn of而不用learn，如I have just learnt of his arrival （或success，accident，illness，death，marriage等）。

learning

learning是从钻研而得的高深学问，可以指自然科学，但通常指文学、语言、历史等，不可用于一般学生。

least

1.at least有时作“至少”解。例如：He is at least fifty. （他至少有五十岁。）有时作“不论怎样”解。例如：He will at least die happily. （他不论怎样将死得快乐。）at the least=at least，但不很普通。

2.least有时作“即使最小”或“即使最少”解。例如：He wishes to know the least detail of your life. 和We are ready to advise everybody who is (in) the least interested in such matters.

3.not in the least是状语短语，作“一点也不”解。例如：He is not in the least interested in this subject. 有时在least后面加上degree，但不很普通。注意这种表达方式跟not a little大不相同，not a little作“很”解。

not in the least是状语短语，有时把in省去，但不很普通。not the least里的least用作形容词。有时作“一点也没有”解。例如：This subject has not the least interest for him. 有时作“最大的”解。例如：Not the least of the difficulties is that of obtaining enough water. （最大的困难便是得到足够的水。）在第一解里往往把not和the分开。例如：He does not take the least interest in this subject.

4.Least of all do I want to offend him里的Least of all作“最不”解，注意I前面有do。

5.注意B is the least more interesting than A (of the three, B, C, and D) 等句子里用least more。C is the least less interesting than D (of the three, A, B, and C) 等句子里用least less。参见more 7和most 9

leave

1.leave往往用在现在时态或现在进行时态代替将来时态，如I leave tomorrow或I am leaving tomorrow作I shall leave tomorrow解。

2.不可说leave away，该把away删去。

3.leave不可用来说“与（朋友等）分别”，如不可说It is a month since I left him。照习惯该把left him改作last saw him或saw him last。

4.比较下面四句：

He left a watch to her. （1.他把一只表遗赠给她。2.他把一只表交她保管。）

He left a watch with her. （他把一只表交她保管。）

He left her a watch. （1.他把一只表遗赠给她。2.他把一只表交她保管。3.他拿去了她的一切，只留下了一只表。）

He left her with a watch. （他把一只表遗赠给她。）

5.His death left her an orphan作“他的死使她成为一个孤儿”解，orphan是表语。He left her a watch可能有三个意思（参见4里的第三句）。这两种不同的结构不可混用。在主动语态里很少有混用的危险。但在被动语态里有时混用，如He was left an orphan可能有“他被遗弃成为一个孤儿”和“一个孤儿遗留给他（叫他收养）”两个意思。

6.I leave you to settle up和I leave it to you to settle up都作“我任凭你处理”解。但leave后面接指人的词和不定式也会有其他意思，如I left him to do it可能有三个意思：1.我任凭他做这个。2.我离开了他，任他做这个。3.我离开了他去做这个（是我做，不是他做）。在有可能被人误解的场合，该避免这结构。

7.I shall leave the city soon等句子里不可在leave后面加上off或from。

8.leave是一时的动作，He has left for a week不是“他已经离开了一星期”，却是“他已经离开了，预备一星期以后回来。”“他已经离开了一星期”该说He left a week ago或It is a week since he left。

9.leave of absence of ten days和a leave of absence of ten days都可以说。

10.He took his leave yesterday里当然用单数形式leave，They took their leave(s) yesterday里现在也通常用单数形式。

lecture

1.参见address 6

2.He lectured (to) the children on good manners（他给孩子们作关于礼貌的演讲）有to或没有to都可以。

注意下面两句里都用lectured，不用lectured to，第一句里用on，第二句里用for：

He lectured the children on their laziness.

He lectured the children for being lazy.

lecturer

1.lecturer（大学讲师）后面接on或in，不接of，如a lecturer on（或in）biology里的on或in不可改作of，不可说biology lecturer等。

2.Mr Wang is a lecturer on（或in）physics in（或at）Beijing University等句子里的physics后面的in或at不可改作of。参见professor 3

lecture(r)ship

lectureship（lecturer的职位）不及lecturership合理，但比lecturership普通得多。

left

left是“左”，right是“右”，似乎很分明，但有下面两点该注意：

（1）关于河岸的left和right参见bank 1，并不相当于汉语里的“江左”和“江右”。

（2）每人有left和right两边，但在照片或图画里的left叫做right，right叫做left，这是因为依照看的照片或图画的人的左、右而说的。假定有人同甲、乙两人合影，甲在他的左边，乙在他的右边，在照片的说明里却把甲看作在他的right，把乙看作在他的left。不过要是用了on the left-hand side和on the right-hand side或on the left hand of和on the right hand of，必须依照那个人的左、右两手来说。

2.The author is seated in the centre, his son is on his left, and his daughter is on his right里的on his left和on his right两种表达方式可以分别改用on the left和on the right，或at his left和at his right，或at the left和at the right，或to his left和to his right，或to the left和to the right。

说到较长的距离通常用to。例如：The post office is a few yards to the right of the railway station.

legend

1.a legend是“一个传奇故事”，the legend是“这个传奇故事”，legends是“多个传奇故事”，legend则统指传奇故事。the German legend是“这个德国传奇故事”，German legend是“一般的德国传奇故事”。

2.比较下面两句：

He is a legend. （他是一个无人不知、无人不晓的传奇人物。）

He is a legendary figure. （1.他是一个传说中的人物［例如盘古氏或神农氏］。2.他是一个无人不知、无人不晓的传奇人物。）

legion

Our friends are legion和Idioms of this kind are legion等句子里的legion作“很大的数目”解，是类名词，但用作形容词，前面不可加a。

leisure(d)

1.at leisure和at one's leisure不同。at leisure有时用作状语短语，有时用作形容词短语。at one's leisure只用作状语短语，不用作形容词短语。at leisure用作形容词短语作“有空的”解，后面有时接不定式。例如：I am at leisure. 和I am at leisure to chat with you. at leisure用作状语短语作“从容地”解。例如：We may proceed at leisure. at one's leisure作“在有空的时候”解。例如：Please call on me at your leisure.

2.说“有闲阶级”用leisure class和leisured class都可以。

3.He has (the) leisure to read fiction里的the可有可无。

length

The author's mother is drawn at full length in the story as Mrs Fox里的at有时省去。

less

1.严格地说，less指量（quantity）不指数（number），如可以说less money，less tea，less education，less traffic等，但不可说less yuan，less cups，less schools，less cars等，该把less改作fewer。说less than ten yuan是可以的，意思是“不满十元”，不作“不满十个一元”解。但事实上把less用作fewer解也有，如less people和less houses。

2.He is less clever than his brother和He is less clever than you think he is等句当然不错，但不及He is not so clever as his brother和He is not so clever as you think he is等普通。

3.注意I am not interested in her，still less（或much less）am I in love with her（我并不注意她，更不必说爱她了）里用am I，不用I am。

4.比较下面每组里的两句：

上面四句是下面四句的省略式：

在该用still more或much more的场合用still less或much less是英美人常有的错误。

5.关于more less，less more和less less，参见more 7

lesson

1.lesson和lessons（课程）后面接in和科目的名称，或on（或in）和科目的部分的名称。例如：a lesson in chemistry和lessons in composition，a lesson on（或in）oxygen和lessons on（或in）paragraph development。

2.下面三句都可以说，第一句最普通：

The children take lessons with a governess.

The children take lessons from a governess.

The children take lessons of a governess.

lest

1.lest所引导的从句里通常用should，如He hid it lest she should see it和He will hide it lest she should see it。不用should而用虚拟现在式，现在主要流行在美国，如He hid it lest she see it和He will hide it lest she see it。不用should而用shall，may或might的也有，但很不普通。不用should而用陈述现在式或陈述过去式的也有，如He will hide it lest she sees it和He hid it lest she saw it。但也很不普通。

2.在谈话里不用lest而用in case。

let

1.let的宾语后面的不定式没有to。例如：I'll let him do it. 假使把let用在被动语态里，那不定式有时有to，有时没有to。例如：He will be let (to) do it. 但不论用to或不用to，这种句子很少见，通常改用allow。例如：He will be allowed to do it.

但let fall（无意中说出），let go（释放）和let slip（错过）三种表达方式用在被动语态里不算不普通，那不定式没有to。例如：

A few hints were let fall by the girl.

The prisoners were soon let go.

The opportunity was let slip.

2.Let him do it是“让他做这个”。Let him alone to do it是“信任他做这个（他会好好地做它，不会不做或做坏）”。注意第二句里有to，把to do改作for doing也可以，但不很普通。

3.let us里的us有时不包括对方，有时包括对方，如Let us know the time of your arrival里的us不包括对方，但Let us try again里的us可能包括对方（指“你［们］和我［们］”）。在包括对方的时候，let us可以写作let's。

4.比较下面三句：

Let's not try again.

Don't let's try again.

Let's don't try again.

第二句比第一句多些恳求的意味，第三句不合语法（don't不是不定式），不算正当。

5.说房屋或田地的“出租”通常用to let，不用to be let。例如：This house is to let. 但说“不出租”用not to let和not to be let都普通。说“出租或出卖”，“出卖或出租”，“出卖而不出租”，“出租而不出卖”等用to be let而不用to let，如This house is to be let or sold和This house is to be let, not to be sold。

6.说“出租（房屋或田地）”通常用let，不用let out，说“出租（车、马、服装等）”通常用let out，不用let。

7.let go（释放）和let go of意思相同。例如：He refused to let go (of) the rope.

letter

1.下面两句意思不同：

Here is a letter to John. （这里是一封写给约翰的信。）

Here is a letter for John. （这里是一封已经送来的寄给约翰的信。）

2.by letter是习语。例如：I shall inform him by letter.

3.my letter是“我写的信”，your letter是“你写的信”。但在信函里有时把my letter指“我收到的信”，your letter指“我写给你的这封信”，如My letter from your sister has told me of your illness和I shall post your letter on my way to school。这种用法最好避免。

4.关于letter paper，参见letter-paper

letter-paper（或letter paper）

letter-paper是“信笺”（通常每张十英寸阔，十六英寸长，并不指各种大小的信笺），不指信笺的一张，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式letter-papers，该说a sheet of letter-paper和sheets of letter-paper。

level

1.flood level和sea level前面都没有the。

2.下面两句里的level主要用在公文里：

This is a matter to be decided only at the highest level（最高级）。

I have some idea of the proposed solution only at the official level.

liable

1.参见apt

2.liable for作“有责任的”解。例如：You are liable for his debt. liable to作“该受（罚）或该付（税）的”或“易于受…的害的”解，如You are liable to the tax（或penalty）和You are liable to colds（易于伤风）。

liberation

before liberation（解放前），after liberation，since liberation等表达方式里在liberation前面加上the也可以。

liberty

I（或We）take the liberty to ...（不定式）和I（或We）take the liberty of ...ing作“冒昧”解，是信函里的陈套语，该避免。

lie

1.参见lay

2.下面两句意思不同。

He sometimes lies looking at the sky. （他有时躺着望着天空［不是躺着阅读或歌唱］。）

He sometimes looks at the sky lying. （他有时躺着望着天空［不是站着或坐着望着天空］。）

下面两句里的read the newspapers lying和play the piano lying不可改作lie reading the newspapers和lie playing the piano：

Having a cold, he had to read the newspapers lying.

It is certainly impossible to play the piano lying.

参见sit 3和stand 3

3.lie（说谎）的过去式和过去分词都是lied。

4.lie在用作名词的时候作“谎话”解，是类名词，并不统指“谎话”。“说谎”该用tell a lie或tell lies，不可用tell lie。

5.lie在用作名词的时候并不作“说谎”解，如不可说I hate lie，该把lie改作lying或telling lies。

6.lie不论用作名词（谎话）或动词（说谎）语气都很重，动词lie比tell a lie或tell lies语气更重，对人说他tell a lie，tell lies或lie都很不妥，英美人通常避免这个词而用fib或untruth，孩子们往往用story。

life

1.political life，cultural life，social life，country life，married life等表达方式前面没有the。但simple life（［不用奢侈品、不需别人服侍的］简朴生活）前面有the。

2.all his life，all her life等表达方式有时不指“一生”而指“从出生到现在（或当时）”，比较下面三句：

He lived there all his life.

He has lived there all his life, but will soon go to live with his son.

He had lived there all his life, but would soon go to live with his son.

下面是一个笑话：

A. Have you lived here all your life?

B. No, not yet.

3.I cannot for the life of me recall his name（我完全想不起他的名字）里的for the life of me改作for my life也可以，但不普通。注意Not for the life of me can I recall his name里用can I，不用I can。

4.life's work（终身事业）不及lifework普通。

5.比较下面各句：

They told us about their life（生活情况）in the interior.

Their lives have been full of activity.

Their married life（夫妇俩的结婚生活）has been most happy.

Their married lives（两个或两个以上的人的结婚生活）have been most happy. （假使指夫妇俩，那末至少有一个人曾经结婚过两次或两次以上。）

lifetime

1.下面各句里的lifetime意思略有不同：

He never left his native land in his lifetime. （一生）

He has visited New York three times in his lifetime. （从出生到现在）

He told me he had visited New York three times in his lifetime. （从出生到当时）

He hopes to visit Paris once more in his lifetime. （从现在到他死亡）

He said he hoped to visit Paris once more in his lifetime. （从当时到他死亡）

2.一个人有一个lifetime，多个人就有多个lifetimes。但说到同时代的人，用lifetime而不用lifetimes，如within our lifetime和within the lifetime of men now living。during the lifetime(s) of his three brothers里用lifetime或lifetimes都可以。

like

1.下面三句都可以说：

The pond is very like a mirror.

The pond is much like a mirror.

The pond is very much like a mirror.

形容词like后面原来接to，但现在省去了to。

2.like（动词）在单独用的时候指经常的爱好，不指一时的爱好，如可以说I like it，不可说I like it today。I should like to see him tomorrow等句子里的should不可省去。用would也普通，但在“标准英语”里不算正当。

3.like后面接不定式和动名词都有，下面几点该注意：

（1）说一时的爱好只可用不定式，不可用动名词，如He would like to dance with us tonight里的to dance不可改作dancing，I should like to see him at once里的to see不可改作seeing。

（2）说经常的爱好用不定式或动名词都可以，如He likes to dance和He likes dancing。

（3）说经常的爱好，对于简单的动作或情况用动名词比用不定式普通，如He likes dancing比He likes to dance普通，She likes being read to比She likes to be read to普通。但对于复杂些的事，用不定式比用动名词普通，如He likes to see his children at play比He likes seeing his children at play普通，He likes to work far intio the night比He likes working far into the night普通。

4.like作“喜欢”解，但not like在“并不喜欢”以外还有“厌恶”的意思，如假定你并不喜欢看见某人，但也并不厌恶看见他，便不该说I do not like to see him，该把like改作care。

5.like在单独用的时候指经常的爱好，不指一时的爱好，但don't like和didn't like往往指一时的“不肯”或“不愿”。例如：I don't like to disturb you. 和He stayed outside because he didn't like to interrupt us. 比较下面两句：

He didn't like to go with us, and so he stayed behind.

He didn't like going with us, though he did do so.

6.下面每组里的两句都可以说，第一句语气重些：

7.like（动词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I like that you write to me frequently. 和I should like that you should write to me frequently. 请注意这种结构不很普通。第二句里的以that引导的从句里用should。

8.I should like for you to write to me frequently里的for是多余的，最好删去。

9.比较下面三句：

I like you to write to me frequently.

I like your writing to me frequently.

I like you writing to me frequently.

第一句着重在“我喜欢”这原则，第二句和第三句着重在“你时常写信给我”这事实，严格地说，第三句不及第二句正当。

10.I like him比I have a liking for him语气重些。

11.不可说She is as like as her friend，该说She is like her friend。照字面讲，She is as like as her friend是“她的像（某人）正如她的朋友的像（某人）”。

12.把like用作连接词是常有的。例如：He studies English very hard, like he did Chinese some years ago. 依照“标准英语”该把like改作as。

likely

1.参见apt

2.likely在用作副词的时候，在英国前面总有very，most或more等词。例如：He will very likely agree. 和This will most likely happen again. 在美国以前有时单独用likely。例如：He will likely agree. 和This will likely happen again. 现在前面也总有very，most或more等词。

limit(ed)

1.limited company（有限公司）是limited-liability company的简写形式。有限公司的名称末尾用Limited或它的简写形式Ltd.都可以，Limited或Ltd.前面用逗号或不用逗号也都可以。

2.limit的宾语后面接to和动名词，不接不定式，如You ought to limit your activities to recording the facts里的recording不可改作record。

line

1.a line和a few lines都可以用作“短信”解。例如：Please drop me a line（或a few lines）as soon as possible. a few lines相当于“惠我数行”里的“数行”。信的开首有Just a line to tell you that...或A line to say that...等惯用语。例如：Just a line to tell you that I have passed the examination. 但虽然用了line，那信也许是很长的。

2.along these lines（关于这件事）是商业信函里的陈套语。在一般通信里该避免。

linguist

linguist原来指“语言学家”，也指“能说（多种）外国语者”。后来第一个意思逐渐不用，“语言学家”用philologist，也有人用linguistician。但近几年来又把linguist用作“语言学家”解，philologist主要作“文献学（philology）家”解，linguistician几乎不用。

lion

在把狮子当作打猎对象的时候，通常用lion而不用lions。例如：They went out hunting lion.

lipstick

lipstick有时用作类名词，指一支唇膏，有时用作物质名词，指那物质。例如：Mary uses two lipsticks every year. 和Mary uses too much lipstick.

list

in the list主要用在英国，on the list主要用在美国。

listen

1.listen to the sound是“听那声音”，listen for the sound是“用心去听那（尚未听到的）声音”。听觉不健全的人也许listen for了好久仍旧不能listen to什么。

2.listen to后面接指人的词和不定式，那不定式习惯没有to。例如：He listened to us talk. 也可以说He listened to us talking和He listened to our talk。但不可说He listened to our talking。

literacy

literacy class（识字班），literacy campaign（识字运动），literacy test（识字测验）等表达方式里的literacy不可改作literate。

literature

1.Chinese literature，French literature，English literature等表达方式前面没有the。

2.复数形式literatures指“多种语言的文学”，不指“多种文学”，如可以说He studies both Chinese and French literatures，不可说The novel and the lyric are two important literatures。该把literatures改作forms（或types）of literature。同样地，a literature指“一个语言的文学”，不指“一种文学”，如可以说The Chinese people have produced a wonderful literature，不可说The novel is an important literature。该把an important literature改作an important form（或type）of literature。

但a literature有时指关于某个题材的一切文章和书刊。例如：A large literature has accumulated round the work and personality of the poet.

little

1.little和a little不同（参见a，an 32），但only a little或but a little等于little。

2.little和small略有不同，参见small

3.not a little作“许多的”、“许多”或“很”解，no little作“许多的”解，都跟not a bit（一点儿也不）和not in the least（一点儿也不）大不相同。比较下面各句：

It has given him not a little trouble. （这给他带来许多麻烦。）

He spent not a little on books. （他买书用去了许多钱。）

He was not a little surprised. （他很惊奇。）

He took no little pains over it. （他在这上面费了很多力。）

4.a little boy和a little water两种表达方式在语法结构上不同。a little cake可能有两个意思：“一个小饼”或“一点儿饼”。a little pain也可能有两个意思：“一个小痛”或“一点儿痛”。

5.注意Little did I think of it等句子里用did I think，不用I thought。

live

1.说暂时的“住”该用stay，不该用live，如I shall live at the hotel for a few days里的live该改作stay。

2.live（活的）是定语形容词，如live animals和live fish。一般不用于人，如说“当代活着的作家们”不可说live authors，该把live改作living。

livelihood

参见living 2

live(-)stock

live(-)stock统指“家畜”，不指“一只或一种家畜”，前面不可有a，也没有复数形式。可以说fifty head of live(-)stock。

living

1.living（活着的、尚在人间的）用在定语用法和表语用法里都可以，如a living man和He is still living。

2.make a living out of...是“以…谋生”，make a livelihood out of ...是“把…当作职业”。livelihood比living正式。

loan

1.make a loan是“借出”，不是“借入”，可以说We hope you can make us this loan。

2.loan用作动词（作“借出”解）现在在美国比在英国多用。

locate

locate用作“开始居住”解是美国口语。例如：He will soon locate in Shanghai.

lodging

说“住所”用lodging和lodgings都可以。例如：He is looking for lodging(s). 现在复数形式比单数形式普通；lodging和lodgings并没有“一间房子”和“多间房子”的区别；但a lodging和that lodging等表达方式里的lodging不可改作lodgings；those lodgings和one of the lodgings等表达方式里的lodgings不可改作lodging；board and lodging（膳宿）中的lodging不可改作lodgings。

lone

参见alone 1

lonely

参见alone 1

lonesome

参见alone 1

long(er)

1.long用于head或skull指前后的长，不指上下的长。

2.long mile指“比一英里长的距离”。

3.long hours和long years指“长时间”和“多年”，并不说每小时或每年的长短。

4.下面两句里的in可有可无：

The chance was long (in) coming. （那机会来得迟。）

He was long (in) deciding. （他决定得慢。）

5.before long作before a long time has passed解，是“不久以后”，不是“长久以前”，如He came before long是“（过去的某时的）不久以后他来了”。不是“他在长久以前来了”。

6.注意No longer is picturephone just a laboratory marvel里用is picturephone，不用picturephone is。

7.比较下面两句：

Long after he went, I sat down.

Long after he went, I kept seated.

第一句里的Long修饰after，第二句里的Long修饰kept seated。

long(ing)

1.long后面接不定式，不接for和动名词，如可以说I long to see him，不可说I long for seeing him。

2.long后面可以接for和宾语和不定式。例如：I long for you to see him.

3.long后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：I long that you should see him. 注意用should。

4.longing后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：I feel a great longing that you should see him. 注意用should。

look

1.Look at that boy jump和Look at that boy jumping都可以说。第一句比第二句更着重在“跳”。

2.He looks like a monk和The tree looks like an elm等句子里的like不可改作as。

Jack looks like a monk跟Jack looks a monk意思相仿。但look like往往有“好像…而实际不是”的含意。

3.look forward to（盼望）里的to是介词，后面接名词或动名词。例如：I am looking forward to his visit. 和I am looking forward to seeing him. 不可说I am looking forward to see him。

4.look over（over是介词）the account和look the account over（over是副词）都作“查阅账目”解。

5.the look of him是“他的面貌”，就是his looks。his look是“他的一看（的状态）”。

looker-on

looker-on的复数形式是lookers-on。参见onlooker

lore

bird lore（关于鸟的一切传说），Egyptian lore等表达方式前面没有the。

lose

1.lose no time in ...ing通常做“赶快去…”解，但也可能作“不白费时间在…”解。在有可能被人误解的场合，该避免这说法。该说法里的in有时被省去。例如：I lost no time (in) following up the idea.

2.注意下面各句的意思：

The opportunity was lost to him. （他失去了机会。）

The victory was lost to them. （他们得不到胜利。）

Now his daughter was lost to him for ever. （现在他永远失去了女儿。）

lost to...通常并不作“被…夺去”解，假定A和B两国打仗，A国的某城被B国占领，通常说The city was lost to A，很少说The city was lost to B。在有可能被人误解的场合该避免用lost to。

3.lose有时有双宾语。例如：His laziness lost him his job. （他的懒惰使他失去了职位。）

4.lose是一时的动作，所以不可说He has lost his pen for a week，该说He lost his pen a week ago或It is a week since he lost his pen。但也有人说For a long time he lost the use of his left arm等句。

loss

He was a great loss to the community和His death was a great loss to the community意思相同。注意loss后面接to。

lost

参见lose

lot

a lot of和lots of都作“许多的”解，都有口语性质，指“数”（number）和“量”（quantity）都可以，如a lot of men和a lot of money，lots of men和lots of money。a lot of和lots of后面的词假使是单数，那动词也是单数形式，假使那个词是复数，那动词也是复数形式。例如：

A lot of men have arrived.

A lot of money has been saved up.

Lots of men have arrived.

Lots of money has been saved up.

loud(ly)

loudly比loud（副词）多含“喧闹”的意思。We shouted as loud as we could比We shouted as loudly as we could普通。Speak louder比Speak more loudly普通。

lovable

lovable只用于人，有“和蔼可亲”的意思，并不含“美貌”的意思。

love

1.love用作“恋爱的对象”解通常指女性，不指男性。现在不及sweetheart普通。

2.信函里的With love to...作“请向…致意”解，注意用to，不用for。

3.关于fall in love with有下面两点该注意：

（1）这语表示一时的动作，所以不可说He has fallen in love with her for years，该说He fell in love with her years ago或It is years since he fell in love with her。也可以说He has been in love with her for years。

（2）这语表示心理上的动作，并不包括向对方有所表示，对方未必知道。即使They have fallen in love with each other，也并没有“心心相印”的含意。They are in love with each other也没有这含意。对于没有生命的东西也可以fall in love with或be in love with。例如：He fell into love with the idea at once. 和She is quite in love with the garden.

4.love（动词）通常被认为语气比like强。例如：

She likes him but doesn't love him.

'Would you like to go with me?' said A. 'Like!' said B. 'I should love to.'

但往往love用作like解。例如：

I love ice cream.

I love going to the cinema.

I love to go to the cinema, and love you to go with me.

I should love to go with you.

I should love you to go with me.

love后面接不定式或动名词，跟like相同，参见like 3

lovely

在美国lovely用于人往往作“和蔼可亲的”解。

lover

说“一对爱人”可以用lovers，说“她的爱人”可以用her lover，但说“他的爱人”通常用his sweetheart，不用lover。这是因为lover是“爱者”（one who loves），不是被爱者（one who is loved）。

low(ly)

low和lowly都是形容词，也都是副词。相当于形容词low的副词是low，不是lowly，相当于形容词lowly的副词才是lowly。形容词lowly通常作“卑贱的”解，有时作“谦逊的”解。副词lowly很少见。low cottage是“低矮的小屋”，lowly cottage是“普通的小屋”。

luck

luck是抽象名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式lucks。a piece of luck作“一件幸运的事”解。

lucky

He is lucky to have such a son跟He is lucky enough to have such a son意思不同。参见enough 3

luggage

1.英国的luggage相当于美国的baggage，参见baggage

2.“行李”在美国一向用baggage，近几年来才渐渐用luggage，但在美国也往往把luggage统指衣箱、皮包等物件。说得明白些，英国的所谓luggage指旅客带着的衣箱、皮包等物件，店家出售的空箱和空包都不是luggage，美国的所谓luggage往往指店家出卖的衣箱、皮包等物件，一经旅客带着便不是luggage而是baggage了。

lunch

1.lunch在英国对于晚上吃dinner的人来说指“午餐”，对于午时吃dinner的人来说指早餐和dinner中间的小餐（参见dinner 1）。在美国指任何时候的小餐。用作动词也有这个区别。

2.lunch有时指“餐事”，有时指“吃的东西”。不论作哪个解，有时是类名词，有时不是。例如：

We had an open-air lunch together.

I found him at lunch.

His mother gave him a lunch to take to school.

He could not eat much lunch.

lung

1.lung是左右两个肺中的一个，每个人有two lungs。

2.a disease of the lungs里的the不可省去。

luxurious

参见luxury

luxury

luxury hotel是“陈设豪华的大旅馆”，luxurious hotel是“奢华的，非常舒适的旅馆”。住在luxury hotel里未必感到愉快；luxury liner和luxurious liner有相似的区别。

lynch

lynch law前面没有the。

M

macaroni

macaroni（通心面）是物质名词，不指“一根面条”。

mad

mad后面接不定式可能有两个意思：如She is mad to speak to the stranger可能是“她跟那陌生人讲话，那是狂妄的”。也可能是“她极想跟那陌生人讲话”。

madam(e)

1.写信给陌生女子时在称呼语里用Madam，Dear Madam或My dear Madam都可以。Madam最正式，Dear Madam最普通。注意用Madam而不用Madame。Madam对于已嫁或未嫁的女子都可以用。写信给两个或两个以上的陌生女子用Ladies，Dear Ladies或Mesdames，不可用Madams。Mesdames实际是Madame的复数形式，不是Madam的复数形式。

2.madame原来是法语，简写作Mme，用法跟Mrs相同。在英美只用于英美以外（尤其是法国）的已嫁女子，往往被歌舞家等用。

Magna C(h)arta

Magna C(h)arta（1215年6月15日英王John被迫签订的“大宪章”）前面没有the。也作the Great Charter

magnet

magnet在现代英语里不用作物质名词，如不可说Magnet attracts iron，该说Magnets attract iron。

maid(en)

1.maid和maiden都远不及girl普通。

2.说“未嫁的女子”用maid和maiden都不普通。说“上了年纪而不出嫁的女子”用old maid，不可用old maiden。但说“未嫁的”（形容词）用maiden，不用maid，如my maiden aunt。

3.说“保姆”用maid，不用maiden。

4.maid指“保姆”，不一定是“未嫁的”。

5.maiden name通常指“已嫁女子娘家的姓”，有时指她的“姓名”，如假定Alice Brown嫁给了Henry Webb，那末她的maiden name通常指Brown，有时指Alice Brown。

6.maid of hono(u)r指“主席女傧相”，是美国英语。

maid(-)servant

参见maid 4

mail

参见post 1

major

major用作“在大学里所选的主要科目”解是美国英语。例如：Mathematics is my major. 也作major subject或major course。有时也指“选某科为主要科目的学生”。例如：I am a mathematics major. 也用作不及物动词，后面接in，作“把…选读作主要科目”解。例如：He majored in mathematics.

majority

1.the majority of people和a majority of my friends里的majority作“一半以上”解。the great majority作“远超过一半”解，如100个里的55个是majority，不是the great majority，但100个里的95个可算the great majority了。the greater majority和the greatest majority，the larger majority和the largest majority是英美人常有的错误。

2.majority现在主要指“数”（number），很少指“量”（quantity），如可以说the majority of books，通常不说the majority of literature。majority的动词当然用复数形式。例如：The majority of my books are kept upstairs.

3.选举里的所谓majority，英国和美国不同。假定有三个候选人，共有40票，甲得25票，乙得10票，丙得5票，在英国人看来：

（1）甲比乙多得15票，所以有15票的majority。

（2）甲得到全票数的一半以上，所以甲有absolute majority或clear majority。

在美国人看来：

（1）甲得到全票数的一半以上，所以有majority。就是英国人所说的absolute majority或clear majority。

（2）甲比全票数的一半多5票，所以甲有5票的majority。

（3）甲的票数比乙和丙的票数的总数多10票，所以甲有10票的relative majority。

（4）甲比乙多得15票，所以甲有15票的plurality。就是英国人所说的majority。

这样看来，假使甲得18票，乙得14票，丙得8票，在英国人看来没有absolute majority或clear majority，却有majority，在美国人看来没有majority。

4.The majority（得票最多或较多的党等）is doing its best和The majority are doing their best都可以说。

make

1.He will make her a good assistant可能有两个意思：“他将使她做成一个好助手。”或“他将做成她的好助手。”当然He will make her a good wife和He will make her a good husband都只有一个意思。

2.比较下面各句：

He is making us some tea (=making some tea for us).

We will make you a discount of six per cent (=make a discount of six per cent for you).

The chairman is going to make us a speech (=make a speech to us).

I don't think he will make you a single reproach (=make a single reproach to you).

3.make（使）的宾语后面的不定式通常没有to。例如：His jokes made her laugh. 但假使把make用在被动语态里，那不定式通常有to。例如：She was made to laugh. His jokes made her to laugh和She was made laugh也不算错，但很不普通。下面两点该注意：

（1）在谚语里make的宾语后面的不定式往往有to。例如：Money makes the mare to go.（有钱能使鬼推磨。）

（2）We make our shoes to last（我们把鞋子做得坚固耐用）里的to last不可改作last，因为这句等于We make our shoes so that they will last。make是“制造”，不是“使”。

4.说“把（原料）做成（东西）”，假使那原料并不变化得看不出原料，那表示原料的词的前面用of，否则用from，如We make tables of wood和We make paper from rags。木材做成了桌子仍旧看得出是木材，但破布做成了纸便看不出是破布了。这里所说的“变化得看不出原料”，仔细想来，没有绝对的标准，如把面粉做成了馒头，不能断定是否“变化得看不出原料”，在这种情形用of或from都可以。

不用of或from而用out of，便加重了语气。

5.of first-class make（头等［技术］制造的），of Chinese make（中国制造的），of eighteenth-century make（18世纪制造的）等表达方式里都没有the。

6.下面各种表达方式都可以说：

a new make of motor，a new make of motors（比较少见），

some new makes of motor，some new makes of motors

making

He has the making(s) of a good teacher（他有成为好教师的素质）里用makings比用making普通。

male

1.male和masculine的不同，相当于female和feminine的不同，参见female 2

2.heir male和male heir（男继承人）意思相同。issue male和male issue（儿子们）也意思相同。

man

1.man单独用通常指全人类。例如：Man will conquer nature.（人定胜天。）和The garden seemed untouched by the hand of man. 有时指一切男子，跟woman（一切女子）相对。例如：Man is said to be stronger than woman. 虽然在指全人类或一切男子的时候，在语法上也被看作单数，它的代词是he，him，his等，不是they，them，their等。

2.复数形式men通常指一般男子。例如：Helen does not seem to be much interested in men. 有时指全人类。例如：Men have made history. 有时men被用来跟man相对，men指一个一个的男子，man指全人类或一切男子。例如：

Napoleon is said to have a contempt for man（全人类）in general and men in particular.

Helen seems to be more interested in man（一切男子、男性）than in men.

3.man friend，man cook等表达方式的复数形式是men friends，men cooks等，但man-eater（吃人者）的复数形式用man-eaters比用men-eaters普通。

4.the Martin man作“名字叫Martin的那个男子”解，是口语用法。

manage

manage后面接不定式跟contrive后面接不定式意思相同，比contrive普通。参见contrive

management

the management往往指某机关的全体主管人员，通常被看作复数。例如：The management have notified us of their decision. 偶尔被看作单数。例如：The management regrets the delay.

mandarin

1.mandarin原来指清朝的“官”（九品以上的官吏），不指清朝以前的任何时代的“官”。

2.mandarin指“官话”，前面没有the。

3.不可用mandarin指现在的普通话。

mankind

mankind（人类）前面没有the。通常被看作复数。例如：Mankind are intelligent animals. 和All progressive mankind love peace. 有时也被看作单数。例如：Mankind is much happier than it was even so short a time as half a century ago. 注意用it，不用he。

manner

1.good manners是“有礼貌”，bad manners是“没礼貌”。manners=good manners。have no manners=have no good manners=have bad manners。manner（单数）有时作“大方的态度”解。例如：He has fair manners, but no manner.（他颇有礼貌，但态度不大方。）

2.manners和good manners虽然是复数形式，但不能计数，所以被看作抽象名词。前面用much或(a) little，不用many或(a) few。但Where is your manners?（你真没有礼貌！）和Where are your manners? 都可以说。

3.manners是“礼貌”，manner是“待人接物的态度”。但往往manners或manner在意思上几乎没有区别，如She has graceful manners和She has a graceful manner, I don't like his manners和I don't like his manner。

4.in this manner和a new manner of doing it等表达方式里的manner作“方式”或“方法”解，习惯上不用复数形式，如习惯上不说in these manners和the different manners of doing it。通常改用ways。

5.all manner of people, all manner of goods等表达方式里的manner作“种类”解，注意不用复数形式manners。有些语法家说all manner of是literary English。

6.注意by all manner of means（必定），by no manner of means（决不）和not by any manner of means（决不）里都用of，不用or，用or是英美人常有的错误。

man(-)servant

man(-)servant的复数形式通常是men(-)servants，很少用man(-)servants。

manual

manual（手册、教科书）后面通常接of，偶尔接on，如a manual of（偶尔用on）English composition。

manufacture

1.of foreign manufacture（外国制造的），如These old machines are of Soviet manufacture（这些老机器是前苏联制造的）等表达方式里都没有the。

2.复数形式manufactures指“一切制造品”，似乎没有见过a manufacture。

manuscript

manuscript指“原稿”，跟印成的文章或书相对。不一定指手写的，也指用打字机打成的。

many

1.a great many（很多）比a good many（相当多）语气重。两种表达方式后面直接接名词，不用of，如可以说a great（或good）many books。不可说a great（或good）many of books。但在a great（或good）many of my（或his，these等）books等表达方式里的of当然不可省去。

2.a many（=a great many）现在不算正当。

3.many a作many times a...（许多的，一个又一个的）解，后面接单数名词，那动词也是单数形式。例如：Many a man has tried it before.

4.下面各句都不合习惯：

The books are many here.（该改作The books are plentiful here或There are many books here。）

The books are a great（或good）many here.（该改作There are a great［或good］many books here。）

His books are many.（该改作He has many books。）

His books are a great（或good）many.（该改作He has a great［或good］many books。）

The books are many和His books are many有时可以说，但通常含有“虽然多”或“确实多”的意思。例如：

The books are many, but the pictures are few.

His books are many, though his pictures are few.

The books are many, but they are all poorly selected.

His books are many, though they are all poorly selected.

5.I don't write many letter是“我写信不多”。I don't like many wines可能是“有许多种酒是我所不喜欢的”，但也可能是“我不喜欢许多种酒（只喜欢二三种酒）”。

march

March（名词或动词）on Science!（向科学进军！）里的on改作towards也可以。

March

参见April

mark

1.说“某科的分数”在marks和指科目的词的中间习惯用for。例如：He gained（或got）high marks for composition.

2.可以说The paper carries 100 marks, of which 40 are allotted to Part I and 60 to Part II。（这些题目共计100分，40分属于第一部分，60分属于第二部分。）

market

1.说“出售的”用on the market或in the market都可以，如there are many good pocket dictionaries on（或in）the market和This is the newest radio now on（或in）the market。

2.market用作“食品店”解，是美国英语。例如：He kept a meat market.

marriage

1.说A和B两人的结婚，有四种说法：1.marriage of A and B，2.marriage between A and B，3.marriage of A to B，4.marriage of A with B。

2.注意his son by his second marriage里用by。

3.注意He has made a satisfactory marriage里用made。

marriageable

参见marry(ing) 4

married

参见marry(ing)

marry(ing)

1.在现代英语里marry和be married后面都不可接with，如不可说He (was) married with her或She (was) married with him。该改作：

He married her. He was married to her.

She married him. She was married to him.

They married. They were married.

说出了“某月某日”用被动语态比用主动语态普通，如He was married to her on 6 December比He married her on 6 December普通。

2.marry是一时的动作，所以不可说He has married for seven years；该说He married seven years ago或It is seven years since he married。但可以说He has been married for seven years，因为married是形容词。

3.不可说Do you marry?习惯上也不说Have you married?或Have you been married?该说Are you married?

4.下面三句意思不同：

He is not a marrying man.（他不是一个想要结婚的男子。）

He is not a married man.（他不是一个已经结婚的男子。）

He is not a marriageable man. （他不是一个在年龄上适宜结婚的男子。）

martial

martial law（戒严令）前面没有the。

marvellous

可以说He has written a marvellous poem，但不可说：

This is not a marvellous poem.

Is this a marvellous poem?

If this is a marvellous poem, you will do well to read it twice.

Try to write a marvellous poem on the subject.

参见most 4

masculine

参见male

mass

the broad mass(es)（广大群众）一语用mass或masses都可以。the Chinese（或French等）masses一语习惯用masses。the mass of the people一语习惯用mass。

massage

massage是“推拿”。例如：I believe in massage.（我相信推拿［能够医治疾病］。） a massage是“一次推拿”，massages是“多次推拿”。例如：After a vigorous massage he felt like a new man.

master

1.master在指“控制者”的时候有时也用于女子。例如：His wife used to be his master. be master of（1.是精通…者，2.能控制…）和make himself（或yourself等）master of（1.成为精通，2.控制）两种表达方式里在master前面习惯没有a，但有时有the。有时也用于女子。例如：She was master of the situation.

2.Master Eric Jones, Master Eric, Master Jones等表达方式里的Master指十五六岁以下的孩子。复数形式the Masters Jones比the Master Joneses正式。

mastery

mastery前面往往用a。例如：The man has acquired a perfect mastery of English.

masticate

masticate远不及chew通俗。

mate

不可把mate用作school(-)mate或class(-)mate解。

material

1.material和materials往往可以通用，如He is collecting material(s) for a dictionary和These papers afford us invaluable material(s) on all aspects of Africa。

2.注意the material on Dr Bethune's（白求恩大夫的）life in China 里在material后面接on。

materialist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

materialize

materialize用作“发生”解是公文英语，在普通文字里最好避免。

mathematics

参见-ics

matter

1.复数形式matters往往用作“情形”或“事态”解，并不指“多件事”。例如：He asked me how matters stood（他问我情形怎样），That won't mend matters（那是无补于事的）和That will simplify matters（那将使事态简易了）不可改作He asked me how the matter stood, That won't mend the matter和That will simplify the matter。

2.It is a matter of congratulation（或complaint，regret，indignation等）that...里的a有时省去，of改作for也可以。似乎a matter of最普通，matter of最不普通，matter for比a matter for普通。

3.the matter作“困难”，“麻烦”，“失常的事”等解。例如：what is the matter? 和The matter with us is that we haven't enough time. 但the matter习惯上竟被用作形容词，作“失常的”解。例如：There is something the matter with him.（他有些失常。）和There is nothing the matter with the machine.（这机器没有毛病。）注意the matter后面用with。

the matter既然有形容词性质，所以What is the matter?里的what通常被看作主语，而且习惯说He asked me what was the matter，不说He asked me what the matter was。He asked me what the matter was的意思通常是“他问我那物质是什么”或“他问我那事件是什么”。

4.reading matter，printed matter，postal matter等表达方式里的matter是物质名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数。

5.说“做事”的“事”不可用matter，如不可说I have several matters to do today，该把matters改作things。

6.no matter whether...和no matter if...里的whether和if不可省去。

7.in the matter of（关于）主要是公文英语。

8.matter用作动词作“关系重大”或“有出入”解，主要用在否定句和疑问句里。例如：

It does not matter（或matters not）whether you will go or not.

The change mattered little to him.

Nothing seems to matter to him.

Does that really matter?

但用在他处也有。例如：

The essays deal with persons and things that really matter.

9.It does not matter whether you will go or not里的matter是不及物动词，下面两句里的斜体词是状语宾格：

That he may be wrong matters nothing.

What can it matter to you?

Matterhorn

Matterhorn（欧洲山名）前面有the。

may

1.You may go是“你可以去。”（不去也可以。）You may not go是“你可以不去。”（去也可以。）但You may not go有时也作“你不可去”解，跟You must not go意思相同。在有可能被人误解的时候，该避免用may not。在答复May I go?的时候所说的You may not一定作“你不可［去］”解。Borrowers may not take out of the library more than two books at a time里的may not当然作“不可”解。

2.May I make a suggestion?里的May I...?有“你允许我…么？”的意思，是请求对方同意的一种客气语式。Might I...?比May I...?更客气些。这两句在语法上是疑问句，所以末尾用问号，但因为实际上等于请求句，所以也可以用句号。

3.You might...有时作“请你…”解，如You might tell me your new address。有时作“你该…而竟不…”解，如You might make a little less noise。You might have...（过去分词）往往作“你本该…而竟不曾…”解。例如：You might have written to me earlier.

4.说“也许曾经”该用may have...（过去分词），不可用might，如可以说He may have seen her yesterday（他也许曾经在昨天看见她），不可说He might see her yesterday。He might have seen her yesterday的意思是“他本来可以在昨天看见她［但实际不曾看见她］”。

May

May Day（五一［劳动］节）前面没有the。参见April

maybe

maybe在英国远不及perhaps普通，但在美国很普通。

me

It's me和It wasn't me等句在“标准英语”里当然是错的，该把me改作I；但在口语里用me很普通。

meal

1.meal（餐）不是物质名词，a meal是“一餐”，meals是“几餐”。

2.meal有时指“餐事”，有时指“进餐的时候所吃的东西”。例如：

We had an early meal together.

We cooked a meal together.

mean

1.mean用作“意欲”解，后面接不定式，不接动名词，如I mean to make his acquaintance里的to make不可改作making。

2.下面两句意思相同：

He was meant for an engineer.

He was meant to be an engineer.

这两句都有两个意思：“他被（他的父母等）使他成为一个工程师。”和“他天生有着成为一个工程师的才能。”

3.注意By that word I mean something different等句子里用by。

4.注意By that word is meant something different等句子里用by。也注意这里的主语something用在动词is meant的后面，By that word something different is meant也可以说，但不很合乎习惯。

5.说“（某词或某语）作什么解释？”该说What does...mean?例如：What does 'vitamin' mean?

6.mean有时有双宾语。例如：They mean us no harm.（他们并不想害我们。）

7.What do you mean?比How do you mean?普通。

8.I had meant to come, but was prevented by the bad weather比I meant to have come, but was prevented by the bad weather合理。

9.in the mean time跟in the meantime意思相同，也跟meantime（副词），meanwhile（副词），in the mean while和in the meanwhile意思相同。in the mean time现在不及in the meantime普通。in the mean while和in the meanwhile现在都不普通。meantime（副词）不及meanwhile普通。

meaning

1.meaning可以用作类名词，也可以用作抽象名词。例如：This is a word with six distinct meanings. 和Words change their meaning with time.

2.说“…作什么解释？”可以用What is the meaning of...?或What is its meaning?来表达但不及What does...mean?普通。参见mean 5

3.下面两句都可以说，意思相同：

This word has three senses.

This word has three meanings.

在in this sense, in every sense, in the strict sense, in the ordinary sense等表达方式里的sense改作meaning也可以，但不普通。

4.English meaning不可用作“英语解释”解，如不可说The English meaning of boy is male child，该说Boy means male child。English meaning指某词或某语“在英国的解释”。

means

1.means原来是复数形式，但习惯上有时当作单数，有时当作复数，下面几点该注意：

（1）means（财产、资源）虽然被看作复数，但前面习惯用much和little，不用many和few。例如：He had only a little means at that time.

（2）在用作“方法”、“手段”或“工具”解的时候，a means，such a means，this means，that means和every means当作单数，all means，such means，these means和those means当作复数，means，the means和on means当作单数或复数都有。

2.a means to an end里的to改作towards也可以，但不普通。

3.means（方法）后面通常接of或for和动名词，偶尔接不定式或to和动名词。例如：a means of（或for）solving（偶尔用to solve或to solving）the problem。

4.means（方法）前面用by。例如：You can accomplish your object by this means only.

5.by means of（用着…地、靠着…地）后面很少接动名词，如很少说Samuel had to pay the tax by means of borrowing money from friends。最好把means of删去，或把borrowing money改作money borrowed。

6.by all means（必然）和by no means（必不）比by all manner of means和by no manner of means普通。

7.注意下面第一组第二句里用are these goods，第二组第二句里用shall I。

meantime

参见mean 9

meanwhile

参见mean 9

measles

Measles is contagious和Measles are contagious都可以说。

measurably

measurably用作to some extent解，是美国英语。

measure

1.in a measure和in some measure都作“一部分地”解。in great measure和in large measure都作“大部分地”解，加上a也可以。例如：The whole thing was in (a) great（或large）measure a mistake.（那整个事件大部分是个错误。）

2.measure up to（合乎…的标准、够得上…的资格）是美国英语。

meat

1.meat指用作食品的各种动物的肉，但通常不包括鱼和家禽的肉，不指一般的肌肉，说一般的肌肉该用flesh。

2.lobster meat, crab meat, turkey meat等是美国英语；在英国只用lobster等词而不用meat，如Do you like lobster? 不论在英美，说“猪肉”、“牛肉”、“羊肉”和“鹿肉”用pork，beef，mutton和venison，不说pig meat等。

3.meats指多种肉类。例如：There are meats, preserves, and pickles.（有各种食品，各种蜜饯和各种泡菜。）

medic(in)al

1.在现代英语里medical是“医学上的”或“内科医学上的”，medicinal是“药物上的”，两个单词不可混用，如medical（不作medicinal）profession（医业）和medical（不作medicinal）school（医科学校），medicinal（不作medical）plant（药用植物）和medicinal（不作medical）substance（药物）。

2.medical science（医学）前面没有the。

medicine

1.medicine和drug不同，下面有几点该注意：

（1）medicine可以用作物质名词，统指药物，drug却不可，如可以说He does not take medicine，不可说He does not take drug。该在drug前面加上any或把drug改作复数形式drugs。习惯上“服药”说take medicine，不说eat（或drink）medicine，不说take a drug或take drugs，take a drug和take drugs通常指“服麻醉药品”。

（2）medicine指合成的药或单纯的药都可以，drug只指单纯的药，如中药六神丸是medicine，不是drug，甘草是medicine，也是drug。

（3）medicine只指直接用于病人的药，不指制药的原料，drug却往往指原料，例如甘草在被当作药吃的时候是medicine，也是drug，但在被用作原料制成某种药品的时候只是drug，不是medicine。

（4）medicine通常指内服的药，不指外用的药。外用的药水叫lotion，药膏叫plaster，medicament兼指内服和外用的药。

（5）drug往往指“麻醉药品”。

2.“治某病的药”该说a medicine for...。例如：This is a good medicine for colds.

3.medicine man跟medical man大不相同，参见medicine-man

medicine-man（或medicine man）

medicine-man是“野蛮人种中间的巫医”，跟medical man（医生）大不相同。

mediocre

mediocre在一般英汉词典里注解“平凡的”或“寻常的”，其实往往含有“低劣的”的意思。

meditate

“细细地想”现在说meditate on或meditate upon，并不单用meditate，单用meditate作“企图”解。

meet

1.meet和meet with从前可以说完全相同，但在现代英语里下面几点该注意：

（1）说“遇到（迎面而来的人）”，“迎接（人）”，“跟（人）结识”，“跟（人）会谈”或“与（人）对抗”，用meet。例如：

I often meet him in this street.

I shall meet him at the station.

I was fortunate enough to meet him at dinner.

The owners were ready to meet the miners.

John came out to meet Henry in the duel.

（2）说“偶然遇到（人）”用meet或meet with都可以，说“偶然遇到（物）”用meet with，说“（在阅读的时候）偶然遇到（词或语句）”用meet或meet with都可以。例如：

I often meet (with) him in the library.

I sometimes meet with such fish in the market.

I seldom meet (with) this idiom in literary works.

（3）说“应付（困难等）”用meet。例如：

I shall do my best to meet this difficulty.

I shall do my best to meet this misfortune.

I shall do my best to meet these objections.

I shall do my best to meet these evils.

（4）说“遭遇（困难等）”用meet with。例如：

I met with many difficulties on the way.

I met with this misfortune on the way.

I met with a small accident on the way.

I met with strong opposition.

I met with ill-treatment at his hands.

I met with a strange adventure in the forest.

I met with many obstacles in carrying out my plan.

meet with an untimely end（不幸早死）里有the。但meet his（或her等）fate（死去）和meet his（或her等）end（死去）两种表达方式里没有with，meet (with) his（或her等）death（死去）里用with或不用with都可以。

（5）说“得到（赞成等）”通常用meet with，有时用meet。例如：

My suggestions met with approval.

My application met with favourable consideration.

My book met (with) a warm reception.

The play has met (with) a great deal of criticism.

My performance met with much praise.

Their efforts met with much success.

The new pronunciation system has met with favour.

（6）说“满足（要求、希望等）”用meet。例如：

This will meet the market's demands.

This does not meet all her expectations.

This will meet the people's wishes.

This does not meet all her views.

This does not meet the students' needs.

This does not meet all her requirements.

（7）说“偿（债）”、“践（约）”等用meet。例如：

Jack always meets his liabilities.

Jack always meets his bills.

Jack always meets his obligations.

Jack always meets his engagements.

2.Meet Mr...，Meet Mrs...，Meet Miss...等是美国人的介绍语，如Smith在把Roberts介绍给Webb的时候，向Webb说Meet Mr Roberts。Pleased to meet you是被介绍的美国人的常用语，英国人通常不这么说，而说How do you do?

3.We are met here on an important occasion等句子里的met是不及物动词的过去分词，用作形容词。

meeting

1.meeting（集会）前面通常用at。例如：I met him at the meeting.

2.meeting在用作“礼拜集会”解的时候前面不用a或the，如They set out for evening meeting, I met him at meeting和He did not say anything in meeting。这种用法似乎只在美国流行。

3.meeting在用作“到会的人们”解的时候有时当作单数，有时当作复数。例如：The meeting expressed its（或their）views freely.

melted

1.melted lead和molten lead都可以说，但The lead is being melted（铅正在溶化）里的melted不可改作molten。

2.The snow has melted是“雪已经溶化了”。The snow is melted是“雪（因为）已经溶化（而现在没有）了”。

member

1.不可说family member(s)，参见family 3

2.member of Parliament（简写作M. P.）是“英国议会议员”，通常只指下议院（House of Commons）议员。member of Congress（简写作M. C.）是“美国国会议员”，通常只指下议院（House of Representatives）议员。

membership

membership有时用作“会员们”解。例如：Membership increased to 50 million.

memorial

在作“为纪念某人而立的纪念碑等或写的纪念文集等”解的时候，memorial后面接to或of。例如：a memorial to Lu Xun（鲁迅纪念碑）和He wrote a memorial of the late H. W. Fowler.（他写了一篇纪念已故H. W. Fowler先生的文章。）

memor(ial)ize

1.memorialize是“向（政府等）提呈请愿书（memorial）”，memorize是“把（文字等）记住”，两个单词不可混用。例如：They memorialized the government the other day. 和I shall try to memorize all these phrases.

2.memorize不可用作remember解，如不可说I memorize him very well，该把memorize改作remember。memorize the lesson是“把这功课记住”，是一时的动作，remember the lesson是“记住这功课”，不是一时的动作。memorize通常只用于文字等，如可以说I shall try to memorize his name and address，但不说I shall try to memorize his appearance或I shall try to memorize his house。

memory

1.commit to memory（把…记住），quote from memory（从记忆中引用），write from memory，rewrite from memory等表达方式里的memory前面没有the，也没有my，your等词。commit to memory和memorize意思相同，参见memor(ial)ize 2

2.in memory of和to the memory of两种表达方式都作“为纪念…起见”解，注意用了in没有the，用了to便有the。

3.I have a good memory for names等句子里的for不可改作of。

menace

menace用作名词不及threat普通，用作动词不及threaten普通。

mentality

Chinese mentality，German mentality等表达方式前面没有the。

mention

1.mention现在只用作及物动词，后面不可接介词，如不可说He does not mention about（或of）his parents in his letter，该把about或of删去。

2.mention后面可以接动名词或以that引导的从句，不可接不定式，如可以说He mentions hearing from her often和He mentions that he hears from her often，不可说He mentions to hear from her often。

3.注意make mention of中用make。

4.worth mention和worth mentioning都可以说。

merchandise

1.merchandise统指商品，不指一件商品，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式merchandises。

2.merchandise用作动词作“经商”解，现在只用在美国。

merchant

merchant在英国现在通常指“批发商人”，尤其指从事于国外贸易的大商人，除了在coal merchant，wine merchant等表达方式里以外，不指“零售店主”，在美国往往指“零售店主”。

mercy

They show little mercy to their enemies和Show no mercy to those persons里的to改作on也可以。

merit

1.merit有时统指“优点”（是抽象名词），有时指一个优点，有复数形式merits；如This book has not much merit和This book has many merits。

2.according to his merit和according to his merits都可以说，这里merit(s)指“优劣”或“功罪”。

Messrs

Messrs是法语Messieurs（先生们）的简写形式，借用作Mr的复数形式（参见Mr 5）。用于以姓或姓名做名字而包括不止一个人的商店或企业（当然假定那些人都是男子），例如Messrs Black and Davis和Messrs M. Green and Company。下面有三点该注意：

（1）假使那商店或企业的名字里没有姓，就不可用Messrs。

（2）假使那商店或企业是几个人合办的，即使名字里只有一个姓也可以用Messrs，如Messrs Black。

（3）即使用了Messrs也可以把那商店或企业看作一个人而不是几个人，如his publisher Messrs Black。

metal

metal统指“金属”，a metal是“一种金属”，metals指“多种金属”。

method

1.method是类名词，也是抽象名词。He has a very good method of teaching里的method是类名词，His teaching was too informal to be said to have method里的method是抽象名词，The only method he followed in teaching seemed to be the rejection of method里的第一个method是类名词，第二个method是抽象名词。

2.We can do it by the new method等句子里用by，不用with。

3.His method is by translating比His method is to translate普通。

4.a method of studying English比a method for studying English和a method to study English普通。

metropolis

在英国the metropolis指首都伦敦。但在美国metropolis往往指一州（state）或一区的主要城市，不一定指首都。

mid

in mid air，in mid Atlantic，in mid course，in mid stream等表达方式前面都没有the。往往在mid后面加上连字号，如in midair。上述各种表达方式用在文字里，几乎不用在口语里。

midday

midday指正午l2点钟，不指一段时间，该说at midday，不该说in the midday或during the midday。

middle

1.in the middle of里用in，如in the middle of the street，in the middle of the night，in the middle of his work和in the middle of breakfast。但在month和year前面偶尔用at，如at the middle of the present year。

2.关于middle age和the Middle Ages，参见age 8。关于middle class(es)，参见class 5。关于Middle English，参见English 3

midnight

midnight指晚上12点钟，不指一段时间，该说at midnight，不该说in the midnight或during the midnight。in the middle of the night指一段时间。但midnight用作形容词通常指一段时间，如the midnight hours和midnight studies。

midst

in the midst of通常作“在…的中间”解。例如：In developed countries there is still poverty in the midst of plenty. 有时也作“正在（某个动作或过程）中”解。例如：Apparently he was in the midst of a struggle to live.

might

参见may

milk

milk指任何动物的奶，不一定指“牛奶”。

million

1.参见hundred

2.one and a half millions和a million and a half都可以说。three and a quarter millions和three millions and a quarter也都可以说。

3.把million译作“百万”当然不错，不过英美人的观念是“千千”，不是“百万”。

mincemeat

mincemeat现在并不作minced meat解。

mind

1.There is something in his mind是“他在想着什么”。There is something on his mind是“他在忧虑着什么”。

2.make up his（或your等）mind后面有时不接什么，有时接不定式，有时接what，when等，有时接以that引导的从句，偶尔接to或for和名词。例如：

He has made up his mind.

He has made up his mind to go.

He has made up his mind what to do.

He has made up his mind when to start.

He has made up his mind that she should work more.

He has made up his mind to a certain course of action.

He has made up his mind for the worst. （他已打定主意来对付任何事变。）

make up his（或your等）mind to（是介词）有时用作“忍受”解。例如：He has to make up his mind to the hardship.

make up our（或their，或属于复数形式的your）minds里用minds比用mind普通。

3.have a great mind to...（不定式）和have a good mind to...（不定式）都作“很想要…”解。have half a mind to...（不定式）作“有些想要…”解。have little mind to...（不定式）作“不大想要…”或“几乎不想要…”解。have no mind to...（不定式）作“不想要…”解。have a mind to ...（不定式）现在很不普通，该避免。

4.call to mind和bring to mind都作“回想起”或“使我（或别人）回想起”解。例如：I cannot call（或bring）to mind what happened to me that night. 和Your story calls（或brings）to mind something that happened to me some time ago.

5.give his（或your等）mind to和turn his（或your等）mind to两种表达方式里的to是介词，后面接名词或动名词，如He has now given（或turned）his mind to English literature和He has now given（或turned）his mind to studying English literature。不可说He has now given（或turned）his mind to study English literature。

6.Would you mind...ing?或Do you mind...ing?通常作“请…”解，有时作“你不可不…”解，下面几点该注意：

（1）把Would改作Should更合乎传统的语法，但事实上远不及用Would的普通。很少用Will或Shall。

（2）mind在这句里作“反对”解，全句直译作“你将反对…吗？”在答语里假使表示愿意（就是不反对），该说Certainly not或Of course not或Not at all，不该说Yes。事实上也有人说Certainly，不算正当。说No当然不错，但似乎不普通。在答语里倘要表示反对，说Yes当然不错，但习惯上不说Yes，却说I am sorry...等。

（3）这句在语法上是疑问句，所以末尾用问号，但因为实际上等于请求句，所以也可以用句号。

（4）注意mind后面接动名词，不接不定式。

7.mind和mind you都作“请你注意我的话”解，mind you里的you是mind的主语。例如：

Mind (you), I have nothing to say against her.

I have nothing to say against her, mind (you).

Mind (you), I don't say that it is certain.

I don't say that it is certain, mind (you).

Mind (you), I don't mind minding the children so long as they mind me.（请注意，要是孩子们听我的话，我不反对照顾他们。）

8.mind（注意）后面有时接以that引导的从句，但那that通常被省去。例如：We must mind (that) we don't hurt ourselves. 和Mind (that) it doesn't burst!

9.Never mind后面有about和没有about意思相同。例如：Never mind (about) the difference. 假使那宾语是代词，似乎用about普通些，如Never mind about them比Never mind them普通。

10.I should not（或shouldn't）mind...有时作“我很要…”解。例如：I should not（或shouldn't）mind a cup of tea.

11.mind（反对）后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：If she minded that he left her sometimes by herself in the evening, she never mentioned it.

minister

minister（公使）后面接什么介词，跟ambassador相同，参见ambassador

minority

说“少数民族”用minority，national minority，minority people或minority nationality都可以。

minute

“5点55分”说five minutes to six和five to six都可以，“6点10分”说ten minutes past six或ten past six也都可以。但“5点56分”必须说four minutes to six，“6点11分”必须说eleven minutes past six，不可省去minutes。5和5的倍数后才可以省去minutes。

misbehaviour

misbehaviour前面不可有a，也没有复数形式misbehaviours。

miscarry

miscarry在现代英语里只用作不及物动词，如可以说The plan miscarried和The letter has miscarried，不可说The plan was miscarried和The letter has been miscarried。

misconduct

misconduct前面不可有a，也没有复数形式misconducts。

misery

复数形式miseries指种种苦处，如the miseries of a serf's life 和the miseries of the tour。不可用a misery。

misfortune

misfortune统指一切不幸，a misfortune是“一件不幸事”，misfortunes是“多件不幸事”。

misplace

参见displace

misprint

1.misprint是“印刷错误”，如假定该印作boy而误印了bog，bog便是boy的misprint，说Bog is a misprint for boy。严格地说，这种错误是排版上的错误，不是印刷上的错误，假使排得不错是不会印错的，但习惯上用misprint。

2.misprint用作动词作“排错或印错”解。例如：They have misprinted boy as bog. 但misprinted word却指那错误的单词，不指那正确的单词，如假定该印作boy而误印作bog，那受misprint的动作的单词是boy，但misprinted word不指boy而指bog。参见mis-spell

miss(ing)

1.miss（动词）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如We missed visiting the town里的visiting不可改作to visit。

2.miss或miss out（略去）有时指无意的，有时指故意的。例如：I have no doubt at all that I have missed (out) completely a number of books and writers more worthy of consideration than some I have touched on. （无疑地，我已经完全漏去了很多比我已经谈到的有些书和作家更值得讨论的书和作家。）和When you copy the poem, please miss (out) the second and fifth stanzas. （当你抄这首诗的时候，请把第二节和第五节略去。）

3.在用作不及物动词的时候，miss从前可以作be absent解。现在这意思只在现在分词missing被用作形容词的场合用。例如：The second volume is missing. 和The girl is still missing（失踪）.

4.Miss（小姐）虽然原来是mistress的简写形式，但现在不算作简写形式，后面决不可用代表省略的英文句号。

5.Miss用在姓前面指一家姐妹中年纪最大的，如Miss Butler。用在名和姓的前面指年纪最大的以外的，如Miss Ellen Butler。通常不用在名的前面，例如通常不用Miss Ellen，写信给Miss Ellen Butler该用Miss Butler，不该用Miss Ellen。单独用miss（如Good morning, Miss.）现在不算正当。

6.对于已嫁的女子不可用Miss。对于寡妇也不可用Miss。对于离了婚的女子通常也不用Miss，但倘若那本人喜欢被人称她Miss，便可以用Miss。参见Mrs 2

7.说到一家的姐妹们，the Miss...s现在比the Misses...普通，如the Miss Butlers是流行的，the Misses Butler是旧式而正式的用法。

说到一家的姐妹们而说出各人的名字，或者说到不同姓的各个小姐，该用the Misses...，如可以用the Misses Ellen and Helen Butler和the Misses Butler and Bullen，不可用the Miss Ellen and Helen Butlers。用Miss Ellen Butler and Miss Helen Butler和Miss Butler and Miss Bullen 当然也可以。

mission

mission在英国指公使或大使一行人以外的特使人员，在美国也指公使或大使一行人。

mis-spell

mis-spell作“把（正确的词）误拼”解。例如：He often mis-spells since as sinse. 但mis-spelt（或mis-spelled）word却指那错误的词，不指那正确的词，如假定把since误拼作sinse，那受mis-spell的动作的是since，但mis-spelt（或mis-spelled）word不指since而指sinse。参见misprint 2

mistake(n)

1.by mistake和through mistake两种表达方式里都没有a。

2.注意if I mistake not（假使我的所见不错）中习惯用mistake not，改作do not mistake也可以，但不普通。

3.You are mistaken和I hope I am not mistaken等句子里的are mistaken或am...mistaken作“被误解”或“弄错”解都可以。通常作第二解。例如：But here, unless I am mistaken, is our old friend.（但是，假使我没有弄错，我们的老朋友来了。）在第一解里mistaken用作被动语态，在第二解里mistaken是不及物动词的过去分词，用作形容词。说“被误解”最好避免用mistaken，而用misunderstood或misapprehended。

4.该说much mistaken，不该说very mistaken。

mister

1.mister该简写作Mr，不该写作mister。参见Mr

2.单独用mister（如Good morning, mister.）是不正确的，该改用Sir。

mistreat(ment)

mistreat和mistreatment都是美国英语，相当于英国英语maltreat和maltreatment。

mistress

1.“夫人”mistress该简写作Mrs，不该写作mistress。参见Mrs

2.说“某人的夫人”决不可说his mistress，这语作“他的姘妇”解。his mistress在现代英语里也不可用作“他的爱人”解。the mistress指“主妇”。例如：Is the mistress at home?

3.be mistress of（1.是精通…者，2.能控制…）和make herself mistress of（1.成为精通，2.控制）两种表达方式里在mistress前面习惯上都没有a。

mistrust

mistrust语气比distrust轻些。

mistrustful

mistrustful跟distrustful在意思和用法上都相同（参见distrustful），但语气比distrustful轻些。

misunderstand

misunderstand后面不可接以that引导的从句，如不可说Tom misunderstands that she is afraid of him. 该改作Tom misunderstands her to be afraid of him或Tom wrongly thinks that she is afraid of him。往往只用think而不用wrongly也能表示“误解”的意思，如The baby threw the pear to the nurse, thinking that it was a ball里不必在thinking前面加上wrongly。

modern

关于Modern English和modern English，参见English 3

molten

参见melted 1

moment

1.moment有时指一点时间，如at the moment，有时指极短的一些时间，如for the moment。但不可用作抽象名词，如不可说little moment或much moment。

2.moment跟minute和second不同，并不明确说出多少时间，但比instant（这词也不明确说出多少时间）意味着长一些的时间。a long moment, some moments和a few moments都可以说。

3.at the moment和for the moment都作“当时”或“此刻”解。例如：I was busy at（或for）the moment. 和I am busy at（或for）the moment. for a moment作“暂时”或（和否定词用在一起）“一些也（不）”（for a moment加重否定词的语气）解。例如：For a moment I could say nothing. 和I do not for a moment think it possible. 第二句里的a改作one也可以，但不及用a普通。in a moment作“立刻”解。例如：I shall be ready in a moment.

Monday

参见Friday

money

复数形式moneys（偶尔作monies）指“款项”，现在主要用在法律上，在一般文字里该避免。

monk

monk在一般英汉词典里译作“僧”，好像专指皈依佛教的男子，其实指皈依任何宗教的出家男子。“僧”该说Buddhist monk或Buddhist priest。

monopoly

monopoly在英国后面接of，在美国后面接on。

monster

monster用作形容词作“异乎寻常地大的”解，如a monster mass meeting（大场面的群众大会）和What a monster potato!（好大的一个马铃薯！）这词通常用于有形的东西，对于无形的东西通常用monstrous，如a monstrous sum。对于动物，两个单词可以通用，如a monster（或monstrous）tiger。

month

关于this day month，参见day 10

monument

monument在作“纪念碑、墓碑”解的时候，后面接to，如George Pontifex put up a monument to his parents，在作“不朽的著作或功业”解的时候，后面接to或of都可以，如His dictionary is a monument to（或of）his industry and learning。（他这部词典是表示他勤勉和学问的永久纪念物。）

moon

1.under the full moon（在满月之下），under the autumn moon （在秋月之下）等表达方式里有the。

2.moon偶尔被用作物质名词，指“月光”。例如：There was but little moon, and the night was cloudy.

moral

1.“道德”习惯上用复数形式morals，如a man of perfect morals。his morals，strict morals，loose morals等表达方式里的morals通常指“性道德”。

2.morals是复数形式，但往往被看作抽象名词。例如：He had not much morals.

more

1.more than one后面通常接属于单数形式的名词和动词。例如：More than one man has told me so. 但There are more than one man here和There is more than one man here都可以说。

2.in more than one way当然不错，有时也说in more ways than one。但很少说more men than one, more books than one, more houses than one等。

3.more than fifty是“50多个”，fifty more是“另外的50个”。决不可把fifty more和sixty more等用作“50多个”和“60多个”等解。fifty men more比fifty more men普通。

4.more than fifty men比fifty men and more普通。没有人说fifty and more men。

5.fifty men and more, a week and more, five miles and more等表达方式里的and有时改用or。

6.a week ago and（或or）more比a week and（或or）more ago普通。

7.more better, more older等表达方式不算正当，该避免，如不该说This is more better than that和He is more older than she，该把more删去。

但有时不得不用more better，more older等。例如假定B比A好，便是B is better than A，C比B好，便是C is better than B，说C比A好的程度，比C比B好的程度高，该说C is more better than A than (it is better) than B。说C比A好的程度，比B比A好的程度高，该说C is more better than A than B is (better than A)。这种结构当然是绝无仅有的，但在必须用它的时候却不可避免。比较下面三句：

C is better than B, and more better than A.

B is better than A, and C is more better (than A than B is).

B is better than A, and C is still better (than B).

依照上面所说，有时竟会必须用more more。例如：

C is more interesting than B, and more more interesting than A.

B is more interesting than A, and C is more more interesting (than A than B is).

同样地，有时必须用more less，less more或less less。例如：

A is less interesting than B, and more less interesting than C.

C is more interesting than A and less more interesting than B.

A is less interesting than C, and less less interesting than B.

8.比较下面每组里的三句：

9.much more serious consideration可能有四个意思：

（1）许多更严肃的考虑（much是形容词，more是副词）；

（2）许多另外的严肃的考虑（much是形容词，more也是形容词）；

（3）（比原来）多得多的严肃的考虑（much是副词，more是形容词）；

（4）（比原来）严肃得多的考虑（much是副词，more也是副词）。在理论上可以说much more much more serious consideration（1.许多另外的［比原来］严肃得多的考虑。2.［比原来］多得多的［比原来］严肃得多的考虑），在事实上是绝无仅有的。

10.of whom more presently，of whom more later on等表达方式里的more作more will be said解。

morning

1.复数形式mornings用作副词是美国用法，作“在每天上午”解。例如：She plays the piano mornings.

2.at morning作“在清晨”解，现在不普通。有时用at early morning。

3.morning通常到中午为止，但good morning到下午1点钟还有人在说。

4.this morning，yesterday morning和tomorrow morning都可以用作状语短语，前面不可加上on，如下面三句里都没有on：

I wrote to him this morning.

I wrote to him yesterday morning.

I shall write to him tomorrow morning.

5.注意morning call指“下午（不是上午）的访问”，morning performance指“下午（不是上午）的演出”（就是matinée）。

most(ly)

1.mostly只用作“大部分地”（for the most part）解，不可用作“最”（most）解，如可以说They are mostly natives，不可说What mostly pleased me was the music，该把第二句里的mostly改作most。Your answers are most correct是“你的回答最对”。Your answers are mostly correct是“你的回答大部分是对的”。

2.what most pleased me和what pleased me most都可以说。

3.a most...里的most作“很”（very）解，如He is a most learned man和This is a most interesting story。这种用法里的most并不含比较（比较级）的意思。注意a most happy life不可改作a happiest life，a most kind offer不可改作a kindest offer。

most也用在谓语里作“很”解。例如：

He is most learned.

You will find the story most interesting.

I am most grateful.

Everybody has been most kind.

He behaved most rudely.

注意下面三种表达方式意思不同：

most learned men in China （1.中国大多数有学问的人2.中国很有学问的人）

the most learned men in China（中国最有学问的人）

some most learned men in China（中国若干很有学问的人）

第一种表达方式的第一种译法里的most是形容词，第一种表达方式第二种译法里的most是副词，第二种表达方式里的most是副词，作“最”解，第三种表达方式里的most是副词，作“很”解。

4.most用作“很”解，表示“（因实验而被知道是）很…”，所以不可用在否定句、疑问句或表示条件的从句，如不可说：

He is not a most learned man.

Is he a most learned man?

If he is a most learned man, I should like to know him.

也不可说：

Can you recommend me a most interesting story?

I want to read some most interesting stories.

5.most men是“大多数的人们”，most of the men是“这些人们的大多数”。不可说most of men，most of books，most of pictures等。

6.most of the men，most of my time等表达方式里，在most前面在英格兰没有the，在美国和苏格兰有时有the。

7.at most跟at the most意思相同。例如：I can pay only ¥ 50 at (the) most.

8.most用作almost解（如most everyone和most all books）是美国口语用法。

9.注意D is the most more interesting than A (of the three, B, C, and D）等句子里用most more，A is the most less interesting than D（of the three, A, B, and C）等句子里用most less。参见more 7和least 5

10.假定共有l00人，40人学习英语，30人学习俄语，20人学习法语，10人学习德语，学习英语的人最多，但未过半数，所以最好不说Most（或The most）of them study English，而说There are more of them who study English than those who study any other language。下面第一句可能有两个意思，第二句和第三句都可能有三个意思：

Most（或The most）mistakes are found in Henry's composition.（1.［大家作文里的错误的］半数以上的错误是在亨利的作文里。2.亨利作文里的错误比任何其他学生作文里的错误多。）

Most serious mistakes are found in Henry's composition.（1.［大家作文里的严重错误的］半数以上的严重错误是在亨利的作文里。2.亨利作文里的严重错误比任何其他学生作文里的严重错误多。3.亨利的作文里有很严重的错误。）

The most serious mistakes are found in Henry's composition.（1.和2.跟第二句相同。3.那些最严重的错误是在亨利的作文里。）

moth

moth往往用作moths或the moth解。例如：Moth is found here. 和The fur has been destroyed by moth.

mother

在家庭里或对熟人谈话或写信，往往不说my mother或your mother，而只说mother。例如：You'll be so busy you won't have time to think of mother.

motherland

参见fatherland

mother-of-pearl

mother-of-pearl是物质名词。

motion

1.motion后面接宾语和不定式跟motion to后面接宾语和不定式意思相同。例如：He motioned (to) me to take a seat.

2.motion picture（电影）现在比moving picture普通得多。在英国现在通常用the pictures。

motivate

下面三句都是公文英语：

George was motivated by social prejudice.

Political motivation masqueraded as moral indignation.

The motivation of Robin's secession was obscure.

第一句=George was moved by（或acted upon）social prejudice.

第二句=Political motives was disguised as moral indignation.

第三句=Why Robin seceded, we do not know.

motivation

参见motivate

motive

motive（动机）前面用from，习惯用复数形式motives。例如：I acted from motives of curiosity. 但有时用for或through，后面接of和名词或for和动名词。例如：What is the motive of the crime? 和He did not mention his motive for acting in that way.

mountain

1.mountain和hill没有绝对的区别，一二千英尺高的小山，在本地也许叫做mountain，在山多的地方也许把近一万英尺的高山叫做hill。

2....Mountains前面有the，如the Himalaya Mountains和the Rocky Mountains。

3.the mountains前面通常用in。例如：How did you enjoy your holiday in the mountains? 有时用into。例如：There is nothing I like better than to go up into the mountains and camp out for a few days.

mourn

mourn a dead friend不及mourn for（或over）a dead friend普通。但mourn for（或over）the loss of a friend不及mourn the loss of a friend普通。

mouse

mouse指任何小种的鼠，不指年幼的鼠。它比rat小。

mouth

by word of mouth（口头地）中没有a或the。

mouthful

mouthful的复数形式是mouthfuls，不是mouthsful。参见-ful

move(d)

1.move（动议、提议）后面接以that引导的从句，从句里用虚拟现在式，如I move that the time be（不用is）changed和I moved that the time be（不用was）changed。

2.move house（搬家）里的house前面习惯不用our等词，把house省去而只用move也是“搬家”的意思。例如：We're moving (house) this week.

3.move up（提前）可以用作不及物动词，也可以用作及物动词。例如：Execution of the Nazi criminals, scheduled for 11 P. M. that day, (was) moved up before sundown. （纳粹战犯的死刑原定于那天晚上11时，被提前在日落前执行。）

4.关于a moved smile（一个感动的微笑）等，参见much 3 (5) E

movie(s)

a movie指“一个电影”，the movies或the movie是“一次电影映演”或统指电影或电影业。

moving

关于moving picture，参见motion 2

mow(n)

mown grass和new-mown hay里的mown不可改作mowed。但可以说The grass is being mowed（或mown）。

Mr

1.Mr是mister的简写形式，但不该写Mister。

2.Mr通常用在姓或名和姓的前面，如Mr Gray和Mr Paul Gray。通常不用在名的前面，如通常不用Mr Paul，写信给Mr Paul Gray，该用Mr Gray，不该用Mr Paul。男子写信给Mr Paul Gray，假使觉得称他Mr Gray太正式，称他Paul太不正式，便可以称他Gray，用姓而不用Mr。

3.Mr有时用在职位的名称的前面，如Mr Chairman，Mr President和Mr Editor。

4.关于Mr和Esq.的区别，参见Esq.3

5.Mr是单数形式，它的复数形式是Messrs，是借用法语Messieurs的简写形式，如the Messrs Gray，Messrs Gray和Messrs Gray and White。也有人用the Mr Grays，这是口语用法。假使说明了人数，该用Mr而不用Messrs，如three Mr Grays。

Mrs

1.Mrs是mistress的简写形式，但不该写Mistress。

2.Mrs通常用在已嫁女子的（丈夫的）姓或名和姓的前面，如Mrs Gray和Mrs Paul Gray。通常不用在名的前面，如通常不用Mrs Paul，写信给Mrs Paul Gray该用Mrs Gray，不该用Mrs Paul。在跟她的丈夫的名字并称的时候，可以这样用，如Paul and Mrs Paul。下面有几点该注意（假定Mrs Paul Gray在出嫁以前是Ellen Butler）：

（1）在法律文件里往往用自己的名。例如：Mrs Ellen Gray

（2）已嫁女子写信给陌生人在签名里通常用下面两种形式的任何一式：

(Mrs Paul) Ellen Gray 　Ellen Gray

(Mrs Paul Gray)

（3）称寡妇也用Mrs，不过通常用她自己的名词，如Mrs Ellen Gray。称离了婚的女子也是这样。但离了婚的女子也有用自己的姓的，也有用自己的姓或名和姓再加丈夫的姓的，如Mrs Ellen Butler，Mrs Butler Gray和Mrs Ellen Butler Gray。有些离了婚的女子喜欢重做Miss，那就该把她称呼得跟未嫁时一样了。

3.Mrs没有复数形式，Mrs Gray的复数形式是the Mrs Grays。说三个Mrs Gray该说three Mrs Grays。

4.Mrs没有复数形式，说Mrs Gray和Mrs White可以说Mrs Gray and Mrs White或Mesdames Gray and White。

much

1.much不可修饰可数名词，如不可说much people或much books，该把much改作many。但as much as ¥100是可以说的，因为¥100指100元的款，并不指100个1元。

指可以计数的东西的词，有时也被用来指那东西的“量”的多少而不指“数”的多少。在这种情形下，那个词一定是单数形式，前面便可以用much，如The American film was rejected by the Indian censor's office for exposing too much bosom和There is not much garden left behind the house。There is too much cinema, cigarettes and chocolates这一句，把电影、香烟和巧克力糖看作一件东西似的。

2.下面两句都不合习惯：

The coal is much here.

Jack's money is much.

把这两句改作There is much coal here和Jack has much money似乎好一些，但远不及There is a good deal of coal here和Jack has a good deal of money普通。在口语里用There is a lot of coal here和Jack has a lot of money更普通。在否定句和疑问句里，用much却比用a good deal of或a lot of普通得多，如通常说There is not much coal here和Jack has not much money，不说There is not a good deal of（或a lot of）coal here和Jack has not a good deal of（或a lot of）money，通常说Is there much coal here? 和Has Jack much money? 不说Is there a good deal of（或a lot of）coal here? 和Has Jack a good deal of（或a lot of）money?

There is much coal here和Jack has much money虽然不普通，Much coal has been saved和Much money has been spent却是普通的。关于这点，没有规则可说。

3.关于much和very的区别，下面几点该注意：

（1）在属于原级的形容词或副词前面用very，在属于比较级的形容词或副词前面用much。例如：

This is a very good book.

This is a much better book than that.

He speaks English very well.

He speaks English much better than I do.

（2）比较下面两句：

He is the very best scholar in the city.

He is much the best scholar in the city.

第一句里的very增强best的语气，第二句里的much也增强best的语气，注意very用在the后面，much用在the前面，决不可说very the best或the much best。

（3）在英国在alive，alone，ashamed等表语形容词前面用much，不用very，但用much不及用very much普通。在美国往往用very，如very afraid。

（4）在用作形容词的现在分词前面用very，如very interesting，very perplexing和very satisfying。

在much enduring（相当持久）里用much而不用very，注意这里的much原来是名词，作及物动词endure的宾语，much enduring是从enduring much生出的。在用作“持久的”解的时候，enduring是不及物动词endure的现在分词，前面该用very，不用much，如a very enduring fame。

（5）在过去分词前面，该用much或very，这问题很不简单，下面几点该注意：

A.假使那过去分词是习惯上被用作普通形容词的，用very，如I am very tired和He is very celebrated（著名的）as a poet。究竟哪几个词是习惯上被用作普通形容词，可以举出tired，celebrated，drunk和limited几个词。但很多英美人把amused，annoyed，attached，concerned（忧虑的），delighted，disgusted，excited，interested，pleased，surprised，troubled，upset，valued和worried也看作这种词。在难以确定的时候，用much（或very much）比用very妥当，往往也可以用greatly或highly。注意tired，celebrated，drunk和limited在用在by前面的时候并不是形容词，前面该用much。例如：He was much tired by the task.

B.假使那过去分词被用在表语用法里而那动词的动作是被施于那名词或代词所指的人或物的，用much（或very much），如The boy was (very) much amused和The car was (very) much damaged。amuse(d)的动作被施于boy，如可以说My joke amused the boy。damage(d)的动作被施于car，如可以说The storm damaged the car。

C.假使那过去分词被用在表语用法里而那动词的动作并不是被施于那名词或代词所指的东西的，用very，如His look was very amused和Her tone was very annoyed。amuse(d)的动作并不被施于look，如不可说My joke amused his look。annoy(ed)的动作并不被施于tone，如不可说Your behaviour annoyed her tone。这两句固然不很自然，但比His look was much amused和Her tone was much annoyed合理。

D.假使那过去分词被用在定语用法里而那动词的动作是被施于那名词所指的人或物的，用much（或very much）或very都可以，如a (very) much amused boy和a very amused boy, a (very) much damaged car和a very damaged car。

E.假使那过去分词被用在定语用法里而那动词的动作并不是被施于那名词所指的东西的，用very，如his very amused look和her very annoyed tone。

通常被这样用的过去分词有：

affronted, amazed, amused, annoyed, astonished, bored, concerned, dejected, delighted, disconcerted, disgusted, embarrassed, exasperated, excited, frightened, horrified, hunted（追捕）, hurt, interested, irritated, moved（感动）, offended, pained, perplexed, pleased, preoccupied, puzzled, resigned, satisfied, scandalized, scared, shocked, startled, surprised, terrified, troubled, worried

通常被这样用的名词有：

air（神情）, amazement, amusement, appearance, attitude, cry, expression, eye, face, glance, grin, interest, laugh, laughter, look, manner, silence（缄默）, smile, stare, surprise, tone, voice

F.上面所讲的都是及物动词的过去分词。不及物动词的过去分词前面可以用much（或very much）的似乎只有travelled，如His father is a (very) much travelled man，可以用very的似乎只有drunk（参见（5）A）。

4.nothing much作“很少”解，much是形容词，修饰nothing，如There is nothing much I don't know about him和I see nothing much wrong here。注意nothing much wrong和nothing very wrong两个单词的语法结构不同：第一种表达方式里的wrong修饰nothing much，第二种表达方式里的very修饰wrong。也见过nobody much作“几乎没有人”解。

anything much前面加上了否定的词nothing much意思相同，如there is not anything much I don't know about him和I do not see anyting much wrong here。这用法不及nothing much普通。

mucilage

mucilage（胶水）在英国很少用，但在美国很常用，在英国通常用gum。

mule

参见ass 3

multiplicity

a multiplicity of causes, a multiplicity of duties, a multiplicity of interests等表达方式里的a multiplicity of都作many解，是公文英语。

mumps

Mumps is contagious和Mumps are contagious都可以说。

munition

参见ammunition

murder

1.参见assassinate 1

2.murder统指谋杀，a murder是“一起谋杀”，murders是“多起谋杀”。

muscle

muscle统指“肌肉”，a muscle是“一块肌肉”，muscles是“几块肌肉”。

museum

museum用作“图画陈列所”解是美国英语。

music

关于music hall，参见music-hall

music-hall（或music hall）

music-hall（或music hall）在英国指表演杂剧、歌舞、魔术等的剧场，是不很“高尚”的，在美国指音乐会场，是“高尚”的。

must

1.must没有过去式，但也往往指过去的事，下面几点该注意：

（1）说过去的事通常不用must而用had to...（不定式），如不说Yesterday morning I must call on a friend，该把must改作had to。

（2）但在间接引语里往往用must。例如：Yesterday morning I told my father that I must call on a friend at once.

（3）在虽然没有间接引语的形式而却有间接引语的意味的时候，也往往用must。例如：Yesterday morning I considered how I should spend the day. First, I must call on a friend. 这里的I must含有I thought I must的意思。

（4）在从属分句里有时用must。例如：There was a friend whom I must call on immediately.

（5）must往往被用来表示“偏偏…”的意思。例如：As I was sitting down to supper, the telephone must ring.（当我正在坐下来吃晚餐的时候，电话机偏偏响起来了。）

2.注意下面三句意思不同：

You must not go.（你一定不可去。）

You need not go.（你不必去。有“我允许你不去”的含意。）

You may not go.（参见may 1）

注意下面三句意思不同：

It cannot be true.（这个决不是真的。）

It need not be true.（这个不一定是真的。）

It may not be true.（这个也许不是真的。）

It must not be true是不成立的。

3.must have...（过去分词）有三种意思：（1）“谅必曾经…”，（2）“谅必曾经…（实际不曾）”和（3）“必须曾经…”。例如：

You must have seen him yesterday.（你谅必曾经在昨天看见他。）

You must have seen him if you had been here yesterday.（假使你昨天在这里，你谅必曾经看见他。［事实上你昨天并不在这里，所以不曾看见他。］）

Any applicant for this position must have practised for five years.

（这个职位的任何申请人必须曾经实习过五年。）

4.must在现代英语里用作名词作“不可缺少的东西”解。例如：A TV set is a must in a modern home. （电视机在现代家庭里是一样少不了的东西。）

mutual(ly)

1.their mutual affection for each other（或one another）等表达方式里的mutual或for each other（或one another）是多余的，该改作their affection for each other（或one another）或their mutual affection。同样地，exchange，interchange，agreement，cooperation等词前面不该用mutual。下面各句里的mutually也该删去：

They love each other mutually.

They exchange goods mutually.

They agree mutually.

They cooperate mutually.

2.严格地说，mutual是“互相的”，不是“共同的”，说“共同的”该用common。如假定你爱某人，我也爱某人，那末你我两人有common love，并没有mutual love，假定你爱我，我也爱你，你我两人才有mutual love。把mutual用作“共同的”解和把mutually用作“共同地”解是英美人常有的错误。

mutual friend和mutual acquaintance用作“共同的朋友”和“共同的相识者”解照理论讲当然是错的。但这两种表达方式很普通，可以算得成立了。common friend和common acquaintance有可能被人误解作“寻常的…”。最好用a friend in common和an acquaintance in common。

myriad

myriad的原义是“万”，但现在说“万”不用这词而用ten thousand。

myself

“某人和我”该说...and I或...and me，不该说...and myself，如My brother and I saw it和They invited my brother and me。两句里的I和me不该改作myself。...and myself是英美人常有的错误。

mystery

mystery novel，mystery story和mystery tale都是“神秘小说”，包括神怪小说和侦探小说等。注意用mystery，不用mysterious。但mystery play专指中古时代的关于圣经里的人物的宗教性剧本。

mythology

the Greek mythology，the Chinese mythology等不及Greek mythology，Chinese mythology等普通。

N

name

1.name在一般英汉词典里注作“名”，好像“姓”便不是name。其实name指“名”也指“姓”，也指“姓名”，如David Jones里的David是name，Jones也是name，David Jones也是name。仔细区别起来，“名”在英国叫Christian name，在美国也作first name或given name，“姓”叫surname或family name，在美国也作last name，“姓名”叫full name。我们中国人的“名”不该叫做Christian name或first name，最好也不叫做given name，该叫做personal name。我们的“姓”不该叫做last name。严格说来，Mr，Miss等并不是name的一部分，但事实上也可以说Is your name Miss Evans等。

2.注意He named the boy David和He has a friend named David Jones等句子里在named后面没有as。

3.He is named after his uncle（他被以他叔叔的名字而命名）是英国英语，He is named for his uncle是美国英语。也有人用from，但不普通。我们中国人竟可以说没有父子、祖孙、叔侄等同名的。可是假定因为父亲叫“梅生”而儿子叫“小梅”，因为曾祖叫“文卿”而曾孙叫“文曾”，因为羡慕屈原而叫“慕原”等，也可以说named after（或for）。

4.Herbert George Wells里的George叫做second name或middle name。

5.我们中国人的“名”不该叫做first name。其实我们的“姓”是first name，但把“姓”叫做first name很容易引起误解。

6.call names（辱骂）和call one names（辱骂人）里的names指donkey，pig，coward，liar，son of a bitch等刺耳的坏名称。I can never forget the name that he called me里的name也是这个意思。

7.name用作“委派”解在美國比在英國用得多，如They have named him (as) secretary。注意as可有可无。

namely

namely的前面和后面都用逗号，如two of my friends，namely，William and Edward。倘若它的后面用一个名词从句，那第一个逗号往往改作冒号，第二个逗号往往省去，如his new statement，（或：）namely (,) that he is a college graduate。

namesake

namesake是“同名的人”、“同姓的人”或“同姓名的人”，如John White是John Black的namesake，也是Henry White的namesake，也是任何其他John White的namesake。

narration

narration和narrative大致相同。但narration通常指“记事”的动作或程序，是抽象名词，如the art of narration。narrative通常指一篇一篇的“记事文”，如a short narrative和some narratives。但narrative也往往统指一切记事文，如a bit of narrative。

narrative

参见narration

nationality

1.注意The author is of unknown nationality和He claims French nationality等句子里没有the。

2.说“他是什么国籍？”通常用What is his nationality?不用What nationality does he belong to?或Of what nationality is he?

nationalize

说“使（外国人）入籍”用nationalize远不及用naturalize普通。

native

1.说“我（或你等）是什么地方人”该说I am（或You are 等）a native of...，不可说...the native of...，the native of...指“…地方的唯一的本地人”。

2.native place，native city，native town和native village都指某人诞生的地方，跟“原籍”不同，如假定你的原籍是天津，但诞生在上海，那末你的native place或native city是上海，不是天津，不可说My native place is Tianjin. but I was born in Shanghai。

3.native country通常是“本国”，很少是“本乡”。native land是“本国”，不是“本乡”。

4.my native place，your native place，my native city，your native city等表达方式英美人似乎很少用，如习惯上不说My native place is Shanghai而说I was born in Shanghai，不说What is your native place而说Where do you come from。native place等表达方式通常用在his，her或their的后面。

natural

natural science（统指自然科学）前面没有the。the natural sciences是“各种自然科学”。a natural science是“一种自然科学”。

naturalize

He was naturalized (as) a British subject等句子里的as可有可无。

naturally

下面三句意思相同：

When I heard them mention my name, naturally I was all ears.

When I heard them mention my name, I was naturally all ears.

When I heard them mention my name, I was all ears, naturally.

nature

1. human nature（人性、人情），good nature（仁爱、好脾气），ill nature（不友善、坏脾气）和second nature（第二天性、习惯）各种表达方式前面都没有the或a，也都没有复数形式...natures。但animal nature（兽性），moral nature（道德性）和rational nature（理性）各种表达方式前面都有the。

2.下面三句意思相同：

Love of music has become second nature with him.

Love of music has become second nature to him.

Love of music has become second nature in him.

3.注意of a different nature，of a literary nature，of a religious nature等表达方式里有a。

4.比较下面两句：

1.To know Nature is to love her.（这句把大自然人格化。）

2.To know nature is to love it.

naval

naval officer在英国是“海军军官”，在美国往往指一种“海关官员”。

navy

1.Navy Department和Department of the Navy都指美国的海军部，相当于英国的Admiralty。

2.关于navy and army，参见army

near

1.把near用作nearly解，如near thirty years ago和near dead with fright现在很不普通，该避免。

2.near作“几乎的”、“近似的”、“相似的”、“好像真的”解是美国用法，如near blindness（几乎失明），a near accident（几乎肇祸），a near tragedy（一件跟悲剧相差无几的事情），near beer（好像真的假啤酒）和near silk（好像真的假丝、丝一般的物质）。near-naked（几乎裸体的）等也是美国用法。

3.下面各句意思相同：

That might go near to kill him.（那个将几乎把它弄死。）

That might go near to killing him.

That might go near killing him.

That might come near to killing him.

That might come near killing him.

在come near后面不接不定式，例如不说That might come near to kill him。以上各句里在英国用go和come都普通，在美国主要用come。

4.We live quite near them比We live quite near to them普通。

5.near here等不及not far from here等合乎习惯。

6.关于near by参见nearby

near-by

参见nearby

nearby

关于nearby，near-by和near by，下面几点该注意：

（1）nearby只用作形容词。例如：They live in the nearby villages.

（2）near-by可以用作形容词，副词或介词，如They live in the near-by villages，They live near-by和They live near-by the school。用作副词和介词不普通，通常改用near by。

（3）near by是两个词。例如：They live near by.和They live near by the school.

（4）They live in the villages nearby里的nearby是形容词，当然可以改作near-by。改作near by也可以，等于that（或which）are near by。

nearly

nearly不可修饰表示否定的词，如不可说He has nearly nothing to do here，该把nearly改作almost。almost nothing是美国英语，在英国用hardly anything或scarcely anything。参见almost 1

necessarily

1.An Englishman does not necessarily speak perfect English里的does不可改作need。

2.He may not necessarily know what has happened里的necessarily是多余的。

3.下面两句意思相同：

The policy of the magazine is necessarily to devote most of its space to subjects of general interest.

The policy of the magazine must necessarily be to devote most of its space to subjects of general interest.

necessary

1.下面每组里的第一句比第二句普通得多：

注意不可说This work is necessary to finish within the week，也不可说We are necessary to finish the work within this week。

2.necessary后面接for或to没有区别，如下面各句都可以说：

Food is necessary for（或to）life.

Books are necessary for（或to）students.

但It is necessary for us to do this等句子里的for不可改作to。

3.It is（或was）necessary that...里该用should或虚拟现在式。例如：

It is necessary that he should come here every Sunday.

It is necessary that he come（不用comes）here every Sunday.

It was necessary that he should come here every Sunday.

It was necessary that he come（不用came）here every Sunday.

4.说“必要的东西”用necessary或用necessity都可以，如the necessaries of life和the necessities of life，Do you consider a motor-car a necessary? 和Do you consider a motor-car a necessity?在用复数形式的场合，似乎在英国多用necessaries，在美国多用necessities。说“必要的事”通常用necessity，不用necessary，如It has now become a necessity to read the whole document again里不用necessary。

necessity

1.the necessity后面接of或for和动名词比接不定式普通，如the necessity of（或for）doing this比the necessity to do this普通。但There is no necessity，under no necessity，under a necessity和under any necessity后面接不定式。例如：

There is no necessity (for me) to do this.

He is under no necessity to do this.

He is under a necessity to do this.

I do not think he is under any necessity to do this.

跟There is no necessity相仿的有Is there any necessity...和Where is the necessity...? 后面接不定式或of和动名词都可以。例如：

Is there any necessity (for him) to do this?

Is there any necessity of (his) doing this?

Where is the necessity (for him) to do this?

Where is the necessity of (his) doing this?

2.the necessity和a necessity后面接for和名词比接of和名词普通，如the（或a）necessity for a trip to the North和the（或a）necessity for incessant watchfulness比the（或a）necessity of a trip to the North和the（或a）necessity of incessant watchfulness普通。

3.Such a step involves the necessity of the Minister himself being present里的involves the necessity of作“势必需要”解，是公文用语。这句可以改作Such a step requires the Minister to be present或necessitates the Minister's presence。

4.参见necessary 4

née（或nee）

née（或nee）原来是法语，作born解，在英语里借用在已嫁女子的娘家姓的前面，如Mrs Fowler，née Harvey（Fowler夫人，她的娘家姓Harvey，Fowler门Harvey氏）。下面几点该注意：

（1）这词通常印作斜体，手写时下面加一划。

（2）这词的前面必须有夫家的姓，夫家姓的后面有逗号。

（3）这词的后面通常只接娘家的姓。偶尔接名和娘家的姓，如Mrs Fowler，née Helen Harvey。决不可只接名，如不可用Mrs Fowler，née Helen。

need

1.下面三句里都用不定式：

There is no need to hurry.

Is there any need to hurry?

What need is there to hurry?

把这三句里的to hurry改作of hurrying也可以，但不普通。下面三组都可以说，但每组的第一句比第二句普通：

2.the need后面接of或for和动名词比接不定式普通，如the need of （或for）doing this比the need to do this普通。

3.There is need后面接for和名词，如There is need for more money和There is urgent need for more schools。a need后面接for或of和名词，如There is a need for（或of）more money，There is a need for（或of）improvement和We are well aware of a real need today for（或of）this sort of book。no（或some，或any，或not much）need后面接for或of和名词，如There is no need for（或of）more money和There is not much need for（或of）that sort of thing。the need后面接for或of和名词，如He spoke of the need for（或of）more money和The need for（或of）further research is keenly felt。

4.have need of（需要）和have need for都可以说，have no need of和have no need for也都可以说。

5.in need of里的of不可改作for。

6.have need to...（不定式）作“必须…”解。例如：He has need to work hard to catch up. 这语的过去式当然是had need to...（不定式）。但另有had need一习语，作“应该…”解，后面的不定式通常没有to，但有时也有to。例如：You had need (to) be very careful. 这语里的had在形式上虽然属于过去时态，却并不指过去。have need to...（不定式）和had need现在都不很普通。

7.if need be属于现在虚拟语气。例如：I shall be ready to do this, if need be. if need were属于过去虚拟语气。例如：I should be ready to do this, if need were. 注意不可说if need is或if need was。if need be和if need were现在都不很普通。

8.need（动词）后面的动名词一定属于主动语态，但它的意思一定是被动的，如The watch needs winding up里的winding不可改作being wound，但它的意思却是being wound。假使把动名词改作不定式，便该说The watch needs to be wound up，不可说The watch needs to wind up。need（动词）后面的动名词的意思既然一定是被动的，所以不可说I need winding the watch up，该把winding改作to wind。比较下面四句：

This sentence needs explaining.（不可把explaining改作to explain）

This sentence needs to be explained.（不可把to be explained改作to explain）

You need to explain this sentence.（不可把to explain改作explaining）

You need explaining.（这句的意思是：“你需要被人解释一下。”它的结构跟第一句相同。）

谚语The best horse needs breaking, and the aptest child needs teaching（1.即使最好的马也需要受驯。2.即使最聪明的孩子也需要受教育）的结构也跟第一句相同。

下面每组里的两句意思相同：

但下面第二句远不及第一句自然，因为telling...并不是一个单纯的动作：

He does not need telling how to take notes.

He needs no telling how to take notes.

9.need是现在式，但在用作助动词的时候可以在疑问句和否定句里指过去，后面的不定式没有to。例如：

Need he go yesterday?

He need not go yesterday.

He need not have any help from us yesterday.（或He need have no help from us yesterday.）

这三句可以改作：

Did he need to go yesterday?

He did not need to go yesterday.（或He needed not to go yesterday.）

He did not need to have any help from us yesterday.（或He needed not to have any help from us yesterday. 或He needed to have no help from us yesterday.）

不可说：

Need he to go yesterday?

He need not to go yesterday.

He need not to have any help from us yesterday.（或He need to have no help from us yesterday.）

也不可说：

Did he need go yesterday?

He did not need go yesterday.（或He needed not go yesterday.）

He did not need have any help from us yesterday.（或He needed not have any help from us yesterday. 或He needed have no help from us yesterday.）

我所说的“否定句”不一定有not或no，hardly，scarcely，only和but也是有否定的意味的词，如He need hardly（或scarcely）go yesterday和He need only（或but）have a little help from us yesterday或He need have only（或but）a little help from us yesterday。

下面各句里用need而不用needed，后面的不定式没有to，因为各句都多少有些否定或疑问的意味：

All he need do was to inquire.

David said his idleness was the only thing about him that he need feel ashamed of.

She wanted me to tell her whether she need copy her composition again.

I wondered if he need wait any longer.

但各句里的need...也可以改作needed to...。

除了在疑问句和否定句以外，need不可用作助动词，如不可说He need go yesterday和He need have much help from us yesterday，该把need go改作needed to go，把need have改作needed to have。在事实上用needed不及用had to...普通，如had to go和had to have。

Did he need any money yesterday和He did not need any money yesterday两句里的need把名词money做宾语，决不可把它改作助动词而说Need he any money yesterday和He need not any money yesterday。

10.need指过去是助动词，已经在9里讲过。need在不指过去的时候也可以用作助动词，也用在疑问句和否定句里，后面的不定式没有to，在第三人称不加s。例如：

Need he go today?

He need not go today.

He need not have any help from us today.（或He need have no help from us today.）

这三句可以改作：

Does he need to go today?

He does not need to go today.

He does not need to have any help from us today.

不可说：

Need he to go today?（或Needs he to go today?）

He need not to go today.（或He needs not to go today.）

He need not to have any help from us today.（或He needs not to have any help from us today. He need to have my help from us today. 或He needs to have no help from us today.）

也不可说：

Does he need go today?

He does not need go today.（或He needs not go today.）

He does not need have any help from us today.（或He needs not have any help from us today. 或He needs have no help from us today.）

下面两句也可以说（算作否定句）：

He need hardly（或scarcely）go today.

He need only（或but）have a little help from us today.（或He need have only［或but］a little help from us today.）

但也可以说He needs only（或but）to have a little help from us today和He needs to have only（或but）a little help from us today。

下面各句里用need而不用needs，后面的不定式没有to，因为各句都多少有些否定或疑问的意味：

All he need do is to inquire.

He says his idleness is the only thing about him that he need feel ashamed of.

She wants me to tell her whether she need copy her composition again.

I wonder if he need wait any longer.

但各句里的need...也可以改作needs to...。

除了在疑问句和否定句以外，need不可用作助动词，如不可说He need go today或He need have much help from us today，该把need go改作needs to go，把need have改作needs to have。在事实上用needs不及用must或has to...普通，如must go和must have，has to go和has to have。

Does he need any money today和He does not need any money today两句里的need把名词money做宾语，决不可把它改作助动词而说Need he any money today和He need not any money today。

He need not go today往往含有“我允准他今天不去”的意思，He does not need to go today并没有这含意。

11.在9里所举的Need he go yesterday和He need not go yesterday两句里的need指过去。在10里所举的Need he go today和He need not go today两句里的need并不指过去。假使单说Need he go或He need not go，当然不能断定那need是否指过去，必须看了上下文才能确定。

12.在9里所举的Need he go yesterday改作Need he have gone yesterday也可以，He need not go yesterday改作He need not have gone yesterday也可以。

He need not have gone yesterday含有“可是他竟然去了”的意思。If he had known that she was not at home, he need not have gone to see her yesterday里的need not have gone不可改作need not go或did not need to go。

13.关于need not跟must not等的区别，参见must 2

14.need not...to...（不定式）或do not need to...（不定式）to...（不定式）作“不必…才能…”解，就是“也许不…而也能…”的意思。例如：

You need not be（或do not need to be）rich to help others.（你不必富了才能帮助别人，你也许不富而也能帮助别人。）

One need not be（或does not need to be）an artist oneself to appreciate a work of art.（1.一个人不必自己是艺术家才能鉴赏艺术品。2.一个人也许自己不是艺术家而也能鉴赏艺术品。）

15.need only（或but）...to...（不定式）或only need...to...（不定式）作“只须…就会…”解。例如：

You need only（或need but，或only need）look round you to see how hard most people work.（你只须向四周看看就会见到大多数的人们怎样辛劳地工作。）

One need only（或need but，或only need）consider the question carefully to be suprised that it has not yet received due attention.

（一个人只须把这个问题仔细考虑一下，就会感觉奇怪它还不曾受到应有的注意。）

needless

needless to say（或add）（那不必说了）是习语。例如：Needless to say, he persuaded her at last和Needless to add, he came early as usual。决不可说I am needless to say（或add）...。

needs

needs是副词，作“必定地”解，现在只用在needs must和must needs两种表达方式里。needs must作“不得不”解。例如：He needs must do it carefully. 和He went as needs he must.（他因为不得不去而去。）must needs有时等于needs must。但往往有“偏偏”的意思。例如：He must needs talk to her when she doesn't care to talk.（他偏偏在她不高兴谈话的时候和她谈话。）

negative(ly)

1.He replied negatively不合习惯，该改作He replied in the negative。但He replied in the negative不及He denied it，He refused，He declined等普通。

2.in the negative大都用在公文里。

neglect

1.neglect（动词）后面接不定式比接动名词普通，如He neglected to reply to my letter比He neglected replying to my letter普通。

2.your neglect to write the address是“因为你的疏忽而不曾写地址”，your neglect in writing the address是“因为你的疏忽而把地址写错或写得不好”。

3.neglect（名词）和negligence意思略有不同。neglect往往有“该做而不做”的含意，如neglect of duty（玩忽职守），negligence往往有“经常不注意”的含意，是一种习惯或倾向，如negligence in dress（不修边幅）。比较下面两句：

His neglect of the notice cost him dearly.（他对于那通告的忽略使他吃了苦头。）

His negligence used to cause his family much distress.（他的疏忽成性时常使他的家属受到许多痛苦。）

neglectful

neglectful和negligent的不同，相当于neglect和negligence的不同。

negligence

参见neglect 3

negligent

参见neglectful

negotiation

“谈判”习惯用复数形式negotiations。例如：Negotiations are going on.

neighbour

good neighbour是“友善的邻人”，bad neighbour是“不友善的邻人”，都不关那个人品德的好坏。

neighbourhood

neighbourhood用作形容词是美国用法，如neighbourhood papers，a neighbourhood movie theatre，neighbourhood schools和neighbourhood opinion（附近一般人的意见）。

neither

1.neither在用作代词或形容词的时候，用于两个人或物。例如：I have two dictionaries, but neither is here. 和I have two dictionaries, but neither book is here. 有时也用于两个以上。例如：I have three dictionaries, but neither is here. 和I have three dictionaries, but neither book is here. 但这种用法不算正当，该避免，该改用none。

但neither（副词或连接词）...nor...用于两个以上可以算得正当。例如：Neither you, (nor) your brother, nor your sister will do.

2.注意In neither case can I agree里用can I，不用I can。

3.neither（代词或形容词）属于单数形式，如Neither is good和Neither book is good。把它当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

4.注意下面各句里的动词：

Neither he nor you are wrong.

Neither you nor he is wrong.

Neither the father nor the sons are wrong.

Neither the sons nor the father is wrong.

但这种结构一般避免使用，如上面四句可以改作：

He is not wrong, nor are you.

You are not wrong, nor is he.

The father is not wrong, nor are the sons.

The sons are not wrong, nor is the father.

5.neither...nor...跟both...and...受同样的规则的限制，如可以说neither boys nor girls，也可以说neither with boys nor with girls和with neither boys nor girls，但不可说neither with boys nor girls。参见both 4和either 7

6.注意下面两句里用is he，are you，has he和will he，不用he is，you are，he has和he will：

Neither is he wrong nor are you.

Neither has he heard from her yet nor will he do so before long.

7.neither...nor...里的nor决不可改作or。

8.neither用作nor。例如：He is not wrong, neither are you. 前面也可以有and或but。例如：He is not wrong, and neither are you. 和He is not wrong, but neither are you.

9.可以说If he is not wrong, neither are you。

10.下面B说Neither he is而不说Neither is he，因为he就是A所说的he，说Neither is his brother而不说Neither his brother is，因为his brother并不就是he：

A: I don't think he is clever.

B: Neither he is. Neither is his brother.

11.I don't know that neither和He did not give me a single yuan, nor a single fen neither等句子里的neither是副词，现在不很普通，通常用either。参见either 8

net

注意下面三句的结构：

David netted（净赚）$1000 by the sale.

The sale netted（生出［若干］净利）$1000.

The sale netted David $1000.

第三句里的netted有双宾语。The sale netted David a loss of $1000一类的句子不很普通。

Netherlands

1.Netherlands（荷兰王国）被看作复数，前面有the。例如：The Netherlands are washed by the North Sea.

2.Netherlands即使用作形容词，末尾也有s。

Never

1.never hope，never remember，never intend，never expect，never plan等表达方式该避免，如不该说：

I never hope to see him again.（该改作I hope never to see him again或I do not hope ever to see him again。）

I never remember having seen him before.（该改作I do not remember ever having seen him before。）

I never intend to see him again.（该改作I intend never to see him again或I do not intend ever to see him again。）

I never expect to see him again.（该改作I expect never to see him again或I do not expect ever to see him again。）

I never plan to see him again.（该改作I plan never to see him again或I do not plan ever to see him again。）

2.注意下面两句里都用never having...，不用having never...。用having never...也有，但很少见：

Never having seen him before, I did not know who he was.

I spoke to him of never having seen her before.

He claims never to have seen her before也比He claims to have never seen her before正常。

3.注意下面三句里用shall I，have I和has he，不用I shall，I have和he has。例如：

Never shall I see him again.

Never in my life have I heard of such a thing.

Never has he seen her before.

4.seldom or never和seldom if ever意思相同，两种表达方式不可混用，参见ever 11

5.never so现在远不及ever so普通，如Please write me a letter, let it be (n)ever so short里用ever so，最好不用never so。

6.下面两句意思相同，但第二句比第一句语气重（has重读）：

He has never failed me in my need.

He never has failed me in my need.

nevertheless

1.nevertheless由never，the和less三个单词组合而成，这三个单词都是副词，never是“并不”，the是“因为了这个”，less是“比较地少些”。nevertheless直译作“并不因为了这个而比较地少些”，就是“虽然这样而仍旧不少些”，也就是“仍然”或“依然”的意思。例如：

Helen is not altogether dependable. She is, nevertheless, a good cook.

I warned him about the danger, nevertheless, he would go.

Nevertheless等于none the less，但该注意none the less前面和后面都不用逗号。例如：For all her years and infirmities, she is none the less eager to keep up with things.

2.nevertheless前面有时有yet或but。

new

1.New Year（或new year）前面通常有the，偶尔没有the。

2.New Year's Day（元旦）（或new year's day或new-year's day）前面没有the。New Year's Eve（大除夕）（或new year's eve或new-year's eve）前面也没有the。

3.New Year's用作New Year's Day解，是美国英语。

4.美国“纽约州”的正式名称是New York State或the State of New York，但通常简称New York。“纽约城”的正式名称是the City of New York，在正式文件里写作New York，New York，但通常写作New York，N. Y. 或New York City（略作N. Y. C.）。

news

1.news原来属于复数形式，但现在只用作单数，如News has come里的has不该改作have。

2.news前面不可加a，也没有复数形式newses。说“一件新闻”该说a piece of news，a bit of news或a scrap of news，说“多件新闻”该说pieces of news，bits of news或scraps of news。报纸上登的“一则新闻”是an item of news或a news item，“多则新闻”是items of news或news items。

3.his news有时是“关于他的消息”，就是“他的近况”，有时是“他所讲的消息”。news of him是“关于他的消息”。

4.news后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：Then came (the) news that the Soviet Union had launched the world's first artificial earth satellite（人造地球卫星）on Friday, 4 October, 1957.

5.No news is good news是谚语，直译作“没有消息便是好消息”。就是说“既然没听到什么消息，便证明事态不曾恶化，便等于听到了好消息”。注意：（1）这句并不作All news is bad news解。（2）这里的No news跟No news was received that night里的No news不同。

6.关于news reel，参见news(-)reel

newspaper

1.newspaper不可用来指“印报纸的纸”，“印报纸的纸”该用news(-)print。

2.在汉语里通常说“在报纸上”，不说“在报纸里”，但在英语里必须说in the newspaper，不可说on the newspaper。

3.newspaper有时被用作物质名词，指包东西、糊窗等用的报纸。例如：He carried a little bread in a piece of newspaper. 和I stopped a big crack in the door with old newspaper.

news(-)reel（或news reel）

news(-)reel是电影里的“新闻片”，一个news(-)reel包括多件新闻。不可把每件新闻叫做a news(-)reel或把一部片子里的多件新闻叫做news(-)reels。

new-year's

参见new 2和3

New York

参见new 4

next

1.the next two，the next three等表达方式比the two next，the three next等表达方式普通些，也合理些。

2.next往往用作next letter解。例如：I shall tell you more about it in my next.

3.When I next saw him, he was a teacher和When I saw him next, he was a teacher都可以说。

4.下面两句意思相同：

The next house you come to is a bank.

The first house you come to is a bank.

但在The first house you come to is a bank and the next one is a school 等句子里的first和next两个单词不要随意改动。

5.next to impossible（或useless等）跟next door to impossible（或useless等）相同，都作almost impossible（或useless）解。

6.next Monday，next week，next month，next April，next year，next spring，next Christmas，next term等都可以说，但不可说next morning，next day，next afternoon，next night和next evening作“明天早上”、“明天”等解，该说tomorrow morning，tomorrow，tomorrow afternoon，tomorrow night和tomorrow evening。但next morning，next day等可以用来指今天以外的任何一天的后一天，往往在前面加上the。例如：They reached the town on Sunday and left it (the) next day. 和I hope to visit you on the evening of 16 October and start for the mountain (the) next afternoon. 用了the前面可以加on，如on the next morning。

7.next Moday，next Tuesday，next Wednesday等也可以指今天以外的任何一天的以后的第一个星期几，往往前面加the。例如：He wrote to me on a Sunday, but I did not find time to reply till (the) next Saturday. 和If I hear from you on Wednesday, I shall arrange to come (the) next Friday. 用了the前面可以加on，如on the next Monday。

8.next week，next month，next April，next year，next spring等也可以指现在以外的任何时候以后的第一个星期、月份等，往往前面加the。例如：The old man fell ill one morning and died (the) next week. 和She will spend some time in the country and return to the city (the) next spring. 用了the前面可以加in，如in the next week。

9.next Monday，next Tuesday，next Wednesday等用作状语短语，前面不加on，如可以说The work will begin next Wednesday，不可说The work will begin on next Wednesday。但把next Monday，next Tuesday，next Wednesday等改成了Monday next，Tuesday next，Wednesday next等便该加上on。例如：The work will begin on Wednesday next. 同样地，next April，next May，next June等用作状语短语前面不加in，如可以说The work will begin next June，不可说The work will begin in next June。但把next April，next May，next June等改成了April next，May next，June next等便该加in。例如：The work will begin in June next. 注意不可说week next，month next，year next，spring next，Christmas next，morning next，day next，afternoon next，night next，evening next等。

10.next Monday，on Monday next等表达方式里的next作“以后最先的”解，并不作“下星期的”解，例如假定今天是10月20日，星期一，所说next Friday或on Friday next是指10月24日，并不指10月31日。说“下星期的星期几”该说on...next week，如on Friday next week。当然有时...next week等于next...或...next，如假定今天是10月24日，星期五，所说next Wednesday或Wednesday next指10月29日，Wednesday next week也是指10月29日。同样地，next April，in April next等表达方式里的next作“以后最先的”解，并不作“明年的”解，如假定现在是10月，所说next December或in December next指今年的12月，并不指明年的12月。说“明年的某月”该说in...next year，如in December next year。当然有时...next year等于next...或...next，如假定现在是10月，所说next April或April next是指明年的4月，April next year也是指明年的4月。

next用在“季”的名称的前面总是作“明年的”解，如在春季说next autumn指“明年的秋季”，“今年的秋季”该说this autumn。

11.I shall call on him (the) next time I go to town等表达方式里的the可有可无，通常是有的（time后面省去that或when）。When I call on him next time, I shall tell him about it等句子里的next time前面不可加上the。

12.What next?（或What next!）表示惊奇，往往含有讽刺的意味。例如：Respect! Treat her with respect! What next, pray!（恭敬！［要我］恭敬地对待她！请问还有比这个更荒唐的事么！）

13.next of kin有时被用作复数。例如：Three next of kin live with him.

nice

1.nice作“好的”、“美的”、“妙的”等解，现在很普通，如nice man，nice book，nice letter，nice room，nice weather，nice smile等，下面几点该注意：

（1）这种用法多少有些口语性质。例如：It's nice of you to invite me. 这在很正式的文字里该避免。

（2）该留心别在一段文字里连用好几次。

（3）英美人用这词，往往有反语性质，如Here is a nice mess（这里弄糟了）和That's a nice state of things（事情弄糟了）。

2.nice and...作“因为…所以好”解，就是说“很…”。例如：The room is nice and warm.（这房间因为暖和所以好［很暖和］。）和The breeze is nice and cool.（这阵微风很凉爽。）和The car is going nice and fast.（这汽车跑得很快。）有时不用and而单用nice...。例如：This room is nice warm.

niggard(ly)

niggard用作形容词（吝啬的）现在远不及niggardly普通。

night

1.nights用作副词是美国用法，作“在每夜”解，如She studies very late nights和The thought kept her awake nights。

2.all night，all the night和all night long都作“通宵地”解。all night最普通。

3.at night通常是“在夜里”，通常指黄昏或上半夜，有时是“在薄暮”。at nights是“在每夜”。by night是“在夜里”，往往含有“利用黑夜”的意思。in the night是“在夜里”，没有什么含意。o'(=on) nights是“在夜里”（口语），含有“夜夜如此，习以为常”的意思。例如：I can't sleep o'nights.（我夜里总是睡不着。）注意at night，at nights，by night和o'nights四语里没有the，in the night里有the。

4.night and day（日夜不停地）比day and night普通。

5.下午6、7点钟往往被当作night，如from six in the morning till six at night。

6.关于good night，有下面两点该注意：

（1）good night只用在即将分别的场合，不用在才相见的场合。才相见时不论怎样晚（例如半夜）也说good evening，不说good night。

（2）说good night含有“今夜不再会见”的意思，即使在日落以前也可以用。

night(-)time

in the night(-)time里有the，at night(-)time里没有the。at night(-)time通常指黄昏。例如：We arrived at the hotel at night(-)time.

no

1.用no或yes回答否定的疑问句，注意不可顺着那否定语而说yes，也不可否定那否定语而说no，如回答Is the baby not a boy不可说Yes, it is not a boy或No, it is a boy，却该说No, it is not a boy或Yes, it is a boy。换句话说，回答否定疑问句和回答肯定疑问句，那no和yes的用法是相同的。例如：

但别以为用了no，后面一定有否定的词。如不论那疑问句是Is the baby a boy或Is the baby not a boy那答句都可以是No, it is a girl。it is a girl里并没有否定的词，但注意it is a girl却含有it is not a boy的意思。现在再举一个例子：

Will he be at home this afternoon?（肯定疑问句）

Will he not be at home this afternoon?（否定疑问句）

No, he will be in his office.

回答Do you know those children? 当然该说Yes, I know them或No, I do not know them。但假使“只认识几个，并不全部认识”，那答语里用yes或no就要看后面怎样说。该说Yes, I know some of them或No, I do not know all of them。

2.下面每组里的两句意思不同：

3.下面每组里的两句意思不同：

4.no such thing，no such book等表达方式里不可在such后面加上a。例如：There is no such thing (as that).

5.注意下面两句里的no前面没有a，the，his等词：

He has no small reputation as an artist.

He owes no small reputation as an artist to his paintings.

这种用法里的no是形容词（不是副词），修饰被形容词所修饰的名词，no small...=a great...。假使必须加a，the，his等词，最好把no改作not。例如：a not small reputation，the not small reputation和his not small reputation，但这三种表达方式不及a great reputation，the great reputation和his great reputation普通。

其他如Hers was no common talent和He is a person of no great height里的no的用法跟上面所说的相同。

上面说假使必须加a，the，his等词，最好把no改作not。事实上也有a no...，the no...，his no...等用法，如at a no distant date，the no small surprise of all和his no inconsiderable success，但很少见，最好不用。at a no distant date里的a删去，the no small surprise of all和his no inconsiderable success里的no改作not。

上面所举各例里的no后面的形容词都属于原级。用了属于最高级的形容词意思便大不相同。比较下面两句：

He has no small chance of success.（他大有成功的可能。）

He has no smallest chance of success.（他完全没有成功的可能。）

第二句=He has not the smallest chance of success.

6.no boy当然属于单数形式，no girl也是单数。no boy and no girl或no boy and girl也是单数。例如：No boy and (no) girl is admitted.

7.no one是“没有人”，no man也是“没有人”，但现在不普通，no one man是“没有一个单独的人”。比较下面三句：

No one can do it.（没有人能够做这个。）

No man can do it.（跟第一句相同，但不普通）

No one man can do it.（没有人能够单独做这个［必须两个或更多的人才能够］。）

比较下面两句：

No one knows all of it.（没有人知道这件事的全部［众人所知道的合并起来也许是全部，但也许不是全部］。）

No one man knows all of it.（没有一个单独的人知道这件事的全部［众人所知道的合并起来才是全部］。）

8.no one of us，no one of these，no one of the books等表达方式也有人用，但不及用none普通。

9.no one（没有人）=no-one，参见no-one

10.不可说No book does not interest me，该改作Every book interests me。

11.No..., no...（要是你不…，就得不到…）和No...without...（你要…，总得…）意思相同，如No pains, no gains（要是你不劳苦，就得不到利益，就是“不劳则无获”）和No gains without pains（也是“不劳则无获”）。这种结构，在谚语里用得很多。例如：

No mill, no meal.（不播种没收获。）

No song, no supper.（不先唱歌没晚饭吃。）

No sweet without sweat.（不劳则无获。）

No rose without a thorn.（世上没有绝对的幸福。）

No garden without its weeds.（有利必有弊。）

12.No...ing用在招贴、口号等里，表示“不准…”。例如：

No smoking!（不准吸烟！）

No scribbling on the blackboard!（黑板上不准涂写！）

No talking!（不准讲话！）

No parking!（不准停车！）

13.No pupil has really learnt to read if he does not know how to choose books这句意思很明白。就语法讲，he可说指no pupil，但不可用no pupil代he，可说指pupil，但也不可用the pupil代he。

14.下面B说No more he is而不说No more is he，因为he就是A所说的he，说No more is his brother而不说No more his brother is，因为his brother并不就是he：

A: I don't think he is clever.

B: No more he is. No more is his brother.

nobleman

nobleman是“有爵位的贵人”（在英国指五爵，便是duke［公］，marquis［侯］，earl［伯］，viscount［子］和baron［男］），并不指任何大官，也不指“道德高尚的人”。“道德高尚的人”该用noble man。

nobody

1.nobody不可写作no body。

2.nobody属于单数形式。例如：There is nobody in the room. 把nobody当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

3.He is (a) nobody（他是一个无足重轻的人）里的a可有可无。

4.不可说No body does not like it，该改作Every body likes it。

nod(ding)

1.说“向某人点头”在nod（动词）后面用to或at都可以。例如：He nodded to（或at）me，as he passed.

2.a nodding acquaintance作“点头之交”解。例如：I have only a nodding acquaintance with him. 和I have only a nodding acquaintance with this subject. 很少作“泛泛的相识者”或“点头朋友”解。

noise

noise现在通常指混杂或喧闹的声音。noise，a noise和noises都可以用。例如：I don't like noise(s). 和I don't like such (a) noise. make a noise似乎比make noise普通。

nominal

nominal fee，nominal price，nominal rent，nominal sum等表达方式作“小或少得只是名义上的…”解，如假定你有一所房子租给一个朋友，原来每月可以得到租金1000元，但你为了友谊而只要他每月100元，这每月100元的租金就叫nominal rent。

non-availability

non-availability是公文用语，比lack婉转，如the non-availability of adequate supplies of raw material。

none

1.none用作no-one解现在主要用在谚语里。例如：None knows the weight of another's burden.（见人挑担不吃力。）在其他场合很不普通，该避免，如不该说None knows about it，该改作No-one knows about it或Nobody knows about it。

none but...（除了…以外没有人）后面现在接复数形式的动词。例如：None but fools are（不用is）interested in such things.

2.none of后面的名词或代词属于单数形式或复数形式都有，例如：None of it is mine. 和None of these are mine.

None of these is mine也可以说，跟None of these are mine意思相同。下面两句也意思相同：

Of all my friends none are so clever as George.

Of all my friends none is so clever as George.

但下面两句意思不同：

None of them are the men I met this morning.（早上我遇到过不止一个男子。）

None of them is the man I met this morning.（早上我遇到过只有一个男子。）

3.none of them，none of these，none of the books等表达方式被看作属于复数形式或单数形式都可以，但复数比单数普通，如None of them are interested in it比None of them is interested in it普通，None of them are good scholars比None of them is a good scholar普通。

4.none of后面的名词或代词假使是属于复数形式的，它必须指两个以上的人或物，不可只指两个，如可以说I have three sisters, none of them are at home，不可说I have two sisters, none of them are at home，该把none of them are改作neither of them is。

5.Gold and silver have I none（我没有金和银），Communication with the outside world Tom had almost none（汤姆几乎没有跟外界交往）等句子里的none是形容词，在第一句里修饰gold和silver，在第二句里修饰communication。这种结构现在不很普通。

6.He was none other than the general himself（他就是那将军本人）里的none可以算作形容词，形容other，也可以算作代词，被other修饰，这种结构现在不很普通。用no other也可以，但似乎也不很普通。

7.none the better（并不因而好些），none too good（不很好），none so good（不很好），none such a fool（不是这样的孩子）等表达方式里的none是副词，作“并不”解。none the less一语的结构和意思跟nevertheless（参见nevertheless）完全相同。

none用作副词，在英格兰现在只用在the（副词）和属于比较级的形容词或副词前面和在none too...，none so...和none such...三种表达方式里。但在美国和苏格兰没有这限制，如I slept none that night是美国英语，在英国说I did not sleep at all that night。

8.不可说None of them do not know me，该改作Every one of them knows me。

nonsense

1.nonsense是抽象名词，如That's all nonsense（那全是胡说），前面不可加a，也没有复数形式nonsenses。

2.There is no nonsense about him是“对于他不可轻举妄动”。就是“他是严肃的，别人决不可对他乱说乱动”。

nonetheless

nonetheless不及none the less和nevertheless普通。

noodle

noodle指一根面条，是类名词，一碗面当然不止一根面条，所以该说a bowl of noodles。

noon

noon指正午12点钟，不指一段时间，该说at noon。in the noon不是正常的英语。也有人用at high noon，at twelve noon和at twelve o'clock noon。

no-one

1.说“没有人”用no-one或no one都可以，如No-one knows about it和No one knows about it。说“没有一个单独的…”该用no one，不该用no-one，如No one man can do it里的no one不可改作no-one。

2.不可说no-one of us，no-one of these，no-one of the books等，该把no-one改作none。

3.用了no-one不可用one，one's等词代它，如不可说No-one has yet availed oneself of this offer，该把oneself改作himself。

4.no-one属于单数形式。例如：No-one has yet applied for it. 把no-one当作复数是英美人常有的错误。

5.不可说No-one does not like it，该改作Every one likes it。

nor

1.注意下面各句里用is she，does he和must we，不用she is，he does和we must：

He is not unkind to her, nor is she to him.

He does not do it, nor does he try to.

All that is true, nor must we forget about it.

nor前面也可以有and。例如：

You cannot do that, and nor can I.

I didn't see it, and nor did you.

但and nor远不及nor普通。

偶尔在nor前面用but。例如：I didn't see it, but nor did you.

2.He can neither read nor write里当然用nor，不可用or，He cannot either read or write里当然用or，不可用nor。He cannot read (n)or wirte里用or或nor都可以，现在用or比用nor普通。但He cannot read, nor write （read后面有逗号）和He does not ride, nor shoot, nor fish, nor swim （ride，shoot和fish后面都有逗号）里的nor都不可改作or。注意下面每组里的两句：

“他不曾去，也不会去”可以说He did not go，nor will be或He did not come and will not，不可说He did not come or will not。

3.下面B说Nor he is而不说Nor is he，因为he就是A所说的he，说Nor is his brother而不说Nor his brother is，因为his brother并不就是he：

A: I don't think he is clever.

B: Nor he is. Nor is his brother.

normal

1.Conditions will soon return to normal，His temperature is now almost back to normal和Prices were four times normal and wages two times等句子里在normal前面通常没有the。

2.the normal rule里的normal是多余的。

normalcy

normalcy原来是美国英语，相当于英国英语normality，后来在英国也流行。现在似乎在英美都不普通。

north

north（形容词），northerly和northern的不同，相当于east（形容词），easterly和eastern的不同。参见east

northerly

参见north

northern

参见north

not

1.关于All...not...，Both...not...，Every...not...等句，参见all 7，both 2和every 1

2.关于not more，not less，not richer等和no more，no less，no richer等的不同，参见no 2

3.关于He is not a fool等句和He is no fool等句的不同，参见no 3。注意不可说He has not a wife，该说He has no wife。

4.Is that...? Do you...? Can I...?等的否定式在正式英语里和口语里不同：在正式英语里用Is that not...?或Is not that...? Do you not...?或Do not you...? Can I not...?或Cannot I...?等。在口语里，用Isn't it...? Don't you...? Can't I...?等。

相当于Am I not...?的口语有Ain't I...? An't I...?和Aren't I...?有人以为都是不正当的，似乎Aren't I...?最为人所反对。

5.现在通常说do not know，did not know等，不说know not和knew not等。但下面几点该注意：

（1）It matters not...和It does not matter...都普通。参见matter 8

He moved not，She breathed not等句往往比He did not move，She did not breathe等有力。

（2）He tried not to think of her, They deserve not to be treated that way等句子里的not属于那后面的不定式，跟tried和deserve没有关系，tried和deserve后面偶然接着not，在结构上跟know not和knew not不同。He did not try to think of her跟He tried not to think of her意思不同，They do not deserve to be treated that way跟They deserve not to be treated that way意思也不同。这种不同相当于He did not tell me to go跟He told me not to go的不同。

（3）在回答疑问句Will he come tomorrow?等的时候，可以说下面的任何一句：

I believe not. I hope not. I suppose not.

I think not. I am afraid not. I fear not.

I fancy not. I trust not. I expect not.

I imagine not. I should say not.

注意这些句子里的not代替that he will not come tomorrow。

6.在5. (3)里所举的I beliveve not等句等于：

I believe that he will not come tomorrow.

I hope that he will not come tomorrow.

I suppose that he will not come tomorrow.

I think that he will not come tomorrow.

I am afraid that he will not come tomorrow.

I fear that he will not come tomorrow.

I fancy that he will not come tomorrow.

I trust that he will not come tomorrow.

I expect that he will not come tomorrow.

I imagine that he will not come tomorrow.

I should say that he will not come tomorrow.

但在习惯上believe（或suppose，think，fancy，expect，imagine，say等）that...not...不及do not believe（或suppose，think等）that...普通，所以通常说：

I do not believe that he will come tomorrow.

I do not suppose that he will come tomorrow.

I do not think that he will come tomorrow.

I do not fancy that he will come tomorrow.

I do not expect that he will come tomorrow.

I do not imagine that he will come tomorrow.

I should not say that he will come tomorrow.

I do not hope that he will come tomorrow（我不希望他明天来）跟I hope that he will not come tomorrow意思不同，I am not afraid that he will come tomorrow（我并不怕他明天来）跟I am afraid that he will not come tomorrow意思也不同，I do not fear that he will come tomorrow（我并不怕他明天来）跟I fear that he will not come tomorrow意思也不同，I do not trust that he will come tomorrow（我不希望他明天来）跟I trust that he will not come tomorrow意思也不同。

7.注意下面各句的意思：

I did not go to see him, but to see his father.（我不曾去见他，却去见他的父亲。严格地说，该说I went not to see him but to see his father或I went to see not him but his father。）

I did not go to see him.（我不曾去见他。）

I did not go because I did not want to see him.（我因为不想见他而不曾去。）

I did not go because I wanted to see him.（我不曾因为想见他而去［却为了其他原因］。严格地说，该说It was not because I wanted to see him that I went。）

第二句也可能被解释为“我不曾因为想见他而去（却为其他目的），就是说“我是去的，但我的去并不以见他为目的”。第三句也可能被解释为“我不曾因为不想见他而去（却为了其他原因）”，就是说“我是去的，但我的去并不是因为我要避免见他”。第四句也可以被解释为“我因为想见他而不曾去”，就是说“我不曾去，因为我不去才能够见他”。在有可能被人误解的时候，该避免这种句子。

注意He did not lock the door to（或so as to或in order to）enable her to come in这句是不成立的。说这句话的人的意思当然是“他不曾锁上门，使她能够进来”。但这句话的意思是“他不曾因为要使她能够进来而把门锁上”，是讲不通的。这句该改作He left the door unlocked to（或so as to或in order to）enable her to come in。下面是另外两个例子：

You must not write carelessly to (或so as to或in order to) make your meaning clear.（该改作You must write carefully to [或so as to或in order to] make your meaning clear。）

I shall not smoke any more to (或so as to或in order to) save money.（该改作I shall stop smoking to [或so as to或in order to] save money。）

8.注意下面各句里用not being和not having，不用being not和having not：

Not being able to help him, I told him so.

I told him of my not being able to help him.

Not having any money in my pocket, I told him so.

I told him of my not having any money in my pocket.

Not having heard from him, I wrote again.

I was annoyed at not having heard from him yet.

不可说He seems to have not heard from her，该说He seems not to have heard from her或He does not seem to have heard from her。He claims not to have seen her before比He claims to have not seen her before正常。

9.He is a teacher，not a professor等句子里在not前面可以加上and，有时加上but。

10.not往往作“不满…”解，如He is not twenty是“他不满20岁”。He does not read five books a year是“他每年读不满5本书”。not one in ten是“十不得一”，This literature is still not two centuries old是“这个文学还没有两个世纪的历史”。

比较下面两句：

David has not been home for a month, and is getting anxious about his family.（戴维已经有一个月不在家，对于他的家庭渐渐焦虑起来了。）

He has not been home for a month, but will leave for a distant city in a day or two.（他到家还不满一个月，但一两天以后就要动身到一个遥远的城市去。）

11.not impossible（并非不可能），not unconnected（并非没有关系），not without some fear（并非没有一些恐惧）等表达方式里的not im-，not un-，not without...等相当于汉语里的“非不”、“不无”、“未始非”等语。

12.注意Not for the whole world would I ever think of hurting her里用would I，不用I would。not for the whole world是not的强势式。

13.It was clear that the idea pleased him not at all等句比It was clear that the idea did not please him at all语气重些。

14.下面三句意思相仿：

What Tom has suffered!（汤姆受了怎样的苦！）

What has Tom not suffered?（怎样的苦汤姆不曾受过呢？）

What has Tom suffered!（汤姆受了怎样的苦！）

第一句是感叹句，第二句是修辞疑问句，第三句是倒装的感叹句（比较最不普通）。注意不可说What has Tom not suffered!这句是从第二句和第三句混用而来的。

15.不可说It is not black, but it is white，该把it is删去。参见but 5

16.not only...but (also)...跟both...and受同样的规则的限制，如可以说not only boys but (also) girls，也可以说not only with boys but (also) with girls和with not only boys but (also) girls，但不可说not only with boys but (also) girls。参见both 4

17.not only...but also...里的but有时被省去。例如：Man has in fact not only domesticated wild animals, (but) also domesticated wild plants, especially those which bear edible fruit.有时but和also都被省去。例如：She was not only compelled to stay at home, (but) she was (also) forbidden to see her friends.

18.注意下面两句里用is he和will the story，不用he is和the story will：

Not only is he deeply interested in the subject but (also) all his brothers study it night and day.

Not only will the story prove interesting to us but (also) its English will help us in composition.

note

1.make（或take）a note of和take（或make）notes of是“把…记下”。例如：Please make a note of that, will you?和I didn't take notes of the lecture. take note of是“注意”。请人注意该说Please take note，没有a。

2.make a note of比take a note of普通，take notes of比make notes of普通。take notes比make notes普通。

3.You must take notes of what you read是英国用法，You must take notes on what you read是美国用法。

4.注意下面各句里的介词（note或notes都指“注解”）：

There ought to be a note on this obsolete word.

See the notes on（或to）these difficult passages.

The notes to（或on）the poems are published in a separate volume.

5.Just a note to let you know that I am going abroad on Saturday 里的note是“短信”，用法跟line相同。

6.It will（或should）be noted that...是公文英语。

7.下面各句里的note或notes后面都接以that引导的从句，意思都不同：

Please note (注意) that this usage is now rare.

On entering the garden I noted (见到) that spring had come round.

Recounting her experiences on a lecture tour, the actress noted (说) that she had met many interesting people.

He drew a plan of the house and noted (注明) below that it was meant to face south.

8.关于note paper，参见note(-)paper

note(-)paper

note(-)paper是“信笺”，尤其指私人通信用的，不指“一张信笺”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式note(-)papers。每张通常8英寸阔，10英寸长。可以说a sheet of note(-)paper。

nothing

1.nothing不可写作no thing。

2.nothing属于单数形式。例如：Nothing is found in the drawer.注意Nothing (else) but two books is found in the drawer里的主语是nothing，不是books，books是介词but的宾语，所以用is而不用are。Nothing else than two books is found in the drawer里的主语也是nothing，所以用is而不用are。

3.nothing less than有两个相反的意思：“竟然等于…”和“决不是…”，如They expected nothing less than an attack可能有两个相反的意思：“他们预料竟要被攻击。”和“他们预料决不会被攻击。”第二个意思不及第一个意思普通，但在有可能被人误解的时候，最好避免这种用法。

就语法讲，在第一个意思里less是形容词，修饰nothing，全语直译作“没有比…小的东西”，就是“竟然等于…”。在第二个意思里less是副词，修饰动词（如expected），expected nothing less than...直译作“预料没有东西比…更少可能”，就是“预料决不会有…”。但在第一个意思里less也可以算作名词，nothing less=less by nothing，全语直译作“不比…小”，就是“竟然等于…”。

同样地，He wants nothing more than bread可能有两个意思：“他只要面包（并不要比面包珍贵的东西）。”和“他最想要面包（而并不很想要其他东西）。”在第一个意思里more是形容词，在第二个意思里more是副词。He wants nothing more than to see you once again可能是“他只要再见你一次（就满意了）”。也可能是“他最想要再见你一次（这是他的最大愿望）”。

4.关于nothing much，参见much 4

5.Your trouble is nothing to his.（你的困难远不及他的［困难］。）Your trouble is nothing compared with his等句子里有时在nothing前面加上as。

6.不可说No thing does not interest me，该改作Every thing interests me。

7.下面各句都可能有两个意思，其中第一个意思是“正常”的：

They quarrelled for nothing.（1.他们无端争吵。2.不论有什么事，他们并不争吵。）

He got furious over nothing.（1.他无端狂怒起来。2.不论有什么事，他并不狂怒起来。）

The kitten jumped up to catch nothing.（1.这小猫跳起来瞎捉一阵。2.这小猫并不跳起来捉什么东西。）

notice

1.比较下面各句：

It is difficult to obtain so much data at such short notice.（1.在这样短时间以前通知要得到这么多资料是困难的。2.限期这样短而要这么多资料，这是难于办到的。）

I have to give you notice.（1.我不得不通知你，我要离去了。2.我不得不通知你，要你离去。）

I have notice.（我已经被通知要我离去。）

I have given him notice to quit.（我已经通知他要他离去。）

You are to stay here till further notice.（你该留在这里直到下次通知为止。）

They went away without (previous) notice.（他们并不预先通知而离去了。）

下面几点该注意：

（1）at short notice, at such short notice, at a few hours' notice等表达方式里的at在美国有时改用on。

（2）give notice或have notice后面加上了不定式，在notice前面有时有a。例如：He gave me a notice to leave by the end of the week.

（3）give notice和have notice里的notice通常指关于离去（如离职或迁让）的“通知”，但在说明其他动作的场合便指其他动作。例如：I have notice to send in my report within three days.

2.give notice后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：The tenant gave notice that he was going to move on the first of the next month.

3.notice（无意间注意到）的宾语后面的不定式没有to。例如：I noticed a boy come out of the house.但假使把notice改作被动语态，那不定式便该有to。例如：A boy was noticed to come out of the house.

4.下面两句意思略有不同：

I noticed a boy come out of the house.（我无意间注意到一个男孩从房子里出来。）

I noticed a boy coming out of the house.（我无意间注意到一个男孩正在从房子里出来。）

第二句着重在那男孩的正在出来而恰巧被我看见。下面各句里的现在分词最好不改作不定式：

He noticed a little girl standing at the door.

She noticed a stranger looking up at the window.

They noticed a group of boys waving to them.

Did you notice the baby talking to the doll?

5.下面两句里的notice(d)后面都接以that引导的从句，但意思不同：

He noticed（无意间注意到）that the girl was somewhat lame.

Please notice（注意）that the physical examination will take place tomorrow morning.

notify

1.下面两句意思相同：

He has notified us of his address.

He has notified his address to us.

2.notify后面可以接宾语和不定式。例如：I have got a letter notifying me to appear before the Committee.

notion

1.notion用作“杂货（例如针、线和带）”解，是美国英语。

2.关于You must have some notion (of) what has happened to us 等句，参见idea

notwithstanding

下面各句意思相同，但除了第一句以外现在都不普通：

He went notwithstanding my advice.

He went, my advice notwithstanding.

He went notwithstanding that I had advised him not to go.

He went notwithstanding I had advised him not to go.

I had advised him not to go, notwithstanding, he went.

I had advised him not to go, he went, notwithstanding.

就语法讲，第二句是原来的结构，notwithstanding是not＋withstanding，my advice notwithstanding是独立结构，直译作“我的劝告不（能）阻止”，全句直译作“他去了，我的劝告不（能）阻止（他的离去）”。

novel

1.novel是“（长篇）小说”，并不指一切小说，如《红楼梦》是novel，但《聊斋志异》不是novel。

2.novel不是抽象名词或集合名词，如不可说Do you read novel?该把novel改作novels。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He is studying a novel.（他正在研究一本小说。）

He is studying the novel.（1.他正在研究小说［那种文学］。2.他正在研究这本小说。）

November

参见April

now

1.下面两句意思相同：

Now you have come, you may stay here.

Now that you have come, you may stay here.

2.下面两句里的in可有可无：

I shall probably be in Moscow (in) a month from now.

What will the world be like (in) a thousand years from now?

3.I have known him for fifteen years now里用now比不用now语气重些。

4.Having failed several times, he now tried a new plan里用now比用then生动。

nowhere

注意下面两句里用is there和could he，不用there is和he could：

Nowhere is there such perfect silence as in these mountains.

Nowhere could he turn for help.

可以说I have nowhere to go和There is nowhere for me to go。这两句里的nowhere可以算作名词。

number

1.Room Number 123, bus number 73等表达方式里在Room, bus等词前面没有the。

2.a number of （许多）后面必须接复数形式的名词或代词，动词有时用复数，有时用单数，如A number of boys（或them）are（或is）in the next room和A large number of books are（或is）lent at the library every day。有人以为用单数形式的动词不算正当。

比较下面两句：

An increasing number of pupils have made use of the library.

An increasing number of pupils has made it necessary to keep more copies of the same books.

第一句着重在“更多的学生”，第二句着重在学生数的增加。

3.在公文里往往把in a number of cases用作often解。

numerous

numerous跟单数形式的名词用在一起作“包含人员（或物品）众多的”解，跟复数形式的名词用在一起作“许多的”解。例如：

Mine is a numerous class.（我的班级是个学生众多的班级。）

He has a numerous family.（他有众多的子女。）

The illustrative examples in the dictionary are numerosus.（这词典里有插图的例句很多。）

There are numerous books on the study of foreign languages.（有许多讨论研究外国语的书。）

nun

nun并不专指皈依佛教的女子。参见monk

nurse

在家庭里nurse通常被当作自己人看待，所以往往不说our nurse或the nurse而说nurse，如Nurse is out和But nurse said so。

O

O

参见oh

oath

1.make (an) oath里的an可有可无，take (an) oath或take (the) oath里的an或the也可有可无。

2.under oath是“发誓”，不用an。例如：He said under oath that he was innocent.

obedient(ly)

关于Your obedient servant和Yours obediently，参见servant

object

1.注意下面第一句里用in，第二句里用of：

My object in writing this book is to teach English usage.

The object of writing this book is to teach English usage.

第一句改作The object of my writing this book is to teach English usage也可以，但不很自然。

2.with the object of...ing主要是公文用语。注意用with，不用for。

3.object用作“反对”解是不及物动词，后面接to。例如：I object to it.那to的宾语往往是动名词。例如：I object to doing it. I object to do it不算正当。

4.object that...是“提出…作为反对的理由”，不是“反对…”，如He objected that I was not careful enough是“他因为我不够小心而提出反对”。“我反对付他钱”不可说I object that I pay him，该改作I object to paying him。“他的母亲反对他在晚上出去”不可说His mother objected that he went out at night，该改作His mother objected to his going out at night。但可以说His mother objected that it was not good for him to go out at night。

objection

1.objection后面接to。例如：He felt an objection to the plan.和Is there any objection to the plan?那to的宾语往往是动名词。例如：He felt an objection to doing it. He felt an objection to do it不算正当。

2.take objection to（对于…提出反对）里没有an, make an objection to里有an。

objective

在公文里往往用objective来代替aim或purpose。

obligate

obligate通常用在被动语态，后面接不定式。例如：As guardian of the child, Tom was obligated to provide for her education.（作为那孩子的保护人，汤姆有责任提供她教育的机会。）和A witness in court is obligated to tell the truth.（证人在法庭上有说出真相的义务。）

obligation

1.obligation（责任）后面可以接不定式，如our obligation to serve the people。

2.without obligation（不受约束地）和free and without obligation（免费而不受约束地）是商业常用语。例如：Call or write without obligation.（请亲自来或写信来询问都可以，问了不买也不妨。）和If you qualify under the simple rules, you will be given a complete preliminary home study course absolutely free and without obligation.

oblige(d)

1.oblige作“赐恩惠给…”解。例如：You will oblige me by calling at the office tomorrow morning.和Please oblige me by closing the window. obliged只指小事情，不指大事情，如不可说The party obliged me by supporting my family during my long illness。表示感激该用被动语态，obliged的一切结构跟indebted相同。参见indebted

2.and oblige是商业信函末尾的陈套语，oblige把下面的签名做宾语，所以后面不该用句号。例如：

Kindly look into the matter, and oblige

Yours very truly,

Henry A. Wilcox

这种用法现在比以前少见，在一般通信里该避免。

oblivious

1.oblivious的正确意思是“忘记了的”，就是“不再知道的”，并不是“不知道的”，如可以说Oblivious of his engagement, he went to bed，不可说Oblivious of his brother's unexpected arrival, he went to bed。

2.oblivious后面该接of，接to不算正当。

observation

说“观察报告”通常用复数形式observations。例如：He published his scientific observations last month.

observe

1.observe（无意间注意到）的宾语后面的不定式没有to。例如：I observed him go out.但假使把observe改作被动语态，那不定式便该有to。例如：He was observed to go out.

2.下面两句意思略有不同：

I observed him go out.（我无意间注意到他出去。）

I observed him going out.（我无意间注意到他正在出去。）

第二句着重在那个人正在出去而恰巧被我看见。参见notice 4

3.observe that...有时是“觉得…”，有时是“说…”，如He observed that I was wrong可能有两个意思：“他察觉到我是错的。”或“他说我是错的。”在有可能被人误解的时候，该避免用这结构。

obstacle

1.obstacle指一个一个的障碍，并不是抽象名词，如可以说He has conquered a great many obstacles，不可说He has conquered a great deal of obstacle.

2.obstacle后面接to和名词或动名词。例如：This is an obstacle to progress.和There are many obstacles to learning a language from conversation.

obtain

obtain有时有双宾语，作“使…得到…”解。例如：His work obtained him a regular income.

obtainable

every modern type of equipment obtainable, all modern types of equipment obtainable, the only modern type of equipment obtainable和the best modern type of equipment obtainable里的obtainable移到modern前面也可以，但不很自然。有时前面并没有all, every等词而obtainable也用在它所修饰的词的后面。例如：He was kind enough to answer my questions and give me information not easily obtainable.把information not easily obtainable改作not easily obtainable information也可以，但不是很自然。

occasion

1.occasion前面用on。例如：I met some strangers on that occasion.

2.on occasion作“偶尔地”解。例如：I call on him on occasion.注意不用复数形式occasions。

3.have occasion to...（不定式）作“有…的必要”解。例如：I had occasion to spend a night at a temple some years ago.下面几点该注意：

（1）这种用法不作“有…的机会”解。

（2）occasion前面没有an或the。

（3）说“没有…的必要”可以说have no occasion to..., have little occasion to...或not have any occasion to...。例如：I have no（或little）occasion to see him these days.和I do not have any occasion to see him these days.

比较下面两句：

I have no occasion to see him.（我不必要看见他。）

I have no opportunity（或chance）to see（或of seeing）him.（我没有机会看见他。）

I have no occasion of seeing him是不成立的。

4.take occasion to...（不定式）作“趁着机会而…”解。例如：I took occasion to tell him about my work.下面两点该注意：

（1）occasion前面没有an或the。

（2）“不趁着机会而…”该说not take occasion to...，不可说take no occasion to...或take little occasion to...或not take any occasion to...，如可以说I did not take occasion to tell him about my work，不可说I took no（或little）occasion to tell him about my work或I did not take any occasion to tell him about my work。

5.occasion用作动词可以有双宾语。例如：His long silence occasions me great anxiety.但现在用occasion不及用cause普通。

occasional(ly)

1.occasional是“偶然的”或“非经常的”。例如：

This sort of thing is occasional and not the rule.（这种事是偶然的，并不是常规。）

They had an occasional night out.（他们逢场作戏难得在外面玩一夜。）

He pays me very occasional visits.（他很难得来访我。）

2.occasionally是“偶然地”或“非经常地”。例如：He writes to me very occasionally.（他很难得写信给我。）

occupancy

occupancy是“（对于房屋等的）占有”。例如：During their occupancy of the house, they had it redecorated.（在他们住在这房子里的时期，他们把它重行装修了。）occupation是“（合法或用武力得到的）占领”。例如：The occupation of the country by the opposing forces began during the winter. army of occupation（占领军）和zone of occupation（占领区）里的occupation不可改作occupancy。

occupation

参见occupancy

occur

occur比happen正式。

ocean

Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Arctic Ocean等表达方式前面有the。假使不用Ocean这词，Pacific等前面也有the。

o'clock

说“几点几分”通常不用o'clock，如“7点15分”通常不说fifteen minutes past seven o'clock, (a) quarter past seven o'clock或seven fifteen o'clock。但在文字里可以用7.15 o'clock。

October

参见April

odd

forty odd, forty-odd和forty and odd都作“40以上，50以下”解。

of

1.可以说He is a friend of mine，不可说He is a friend of me。但a friend of my father's和a friend of my father都可以说，不过第二种形式不及第一种形式普通。在口语和非正式的文字里通常用第一种形式，在正式文字里（尤其在说起著名人物的场合）往往用第二种形式， 如an acquaintance of President Lincoln和a relative of the Premier。

2.可以说a friend of my father's, that friend of my father's, this friend of my father's和any friend of my father's，但不可说the friend of my father's。

3.that big head of yours比your big head多些情感的成分，有“你那大得可厌（或可笑）的头”的意思，that long beard of your grandfather's也比your grandfather's long beard多些情感的成分。

4.a story of Mark Twain可能是“关于马克·吐温的一个故事”，可能是“马克·吐温讲的一个故事”，a story of Mark Twain's是“马克·吐温讲的一个故事”。a portrait of the poet是“这个诗人的一幅画像”，a portrait of the poet's是“这个诗人所有的一幅画像”。an impartial estimate of the critic是“对于这个批评家作的一个公平的估价”，an impartial estimate of the critic's是“这个批评家作的一个公平的估价”。

5.注意下面每组第一句里最高级形式后面有of，第二句里最高级形式后面没有of：

6.下面各句都不合习惯：

I will show you the books of me（该改作my books）.

What is the name of you（该改作your name）?

We shall be glad to meet the teacher of him（该改作his teacher）.

News has been received of the arrival of them（该改作their arrival）.

但下面各句都合乎习惯：

She didn't like the look of him.

She hated the very sight of him.

She could not for the life of her recall his address.

Her cough proved to be the death of her.

She would like to meet the likes of you（像你这样的人们）.

7.下面各句里的of可有可无：

When I was (of) your age, I was in the country.

I do not know (of) what colour the paper is.

Here is a piece of wood (of) the right size.

He has an album (of) the same thickness as mine.

I do not know (of) what shape the table is.

The handkerchief is (of) a very smart design.

The two boys are (of) exactly the same weight.

The autumn leaves are (of) a glorious red.

8.关于careful, idea和notion后面省去of，参见careful 2, idea和notion 2

9.注意下面两句的结构：

He is the best musician of any man I know.

He is the man of all others for the job.

这种结构是合乎习惯的。但因为它们是不合理的，有些英美人以为该避免。上面两句可以改作：

10.(a) quarter of five, ten minutes of eight等是美国英语，相当于英国英语(a) quarter to five, ten minutes to eight等。

11.比较下面各组里的各句：

下面的形容词都可以用在这种结构里：

absurd, bad, base, bold, brave, brutal, careful, careless, charming, civil, clever, considerate, courageous, cruel, darling, dear, decent, dreadful, eccentric, foolish, friendly, good, grand, grateful, honest, horrible, horrid, ill-natured, illogical, impertinent, impolite, impudent, inconsiderate, kind, magnanimous, marvellous, mean, naughty, nice, noble, odd, polite, presumptuous, rash, right, rude, saucy, sensible, shabby, shameful, silly, small, smart, spiteful, splendid, strange, stupid, sweet, tactful, tactless, thoughtful, thoughtless, tiresome, unfriendly, ungrateful, unkind, unreasonable, unwise, weak, wicked, wise, wonderful, wrong

12.a cup more of tea, a bundle more of letters, a couple more of glasses, a lot more of books等表达方式里的of有时被省去。

13.关于We would sit together in the park of a morning等，参见a, an 21

14.关于hard of heart等，参见a, an 18

15.关于a fool of a man, a gem of a poem等，参见a, an 22

off

1.an alley off the street等表达方式里的off作leading out of解，不可改作of。

2.well off, badly off, comfortably off, poorly off等表达方式里的off被看作副词或形容词都可以。也可以说How are you off for money today（你今天的经济状况怎样）。

3.下面第一句里的of和第二句里的from都是多余的，这种多用的of主要用在美国，多用的from主要用在英国：

I lifted the big volume off of the shelf.

I left off from work at six o'clock.

offend(ed)

1.说“违犯（法律、风俗、礼貌等）”现在不可用及物动词offend，必须说offend against。

2.关于an offended tone（一个生气的语调）等，参见much 3 (5) E

offer

1.offer不论用作名词或动词，后面都接不定式，如his offer to help her和He offered to help her。

2.在offer（名词）后面接不定式，那不定式所表示的动作通常属于提出offer的人。例如：He made an offer to teach me French.但有时并不这样。例如：He made me an offer to teach French at a school.

3.offer（名词或动词）to give...犯着重复的毛病，如不该说his offer to give her help和He offered to give her help，该改作his offer of help to her和He offered her help。

4.下面两句意思相同，第一句主要用在英国，第二句主要用在美国：

Both advice and help were offered to the young man.

Both advice and help were offered the young man.

office

1.关于office boy，参见office-boy

2.go to the office（到办公室去办公）里的the最好不省去。

office-boy

office-boy是“练习生”，不是殖民地或半殖民地的“仆欧”或“西崽”（boy）。

officer

officer单独用通常指（海、陆或空军的）军官。

official

“政府工作人员”可以译作government official。

offspring

说一个人的子女，无论几个都用单数形式offspring。例如：this young man, the offspring of an Irishman and a Scotchwoman和two offspring born at one birth。offsprings指几个人的子女。

often

1.oftener和oftenest比more often和most often普通。

2.ever so often作very often解，every so often作“有时”或“偶尔”解，是美国英语。

3.more often than not指“往往、多半”。as often as not可说等于often。as often as not里的第一个as偶尔省去。

oftentimes

oftentimes比often语气重些，现在主要用在美国。

oh

oh比O普通。oh后面通常有标点，O后面通常没有标点。例如：

OK

OK有时用作动词，作“在…上写OK”或“把…认为无误”解。它的现在分词和动名词是OK'ing，过去式和过去分词是OK'd。

old

1.习惯说How old are you和I do not know how old he is，不该在old前面加上many years。

2.a boy of ten years old, a boy of ten years和a boy ten years old都可以说。The boy left school at ten years old和The boy left school at ten (years)也都可以说。

3.可以说in old age，但不可说at an old age或at the old age of ninety，该把old改作advanced。

4.关于older brother等，参见elder

omission

omission后面有时接不定式。例如：An apology is due to him for the omission to add a footnote by way of explanation.

omit

omit后面接不定式或动名词都可以，如She omitted to give her address和She omitted giving her address。

omnibus

1.omnibus是“公共汽车”，其实不一定用“汽”，即使用马拖的也可以叫omnibus。

2.在日常文字和口语里omnibus不及bus（是omnibus的简写形式）普通。但an omnibus volume（作品汇编）和Bernard Shaw omnibus（萧伯纳作品汇编）等表达方式里的omnibus不可改作bus。近几年来omnibus在美国有时指百戏杂陈的电视节目。

on

1.日期前面的on有时省去。例如：

The People's Republic of China was established (on) 1 October, 1949.

The Second World War was finished (on) 3 September, 1945.

John Galsworthy was born (on) 4 August, 1867 and died (on) 31 January, 1933.

(On) May Day we are to take part in the gala performance.

I met him again (on) the following day.

2.关于in the morning和on the next morning等，参见in 4

3.下面两句里的on是美国用法，在英国通常用in：

He lives on the next street.

She often reads on a railway train.

在英国说on a railway journey，但in a railway train。

4.注意下面两句里的on the river意思不同：

He lives in a house on the river.（在河的旁边）

He sails on the river every Sunday.（在河上）

once

1.下面五句意思相同：

Once you reach land, you are safe.

If once you reach land, you are safe.

When once you reach land, you are safe.

If you reach land, you are safe.

When you reach land, you are safe.

第一句里的Once用作连接词。习惯上被它引导的从句总是很短的，不该用它引导较长的从句。如Once you reach the house at the top of the next street, you are safe里的Once改作If once好些。

2.下面两句意思不同：

He beat me once.（他有一次打败了我。）

He beat me for once.（他只有一次打败了我［在其他时候总是我打败他的］。）

for once可以改作for this once或this once。

3.not once是“一次也没有”，就是“永不”。例如：Not once have you done as I have asked.注意用have you，不用you have。not once or（或nor）twice是“不止一二次”，就是“多次”。

4.once and for all不及once for all普通。

5.once on a time远不及once upon a time普通。

6.指自己的事时，除了故意把它说得好像故事一样以外，一般不用once upon a time，单用once就是了。

7.once in a way偶尔前面有for。

one

1.关于one和a的区别，参见a, an 20

下面两句里的a和an不可改作one：

About a thousand people attended the lecture.

We spent nearly an hour in the park.

2.下面两句里都有a：

This book is a good one.

This book is such a one as is needed by every student of English.

但下面两句里都没有a：

He has many books, I want to borrow one.

This book is one that is needed by every student of English.

你也许要问是否可以说This book is the one that is needed by every student of English。有the和没有the全句的意思不同：没有the，全句的意思是“这是一本每一个研究英语的人所需要的书”。有了the，全句的意思是“这便是那每一个研究英语的人所需要的（唯一的）书”。

可以说a good one，也可以说one good one。

3.不可说my one(s), your one(s), his one(s)等，也不可说John's one(s), Smith's one(s), John Smith's one(s)等，如不可说：

Your cat is black, my one is white.

All his friends are artists, all her ones are teachers.

My house is larger than John's one.

His books are kept downstairs, and his brother's ones are kept upstairs.

第一句里的my one该改作mine，第二句里的her ones该改作hers，第三句里的one和第四句里的ones都该删去。

但假使在那one或ones前面加上了形容词，那one或ones便用得不错，而且不可省去。例如：

Your cat is black, my young one is white.

All his friends are artists, all her new ones are teachers.

My house is larger than John's red one.

His books are kept downstairs, and his brother's English ones are kept upstairs.

4.these ones和those ones很不普通，最好不说，把ones删去：

These ones are too small. I want those ones.

但假使在ones前面加上了形容词，那ones便不可省去。例如：

These green ones are too small. I want those black ones.

5.注意下面两句里用have和are，不用has和is：

This is one of the best books that have ever been written on the subject.

She is one of the few girls who are acquainted with the old poet.

第一句里的that指books，不指one，所以该用have，第二句里的who指girls，不指one，所以该用are。但注意下面两句里用has和is，不用have和are：

This is the one of the books on the subject that has ever been written in Chinese.

She is the only one of the few girls of my acquaintance that is acquainted with the old poet.

第一句里的that指the one，不指books，所以用has，第二句里的that指the only one，不指girls，所以用is。

6.注意下面各种表达方式的结构：

one of the best, if not the best, of books,

one of the best books, if not the best,

one of the, if not the, best of books,

one of the, if not the, best books,

one of the, if not the, best book,

one of the best, if not the best, books,

one of the best, if not the best, book

第一种表达方式和第二种表达方式不错。第三种表达方式不对，因为best兼指单数和复数。第四种表达方式不对，因为if not the只能等于if not the best books，不能等于if not the best book。第五种表达方式不对，因为one of the best book当然不通。第六种表达方式不对，因为if not the best只能等于if not the best books，不能等于if not the best book。第七种表达方式不对，因为one of the best book当然不通。

7.注意下面各句里的斜体部分：

One should take care of one's health.

One should take care of his health.

One of them does not take care of his health.

One of them does not take care of her health.

One who does not take care of his health is likely to be ill at any time.

He behaves like one who never takes care of his health.

She behaves like one who never takes care of her health.

One has to say here that one always takes care of one's health.

第一句和第二句意思相同，One都指“任何人”。第一句里用one's是英国用法，第二句里用his是美国用法。但这种“美国用法”并不限于美国，在苏格兰也很普通，在二三百年前，在英国也很普通，现在也还有许多英国人用。有下面四点该注意：

（1）既然用one's指“任何人”的one，同样地也用one和oneself。例如：One must occasionally do things that one dislikes.和One should learn to express oneself clearly.

（2）在one指“任何人”的时候，不可用they, them, their或themselves指它，如不可说One should take care of their health。

（3）不可用one, one's或oneself指anyone, everyone, noone或someone，如不可说Everyone should take care of one's health，该把one's 改作his。

（4）句子里多用了one和one's往往不自然：如One knows one's friends will help one if one is in trouble, or at least one hopes one's friends will help one嫌不自然。

第三句里用his，因为指男子。第四句里用her，因为指女子。one of them的是男是女或者非男非女当然一定，one并非指“任何人”，his或her或者its决不可改作one's。假使one of them里的them包括男和女，说话者又不能确定那one of them是男是女，那末该用his or her。例如：One of them does not take care of his or her health.

第五句里的One虽然也指“任何人”，但因为后面有who...这一从句，习惯用he, him和himself指它。

第六句里用his，因为指男子。第七句里用her，因为指女子。

第八句实际等于I have to say here that I always take care of my health。这种用法有人以为是不正当的。下面各句里都有这用法：

One is rather busy just now.

One is glad to have done it.

He told me so, and one was very glad.

One regards him as one's best friend.

8.one or two被当作复数形式。例如：There are one or two things that I have to mention. one or two通常作“若干”解，很少作“一或二”解。

9.关于one...the other...和the one...the other...，下面几点该注意：

（1）说“一个”和“另一个”而不说明“前后”通常用one...and the other ...。例如：I have two brothers, one is fifteen and the other is eleven.但也有人在one前面加上the。

（2）说明“前后”必须用the one...the other...。例如：I have two brothers, Paul and Richard, the one（指Paul）is fifteen and the other（指Richard）is eleven.

（3）在（2）里看来，the one指“前者”，the other指“后者”，这是现代英语里的用法。从前却把the one指“后者”，the other指“前者”。

oneself

oneself比one's self普通。one's self着重在“自己”或“本身”的意思。比较下面两句：

One is expected to enjoy oneself here.

One must do nothing to damage one's self.

onlooker

onlooker通常指故意在旁观看的人，如看人下棋或看医生施行手术的人，looker-on通常指偶然在旁观看的人，如在路上闲看的人。

only

1.许多语法书和修辞学书里有一条规则说only（副词）必须贴近它所修饰的词，否则意思便不明白，如I want only two apples和He died only a week ago两句很明白，I only want two apples和He only died a week ago便不明白。但事实上英美人经常用I only want two apples和He only died a week ago这类的句子，而且意思也并不含糊。汉语里也有不少这类句子，如说“我只要两个苹果”和“他只在一星期前死去”，不说“我要只两个苹果”和“他在只一星期前死去”。文言里也是这样，如说“仅存十之六”，不说“存仅十之六”或“存十之仅六”。

上面所举的I only want two apples和He only died a week ago不及I want only two apples和He died only a week ago“合理”。I had only to look out of my window to see it和It was only later that we found out the truth两句里的only都贴近它所修饰的词。但假使在一个句子里，死守那规则语气便不自然，不守那规则语气便自然，而且意思并不含糊，那末还是不守规则的好。

2.注意下面两句里用have they和can we，不用they have和we can：

Only once before have they called on us.

Only by this means can we hope to succeed.

偶尔也有Only then he realized his mistake等句，但总不及Only then did he realize his mistake等句正常。

3.下面每句里的that可有可无：

I would do it with pleasure, only (that) I am too busy.

He would have come yesterday, only (that) pressure of work did not allow him to come.

用了that意思重在那主要的从句，不用that意思重在那附属的从句，如I would do it with pleasure, only that I am too busy是“假使我不太忙，我将乐于做这个”。I would do it with pleasure, only I am too busy是“我将乐于做这个，可是我太忙了”。下面两句里不可加上that：

He is very careful, only he sometimes makes mistakes.（他很小心，可是他偶尔还会犯错误。）

You may come at any time, only you had better let me know beforehand.（你可以随时来，可是你最好预先通知我。）

4.only往往有“出人意料”或“反而”的意思。例如：

I went to see him, only to learn that he had left the city the night before.（我去看他，不料听人家说他已经在前夜离开了这个城市。）

Failure only strengthened our determination.（失败［不但不使我们失望］反而加强了我们的决心。）

The money Pual got only served to make him want more.（他所得到的钱，反而使他要更多的钱［保罗因为得到了钱，反而愈加要钱了］。）

5.only too glad, only too pleased, only too willing, only too thankful, only too good, only too true等表达方式里的only too的意思是“并不是不…而的确是…”，就是“竟然…”或“却很…”，如She was only too glad to help you是“她并不是不乐于帮助你，而的确是乐于帮助你”。

6.He is too lazy to do it等句子里不可在too前面加上only。注意He is only too glad to do it里用only不错，这句里的to do it修饰glad，不修饰too。

7.one and only是only的强势式。例如：This is your one and only chance.

onto

onto作to a position on解。例如：

He got onto his horse quickly.

The boat was driven onto the rocks.

He held onto the window ledge.

He stepped out of the boat onto the shore.

The boy climbed out of the attic window onto the roof.

The cat jumped onto the table.

下面几点该注意：

（1）有许多英美人以为并没有onto这个词，他们以为用on或to便够了。

（2）onto多少有些口语性质，在正式些的文字里该避免。

（3）像下面各句里的on和to不可并成onto（on是副词）：

We must walk on to the next village.

Please read this and pass it on to your neighbour.

The young author is struggling on to success.

From one victory we go on to another.

open

1.with open arms跟with open hand(s)意思不同。例如：

They welcomed us with open arms.（他们热诚地欢迎我们。）

Paul spent money with open hand(s).（保罗用钱慷慨。）

2.The path is open to the wayfarer是“这条小路行人可以走（不被禁止）”。The path is open for the wayfarer是“这条小路是为了行人开放的”。

3.下面两句意思不同：

I opened the book at page 75.（我把这本书［偶然］翻到第75页。）

I opened the book to page 75.（我把这本书［故意］翻到第75页。）

operate

1.下面各句里的operate和operated都有些美国英语味：

They operate the school together.

The theatre is well operated.

I do not know how to operate a motor-car.

This farm is operated by a hundred peasants.

在英国通常用conduct(ed), manage(d), run（或ran）, carry（或carried）on等。

下面各句里的operate和operated也都有些美国英语味：

The school and the library operate under the same management.（在英国通常用are conducted）

The doctor has operated in the city for years.（在英国通常用practised）

This custom seems to operate in several places.（在英国通常用prevail）

He operated in the negotiations with tact.（在英国通常用acted）

2.说“对于（人或身体的某部分）施行外科手术”在operate后面接on或upon。例如：

The doctor operated (up)on me carefully.

My right eye was operated (up)on for the detachment of the retina（视网膜剥离）on the afternoon of 9 October, 1956.

注意不可说The doctor operated (up)on the detachment of the retina或The detachment of the retina was operated (up)on，该说The doctor operated (up)on me（或my right eye）for the detachment of the retina和I（或My right eye）was operated (up)on for the detachment of the retina。

The doctor operated (up)on him carefully等句子里的on或upon美国人（尤其医生们）往往省去，不算正当。

operation

1.the operation of the school, the operation of the theatre等表达方式里的operation有些美国英语味，在英国通常用conduct, management, running, carrying on等。

2.operation（外科手术）后面接on或upon和指人或身体的某部分的词，如an operation (up)on me和an operation (up)on my right eye。也接for和指病的词，如an operation for the detachment of the retina。

opinion

1.in my opinion, in his opinion, in our opinion, in the opinion of the management等表达方式都是正式的英语，注意用in。

2.I am of (the) opinion that the problem ought to be discussed again等句子里的the可有可无，似乎没有the比有the普通。

3.of (the) opinion that..., of the same opinion和I am of your opinion都是正式的英语。

4.下面四句意思相同：

He asked my opinion.

He asked me my opinion.

He asked me for my opinion.

He asked for my opinion.

5.public opinion（舆论）是抽象名词，前面通常没有a或the，也没有复数形式public opinions。例如：They have public opinion behind it.和Public opinion is against it.

6.of (the) opinion后面不可接不定式，如不可说I am of (the) opinion to discuss the problem again。

7.Jack has no opinion of them是“杰克轻视他们（不把他们放在眼里）”，不是“杰克对于他们没有意见（把他们看作没有缺点）”。

opportunity

1.opportunity用作抽象名词和类名词都有，如much opportunity和little opportunity, an opportunity和many opportunities。

2.opportunity后面接不定式和接of或for和动名词都可以。例如：I shall be glad to have opportunity to see（或of seeing或for seeing）the city. opportunity前面加上the或an也可以。

oppose(d)

下面两句意思相仿：

Tom opposed this plan.（汤姆反对这计划［表示主张］。）

Tom am opposed to this plan.（汤姆对于这计划是反对的［表示状态］。）

第二句里的opposed被用作形容词。那to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以该说Tom is very much opposed to doing that，不可说Tom is very much opposed to do that。

opposite

1.opposite后面的to往往省去，如下面两句里的to可有可无：

I live opposite (to) the post office.

The car stopped opposite (to) the hotel.

2.My view is opposite to yours里的to改作from也可以，但不及用to普通。My view is the very opposite of yours里用of。

3.下面每组里的第一句比第二句自然：

or

1.关于He cannot read (n)or write等句，参见nor 2

2.两个或两个以上的属于单数形式的名词，被or连接起来了，那动词必须是单数。例如：A man or a woman is waiting in the room. A man, a woman, or a boy is waiting in the room.和A man or a woman or a boy is waiting in the room.

3.注意下面各句里的斜体字：

Were you or he there?

Was he or you there?

Either he or you were there.

Either you or he was there.

但这种结构往往被避免使用，上面四句可以改作：

Were you, or was he there?

Was he, or were you there?

Either he was there, or you were.

Either you were there, or he was.

4.注意下面各句里的斜体字：

A boy or a girl is preparing his or her lessons.

A boy or a girl is preparing his lessons.

A boy or a girl is preparing their lessons.

Either a boy is preparing his lessons or a girl is preparing hers.

第一句不自然，第二句不正确，第三句不合语法，第四句不简洁。这种句子最好避免。在不能避免的时候还是用第一句或第四句的好。

5.可以说Paul had to obey his boss or resign。His boss is the kind of man Paul had to obey or resign里的or resign在语法上讲不通，但合乎习惯。

6.比较下面三句：

Put on more clothes, or you may catch cold.

I told him that he should put on more clothes, or he might catch cold.

I told him to put on more clothes, or he might catch cold.

第二句和第三句不及第一句合理，但都可以说。

oral(ly)

oral是“口头的”，orally是“口头地”，“书面的”是written，“书面地”是in writing。例如：

There will be both an oral examination and a written one.

You may answer the questions either orally or in writing.

order

1.in alphabetical order, in chronological order等表达方式里没有a（或an）或the。in order of arrival, in order of merit等表达方式里也没有an或the。in good order, in thorough order等表达方式里也没有a或the, by order（奉命）和by order of（奉…的命令）里也没有an或the。

2.注意下面各句里用复数形式orders：

They received orders to start at once.

The soldiers have orders not to let anybody come past.

He gave orders for the work to be completed by the end of June.

He is under orders to leave for Moscow next monday.

He is not to do anything until further orders.

He has given up smoking under the doctor's orders.

3.order（命令）不论用作动词或名词，语气颇重，不该用在家人父子中间，如不可说He ordered his son to buy a newspaper for him或He gave orders that his son should buy a newspaper for him，该改作He told his son to buy a newspaper for him。参见command 1

4.order（命令）不论用作动词或名词，后面都可接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should或属于虚拟现在式的动词。例如：

He orders that the work should be started at once.

He orders that the work be（不用is）started at once.

His order is that the work should be started at once.

His order is that the work be（不用is）started at once.

He ordered that the work should be started at once.

He ordered that the work be（不用was）started at once.

His order was that the work should be started at once.

His order was that the work be（不用was）started at once.

5.动词order（命令）后可以接宾语和不定式。例如：He ordered them to start the work at once.和He ordered the work to be started at once.不可没有宾语而直接接不定式，如不可说He ordered to start the work at once。

6.He ordered the work to be started at once是英美通用的，He ordered the work started at once（没有to be）是美国英语。下面两句都是美国英语：

They have ordered the house pulled down.

The murderer has been ordered arrested.

7.可以说He was ordered to India（他被命令到印度去）。在ordered后面加上to go也可以。

8.order往往译作“定货单”，其实不一定是“定”，也不一定有“单”，如开了单向商店里买几件东西，是“定”而且有“单”，是order，但向商店口头或用电话说要买什么东西，既不是“定”，也没有“单”，却也是order。

9.We have sent an order for a hundred copies of the book里的order是名词，注意后面接for（偶尔接of）。We have ordered a hundred copies of the book里的ordered是动词，注意它是及物动词，后面没有for。

10.说“依照交货单配货”，习惯用execute或fill。例如：Your order for a hundred copies of the book has been executed（或filled）already.在美国通常用fill(ed)。

11.下面四句里的ordered都有双宾语：

My doctor has ordered me a holiday.（我的医生已经嘱我休假。）

My doctor has ordered me cod liver oil.（我的医生已经嘱我服鱼肝油。）

My mother has ordered me a new suit.（我的母亲已经替我买了一套新衣服。）

I have ordered you a copy of H. W. Fowler's English Grammar.（我已经替你买了一册Fowler的《英语语法》。）

第三句可以改作My mother has ordered a new suit for me。第四句可以改作I have ordered a copy of H. W. Fowler's English Grammar for you。但第一句和第二句似乎不可这样改。

12.I have ordered a copy of the book from the bookseller里的from改作of也可以。但I have ordered a copy of the book from Beijing（地名）里的from不可改作of。

13.money order, postal order和post-office order后面接for和款额。例如：a money order for ¥200

14.汉语信函里的“遵命”、“方命”等表达方式里的“命”是客气话，在英语里不该用order来表示这意思，如I shall be pleased to comply with your request里的request不可改作order, I am sorry I cannot do what you have asked me to (do)里的asked不可改作ordered。

15.order有时指“被（定）购的货”。例如：

Your order will be shipped this afternoon.

Your order will reach you in a few days.

The order has not yet been delivered.

所以The order has been sent可能有两个不同的意思：（1）购货通知已经发出。（2）所买的货已经发出。

16.in order to...（不定式）比单用to...正式而语气重，在口语里极少用。so as to...比较不正式些，比较下面三句：

He went to Europe to attend an important conference.

He went to Europe so as to attend an important conference.

He went to Europe in order to attend an important conference.

17.I am sending you the book in order for you to read it里的in order for you to read it不是正常的英语，可以改作in order to enable you to read it，但不及for you to read或so that you may read it自然。

18.下面每组里的第一句最普通，末句最不普通：

19.下面各句里的in order意思各不相同：

Everything is in order.（一切正常。）

The typewriter is in order.（这台打字机没有坏，可以用。）

A fresh discussion of the question is now in order.（重新讨论这问题现在是适宜的。）

Unless the weather clears up today, a further delay will be in order.（假使今天不转晴，也许要再耽搁一下。）

第三和第四句里的in order是美国英语。

origin

1.men of humble origin, words of Latin origin, tales of Eastern origin, words and senses of recent（或late）origin等表达方式里的of后面没有a或the。但This word has a Greek origin里有a。

2.Nothing certain is known of his origins和His origins were humble里用复数形式origins比用单数形式普通。

ostensible

ostensible和ostentatious意思不同，看了下面一段文字便明白：

His ostensible motive was patriotism. Actually, he was a spy. Therefore his gestures of devotion to the country were ostentatious.（他外表的动机是爱国。实际上，他是个间谍。所以他那些忠于国家的姿态都是夸示性的［就是做给人家看的］。）

ostentatious

参见ostensible

other

1.可以说the other two和(the) two others, (the) two other也有人说，但不普通（参见2）。不可说other two（没有the）。可以说the two other books和the other two books，但只可说two other books（没有the），不可说other two books（没有the）。

2.some other of his books, several other of my friends等表达方式里的other现在不及others普通。

3.注意下面三句里的斜体字：

She has received gifts other than flowers.（她所收到的东西不是花。）

She has received other gifts besides flowers.（她收到了花和其他东西。）

Here is a flower other than（偶尔用from）yours.

下面各句意思不同：

He has visited every other country than England.（他到过英国以外的每个国家。）

He has visited every other country besides England.（他到过英国，也到过英国以外的每个国家。）

He has visited every other country except（或but）England.（他到过某国以外的每个国家，但不曾到过英国。）

注意别用第三句表达第一句的意思。

4.Shanghai is more populous than any other city in China里的other不可省去，因为没有了它好像说“上海并不在中国”或“上海的人口比上海的人口多”了。同样地，下面两句里的other不可省去。

Iron is more useful than any other metal.

I like oranges more than any other fruit.

5.比较下面两句：

I wish he were other than he is.

I wish he could conduct himself other than he does.

第一句里的other是形容词，第二句里的other被用作副词，有人以为该改用otherwise。

6.other more important matters是“（这［些］更重要的事以外的）其他更重要的事”，other and more important matters是“其他的而且更重要的事”。

7.the other day（或morning, afternoon, evening, night）作“不久以前的某天（或早晨、下午、晚上、夜里）”解。例如：I met him the other day（或morning, afternoon, evening, night）.这里虽然有the，却并不指定哪一天。

8.关于each other和one another，参见another 8和each 6，7和8

9.关于He is the man of all others for the job等句，参见of 9

ought

1.ought是助动词，但在现代英语里它后面的不定式必须有to。例如：You ought to read it once more.

2.比较下面各句：

You ought to do it today.

You ought to do it tomorrow.

You ought to have done it yesterday.（你昨天该做这个［可是你不曾做］。）

When you came yesterday, I told you that you ought to do it at once.

When you came yesterday, I told you that you ought to have done it the day before.

our

1.下面三句里的our都不对，该改作his。假使us所指的都是女子，该改作her，假使us所指的男女都有，该改作his or her：

Each of us ought to do our best.

Every one of us ought to do our best.

Which of us ought not to do our best?

下面三句里的our也不对，该改作their：

Some of us did our best.

Many of us did our best.

Five of us did our best.

2.our hero, our little artist, our young friend等表达方式里的our表示“说话者（或作文者）”和“听者（或读者）”对于所提及的人的关心或情感。

out

1.out用作介词现在只流行在美国，如out the gate和out the window。在英国用out of，很难得用from out，如from out the gate和from out the window。

out用作介词有下面几点该注意：

（1）有些美国人以为不该把out用作介词而该改用out of。

（2）out用作介词通常用在door, gate和window的前面，不用在house, room, garden, school等词的前面。

（3）out the door, out the gate, out the window, out the wall等表达方式里的out有时作“在…的外面”解。

（4）He lives out this street是“他住在这条街的离开中心较远的地方”。He is driving out the street是“他正在离开这条街的中心驶去”。

2.The sun is out是“太阳从云里出来了”，不是“日出了”。

3.The book is out可能是（1）“这书已经（从图书馆）被人借走了，这书已经出借了。”或（2）“这书已经出版了。”

outcome

the final outcome里的final是多余的，该去掉。

outdoor(s)

关于outdoor, outdoors, out-of-door, out-of-doors和out of doors的用法，有下面几点该注意：

（1）outdoor是形容词，如outdoor exercise和outdoor hospitals。

（2）outdoors主要是副词和名词，如We spent most of our time outdoors和He loves the great outdoors。偶尔用作形容词。

（3）out-of-door是形容词，如out-of-door exercise。不及outdoor普通。

（4）out-of-doors是形容词，名词和副词，不很普通。

（5）out of doors是状语短语。

outline

1.an outline和outlines往往意思相同。例如：This book gives an outline（或outlines）of the subject.

2.注意下面各句里的in outline, in clear outline和in broad outline里都没有a（或an）：

This is a map of China in outline.

The drawings must be in clear outline.

The book delineates in broad outline the fundamental of Acupunctural Anaesthesia.

outlook

1.outlook on（或upon）...是“对于…的观念或态度”，outlook for...是“对于…的展望”。例如：He has a broad outlook (up)on life.和There is a good outlook for peace.

2.a town of (a) modern outlook里的a可有可无。

out-of-door(s)

参见outdoor(s)

output

output通常用作抽象名词，很少用an output和outputs。industrial output, agricultural output等表达方式前面没有the。

outset

at the outset和from the outset的区别，相当于at the beginning和from the beginning的区别。

outside

1.outside the house, outside the scope of the article,outside his interests等表达方式里的outside是介词，后面加上了of就使它成为副词。有人以为加of不算正当。

2.I saw no-one outside (of) the gardener等句子里的outside或outside of作“除了…以外”解，主要用在口语里。

outskirt(s)

现在只用复数形式outskirts，前面用on。例如：He lives on the outskirts of the town.（很少用in。）

over

1.关于over和above的区别，参见above 3

2.over and over和over and over again都作“屡次地”解，在英国通常有again。

3.over with作“做完”或“完了”解，是口语。例如：There! The job is over with!（你瞧！那工作做完了！）和It's an important task, so let's get it over with as soon as possible.（这是件重要的工作，所以让我们把它尽快做完。）有人以为该把with去掉。

4.在美国往往在一页的底部写着Over，它的意思是“反面尚有文字，请翻阅”。在英国通常写P. T. O.(=Please turn over)。

5.stay over night（过夜、住宿）里的over night可以写作overnight。

over(-)all

1.用作形容词在英国通常写作over-all（有连字号），在美国通常写作overall（没有连字号）。

2.形容词over(-)all现在用得很广，作“全面的”，“总共的”，“一般的”，“包罗万象的”，“最高的”等解，如可以修饰output, efficiency, objective, figures, direction（指挥）等。

overemphasize

We cannot overemphasize this point是“我们怎样强调这点都不算过份”，就是“我们该尽量强调这点”。

overestimate

The value of cooperation cannot be overestimated是“协作的价值不可能被估计太高”，就是“协作的价值是很高的”。

overhear(d)

overhear(d)指“有意地窃听”和“无意地听到”都可以。例如：Let's overhear them carefully.（有意地）和As I was passing, I overheard him talking to himself.（无意地）

overnight

1.overnight往往作“快得（或容易得）好像只经过一夜工夫地”解。例如：The dramatic change took place almost overnight.和The obscure writer became famous overnight.

2.overnight用作副词可以分开写作over night。

oversea(s)

oversea和overseas都可以用作形容词和副词。可以说oversea(s) readers和oversea(s) correspondents，也可以说readers oversea(s)和correspondents oversea(s)。

oversleep

You must not oversleep yourself里的yourself用的多，不用的少。

owe

1.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

但I owe my success to my father不可改作I owe my father my success。I owe it to you that I am still in perfect health不可改作I owe it you that I am still in perfect health。

I owe twenty yuan to him可以改作被动语态Twenty yuan is owed to him。I owe obedience to him可以改作Obedience is owed to him，但不及Obedience is due to him普通。I owe my success to my father不可改作My success is owed to my father，该把owed改作due。

2.To what do I owe this honour?直译作“靠着什么我有这荣幸？”就是说“你为什么来看我？”

owing

owing可以作“久而未付的”解。例如：I've paid all that was owing.（一切未付的账我现在都已付清了。）和There is still ¥10 owing.（还欠10元。）

own

1.I own to a sense of shame里的to是介词。I own to seeing it every day和I own to having seen it里的to也是介词，being和having不可改作be和have。I own to have seen it等句也有人说，但不很普通，to have seen是不定式完成体。不曾见过I own to see it every day等句。

2.注意下面各句里的own up和own up to：

I advise you to own up（坦白）at once.

I am glad you own up that you used his pen without his consent.

I am glad you own up to it.

3.own有时表示“亲自动手做的”的意思，如she cooks her own meals是“她自己动手煮饭”和She makes all her own clothes是“她所有的衣服都是她自己做的”。就字面讲，第一句也可能是“她为自己煮饭（不是为别人煮饭）”。第二句也可能是“她为自己做衣服（不是为别人做衣服）”。习语mind your（或his等）own business只作“管你（或他等）自己的事（别干涉别人）”解，不作“自己管事（不请别人代管）”解。下面的对话是一个笑话：

A: As you are very busy, you had better not cook your own meals.

B: Really? Whose meals should I cook then?

P

pact

参见compact

pain(ed)

1.说“痛”用pain, a pain和pains都可以，例如：I have pain in the stomach. I have a pain in the stomach. There is a pain in my stomach. I have pains in the stomach.和I have pains all over.但I am in pain里的pain前面不可加上a，也不可改作复数形式pains。

2.说“努力”或“辛劳”必须用复数形式pains，但不一定被当作复数，如下面每组里的两句都可以说（第一句比第二句普通）：

但只可说much pains和little pains，不可说many pains和few pains。much pains和little pains也往往被当作复数。

3.at pains（努力）后面接不定式或以that引导的从句，take pains后面接不定式或in和动名词或with和名词。例如：

I have been at some pains to secure the best available texts for the various selections included.

He was at pains that people should not misunderstand him.（他努力使人们不误解他。）

They are taking great pains to master English.

They are taking great pains in studying English.

You will be successful if you take pains with your work.

4.He is at pains to learn the facts和He is at the pains of learning

the facts意思相同。注意在第一句里不可在pains前面加上the。

5.I am pained to see this和She was pained to hear of his death和He looks pained等句子里的pained都指精神上的痛苦。pained现在很少指肉体上的痛苦，如通常不说He is wounded and pained，该把pained改作in pain。

6.The wound in my arm is paining里的paining作“给（我）痛苦”解，My arm is paining里的paining可以说也作“给（我）痛苦”解，但也可以作“受到痛苦”解。

7.on（或under）pain of（假使违犯了便要受…的处罚）中没有the，比较下面每组里的两句：

8.关于a pained look（一个痛苦的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

painful

1.painful作“使感觉痛苦的”解。例如：He has a painful cut in a finger.和This is a painful piece of news. His painful eyes made it very difficult for him to sleep里的painful也作“使感觉痛苦的”解，就是“使（他）感觉痛苦的”。不可用作“（人）感觉痛苦的”解，如不可说He is painful in the eyes或I am painful to see this，该改作He has painful eyes 和I am pained to see this。

2.The story of his sufferings is painful to listen to和It is painful to listen to his story of sufferings都可以说。

pair

1.在数字后面用pair或pairs都可以，如three pair(s) of shoes 和several pair(s) of stockings。似乎pairs普通些。

2.严格地说，a pair of new shoes是“一双新鞋子”，a new pair of shoes是“另一双鞋子”，但事实上也往往把a new pair of shoes用作“一双新鞋子”解。

3.the pair of them是“他们俩”，不一定指夫妇。

pajamas

参见pyjamas

Pancha Shila

Pancha Shila（潘查希拉：印度语“五项原则”）前面有the。

panel

panel discussion作“专题讨论会”解，是美国英语。

pang

pang不是抽象名词，所以可以说a pang of...和pangs of...，不可说pang of...。说肉体上的痛苦通常用复数形式pangs，如pangs of death和pangs of hunger。说精神上的痛苦用a pang和pangs都可以，如a pang of grief和pangs of grief。

panic

panic是类名词，也是抽象名词，所以There was (a) panic among the people里的a可有可无。

pants

1.pants在英国往往指衬裤（drawers），也就是在美国所说的underpants，在美国等于trousers。

2.this pair of pants和these pants都指一条裤子。说“多条”是pairs of pants。

paper

1.说“一张纸”和“多张纸”通常不说a paper和papers，却说a sheet of paper和sheets of paper。但papers往往指“多张纸件”（例如信函等）。例如：Do not disturb the papers on the desk. a paper和papers往往指“纸包”。例如：Pleae wrap it in a paper.和I bought two papers of pins yesterday.

2.a piece of paper有时是“一片纸”，有时是“一张纸”（=a sheet of paper），往往必须看了上下文才能决定。

3.put（或set）pen to paper（开始写）是习语，pen和paper前面不可加上the。

4.“当地的报纸”该说the papers。例如：What do the papers say about it?

5.“有格的纸”该说ruled paper，不说lined paper。

paradise

paradise（天堂）前面没有the。

paraphrase

paraphrase是类名词，也是抽象名词。例如：This is a careful paraphrase of the passage.和Paraphrase is the art of expressing the meaning of a passage of prose or verse so as to make it clearer.

pardon

参见for 10

parent

parent指“父”或“母”，说“父母”必须用复数形式parents。

parentage

a man of obscure parentage等表达方式里在obscure前面没有an或the。

parenthesis

parenthesis的复数形式是parentheses。“（　）”叫做parenthesis或parentheses都可以，但in parentheses比in parenthesis普通。

park

... Park前面没有the，如Hyde Park（英国），Windsor Park（英国），Central Park（美国）和Yellowstone National Park（美国）前面都没有the。

parliament

1.Parliament指英国议会，前面没有the。但English Parliament和British Parliament前面有the。

2.英国国会有上下两议院，House of Lords和House of Commons。但enter Parliament和go into parliament只作“充任下议院议员”解。关于member of Paliament，参见member 2

parlo(u)r

1.parlour用来指住宅的“会客室”（drawing-room）或“起居室”（sitting-room），在英国现在不普通。

2.tonsorial parlor（理发店），shoe-shine parlor（擦鞋店），ice-cream parlor（冰淇淋店）等都是美国英语。

parrot

parrot通常被当作阴性。

part

1.关于part，a part和(a) great part，参见a, an 11

2.most part（百分之五十以上）of them比the most part of them普通。

3.part of或a part of后面的名词或代词假使是单数，那动词也是单数，假使是复数，那动词也是复数，如(A) part of it is good和(A) part of them are good。

4.two parts是“三分之二”，three parts是“四分之三”，four parts是“五分之四”，nine parts是“十分之九”，nineteen parts是“二十分之十九”。parts前的数字总是比那全部少一。

5.a great part是“一大部分”，但不一定百分之五十以上，the greater part是“百分之五十以上”。

6.on the part of...（在［某人］方面）和on my（或your等）part前面的抽象名词前面通常没有the。例如：

This is due to good taste on the part of the reading public.

We have heard of strong objection on their part.

7.in part（部分地），in large part（大部分地），in great part等表达方式里不用a。例如：The success was in (large) part due to their tireless efforts.（不作in a [large] part）和The book is devoted in (great) part to depicting Irish life.（不作in a [great] part）

8.in parts和in part不同。The success was in part due to their tireless efforts里的in part不可改作in parts。The story is in part written in verse是“这故事部分地用诗体写成”。The story is in parts written in verse是“这故事有几部分用诗体写成”。

9.take part in（参加）中没有a或the。

10.take part with和take the part of都作“赞助”或“袒护”解，注意第一种表达方式里用with，没有the，第二种表达方式里用of，有the。

11.part（不及物动词）是一时的动作，所以不可说We have parted for a year，该说We parted a year ago或It is a year since we parted。We feel as if we had been parted from each other for years里的been不可省去。

12.说“跟（某人）分别”用part from比用part with普通，如He parted from his wife last week比He parted with his wife last week普通。说“放弃（东西）”用part with比用part from普通，如He had to part with some of his most cherished possessions比He had to part from some of his most cherished possessions普通。说“停止雇用（某人）”只可用part with，不可用part from。

13.He looked part pleased，part amused，part sympathetic里的part是副词，作partly解。

partake

partake of用作“吃”或“喝”解是被认为不正当的。例如：Being alone, he consoled himself by partaking of a cup of wine.

partially

严格地说，partially是“有限地”，它的反义词是completely，partly是“部分地”，它的反义词是wholly。例如：The poet was partially blind.和The window was made partly of wood and partly of glass.把partially用作partly解在美国比在英国普通。

particular

in particular=particularly，意思跟in general（=generally）相反，用在名词后面，在语法上虽然是副词，在意思上却有形容词的性质。例如：I like to study language in general and English in particular.

particularly

I usually have a hot bath, particularly in the morning里的particularly=especially，在particularly前面加上and也可以，但不很普通。也有人用and more particularly。

partly

参见partially

party

1.party（一组人）当作单数或复数都可以。例如：The party is on its way to the city和The party are on their way to the city.注意不可说The party is on their way to the city或The party are on its way to the city。

2.party用作“参与者”解，后面接to。例如：Is he a party to the plot?和I will be a party to no scandal.这两句里的a可以省去。

pass

1.pass an ocean, pass a desert, pass a frontier, pass a boundary, pass a mountain range等表达方式里的pass都作“穿过”或“渡过”解。但pass a city, pass a street, pass a lane等表达方式里的pass都作“在…的旁边经过”解。说“路过（城市）”该说pass through，说“在（街道或弄堂）里经过”该说pass through或pass along。例如：As I passed through Shanghai, I bought some books at a bookshop in Fuzhou Road.和Passing through（或along）the street, he met an old friend.不可说As I passed Shanghai, I bought some books at a bookshop in Fuzhou Road，因为passed Shanghai是“在上海的旁边经过”，并不进入上海，当然不能到福州路的书店买书。

2.pass an examination是“在一次考试里及格”，不是“参加一次考试”或“完成一次考试”。

3.He has passed the examination里没有in，但在He has passed in English和He has passed in all the subjects里的in用的多，不用的少。

4.pass用作“死去”解现在极不普通，该避免。说“死去”该用pass away或pass on。

5.pass over不可用作“读过”解，I have passed over the passage是“我已经忽略了这段文字”。不是“我已经读过这段文字”。

6.pass on...to是“把…传递（或转告）给…”。例如：I told Mr Read that I should be very glad to pass on his request to you.

7.注意下面各句的结构：

Those times have passed away.（have passed属于完成时态）

Those times are passed away.（passed是不及物动词的过去分词，用作形容词）

Those times are past.（past是形容词）

passage

the passage of the law等表达方式里的passage（［被］通过）在美国比在英国普通，在英国通常用passing。

passer-by

passer-by的复数形式是passers-by。

past

1.关于past和passed的区别，参见pass 7

2.I am past bearing it是“我不再能够忍耐这个了”。I am past being surprised是“我不再能够被使惊奇了”，就是说“我认为一切都不足为奇了”。但说“这个不再能够被人忍耐了”却说It is past bearing，不说It is past being borne。下面两句的结构都跟It is past bearing相同：

A word spoken is past recalling.（一言既出，驷马难追。）

Her ignorance is past believing.（她的无知到了使人不能相信的地步。）

3.注意下面各种表达方式里的past的位置。有了the，past用在名词前面。没有the，past用在名词后面：

during the past year for the past few weeks

for a long time past for some time past

for some days past in times past

4.过了半小时以上不该用past，如可以说twenty-nine minutes past ten和half past ten，但不可说thirty-one minutes past ten，该改作twenty-nine minutes to eleven。

5.half past ten（10点半）里的past是介词，between ten and half past和at ten (o'clock) or half past里在past后面省去ten。

patent

letters patent（专利特许状）中虽然用复数形式letters，却只指一个“文件”或“状”。这语被用作单数或复数都有。

patient

patient在一般词典里注作“病人”。其实一个病人必须请医生诊治了才是patient，而且这词通常是跟医生相对说的，可以说He fell ill on 28 July, and became Dr Davis's patient on 6 August，从7月28日到8月5日那时期里那个人是“病人”，但不是patient。

patron

patron在商业文件里往往用作“主顾（customer）”解。例如：We hope to number you among our patrons.和The Company will appreciate suggestions from its patrons concerning its service.

patronage

patronage在商业文件里往往用作“惠顾”或“赐顾”（custom）解。例如：We hope for a continuation of your patronage.

patronize

1.patronize在商业文件里往往用作“向…惠顾”或“向…赐顾”解。例如：They have patronized us for years.和Helen never failed to patronize the grocer when she appeared at his shop.（每次到那食品商的店铺，海伦都会在他那儿买些东西的。）

2.patronize往往作“向（某人）以在上者自居而表示垂爱”解，就是“以傲慢的谦和态度对待（某人）”。例如：You have no right to patronize me, we are equals.和Seeing that I was a mere boy, he talked to me in a patronizing manner.参见condescend(ing)

patronizing

参见patronize 2

pavement

pavement在英国指路边的“人行道”，相当于美国的side(-)walk，在美国指路的中部，就是roadway。

pay

pay hospital（收费的医院），pay library（收费的图书馆），pay envelope（1.工资的封袋，2.工资），pay patient（付费的病人），pay audience（付费的听众）等都是美国英语。

peace

It was a peace but not peace的意思是“和约虽然签订了，可是和平尚未实现”。

peaceable

peaceable是“不喜争吵的”或“爱好和平的”，主要用于人、性格、行为等。peaceful是“和平的”或“平安的”。比较下面各句：

He is a peaceable man.

I am well aware of his peaceable intentions.

We are interested in the peaceful uses of atomic energy.

Everything looks peaceful in the whole country.（在全国，一切看来都是很安静的［太平景象］。）

peaceful

参见peaceable

pearl

Pearl Harbo(u)r是“珍珠港”，但往往指“珍珠港事件”，如after Pearl Harbo(u)r。

peasant

1.英国人通常不用peasant指英国的农民，美国人通常也不用peasant指美国的农民，通常指欧洲大陆的农民（不论自耕农或佃工）。

2.说（农民阶级的）农民（跟地主相对）通常用peasant，不用farmer。

peasantry

1.peasantry指peasant阶级或“农民们”，前面有the。例如：We have a firm alliance with the peasantry.

2.复数形式peasantries指各国的农民们。

peek

peek（窥视）现在在英国极不普通，但在美国很普通。

pen

1.说 中国人用的“毛笔”用pen不及用brush适当。

2.关于put（或set）pen to paper，参见paper 3

3.可以说The old man cannot bear to take pen in hand unless he is obliged。pen前面没有a或his。

4.关于pen point，参见pen-point

penalty

under（或on或upon）penalty of（假使违犯便要受…的处罚）中没有the。用法跟on（或under）pain of相同，参见pain 1

pence

参见penny

pencil

说“用铅笔写（或画）”该说in pencil（pencil前面没有the）。例如：I found her name written in pencil on the first page.和All the corrections are made in red pencil.

pending

Nothing can be done pending the minister's decision里的pending作“在…以前”解，是正式英语。We talked freely pending the discussion里的pending作“在…的进行中”解，现在不普通。

penetrate

penetrate比penetrate into普通。

peninsula

...Peninsula（…半岛）前面有the，如the Malay Peninsula。

penny

1.penny（便士）是英国的铜币名。在美国指“一分币”。

2.penny有两个复数形式，pennies和pence，下面几点该注意：

（1）在英国pennies指一个一个的一便士面额的铜币，pence指数额，如fifteen pennies是“十五个一便士面额的铜币”，fifteen pence是“十五便士的数额”。

（2）在美国用pennies指数额，不用pence。例如：It is worth only three pennies.

（3）表示数额，从二便士到十一便士把数字跟pence连写，如twopence, threepence, fourpence等。说“二十便士”也把数字跟pence连写，作twentypence。其他的数字跟pence分开写，如twelve pence, thirteen pence, twenty-one pence等。

（4）twopence（两个的数额），threepence（三个便士的数额）等跟two pennies（两个一便士面额的铜币），three pennies（三个一便士面额的铜币）等的不同，在（1）里已经说过。还有twopenny, threepenny等词是形容词，作“价值两便士的”，“价值三便士的”等解。

pen-point（或pen point）

pen-point（钢笔尖）是美国英语，相当于英国的nib。

pentagon

Pentagon（美国的“五角大楼”）前面有the。

pent(-)house

pent(-)house在美国往往指造在大厦顶上的房子，通常只有一层，却是华贵的。

people

1.a people和one people都是“一个民族”，不是“一个人”。peoples是“多个民族”，不是“多个人”。比较下面每组里的两语：

a people or two只指“一两个民族”，不指“一两个人”，因为a people决不可指“一个人”。

2.a people和one people当作单数或复数都可以。在当作单数的时候，该当作属于中性。例如：A people is often known by its customs.

3.the Chinese people, the German people等表达方式指“全民族”。

4.people用作“家属”（指父母、兄弟、姐妹等人）前面用my，his等词。例如：My people used to live in the country.和My wife's people are staying with us now.以及I'd like you to meet my people.

5.two people, a hundred people, many people等表达方式很普通，有人以为该改用persons，但事实上不普通。

per

1.per man, per pound等表达方式里的per通常译作“每”，实际作for each...解，所以后面不可加上a或one。

2.per在商业文件里用作by解，如per post, per steamer和per agreement。在一般文字里该避免。

3.per cent原来是拉丁语per centum的简写形式，所以有人写作per cent。从前往往这样写，现在不普通。percent远不及per cent普通。注意下面两句里的动词：

Three per cent of it is useless.

Three per cent of them are useless.

perceive

perceive的宾语后面接不定式或现在分词，一切跟observe相同，参见observe 1和2

percent

参见per 3

percentage

1.注意下面两句里的动词：

A small percentage of it is useless.

A small percentage of them are useless.

2.percentage前面不可用数字，如不可说three percentage，该把percentage改作per cent。

3.percentage是“百分比”，不一定比全部少，也许比全部大，如百分之三是percentage，但百分之一百、百分之二百、百分之一千等也是percentage。

perfect

He tries to perfect his English和He tries to perfect himself in English都可以说。但不可说He tries to perfect her English或He tries to perfect her in English，该改作He tries to help her (to) perfect her English和He tries to help her (to) perfect herself in English。

period

1.period指一段时间，不指一点时间，但就全部过程看来每一个period也可说只是一“点”，所以往往用at。例如：at some remote period of the world's history, at this period of our history, at any other period of her life和at any period of the year。

2.“明朝”、“清朝”等的“朝”是dynasty，“乾隆朝”、“光绪朝”等的“朝”是reign，但都可以译作period，如the Ming Period和the Qian Long Period。

3.period在英美都可以用作“句号”解，但在美国比在英国普通。

permanence

permanence通常指“永久”那事实，permanency通常指“永久”那性质，如the permanence of the treaty和the permanency of his weak eyesight。

permanency

参见permanence

permission

1.permission后面通常接不定式，也有人用for和动名词，但很不普通，如通常说I gave him permission to do it，很少说I gave him permission for doing it。

2.permission前面可以用属于所有格的词。例如：I have his（或the ower's）permission to use the library.很少用the，如很少说I wish to thank you for the permission to use your library，最好把the删去。在这句里可以在permission前面用your，但通常不用。

permit

1.permit有时有双宾语。例如：She permitted herself a smile.

2.下面两句意思相同：

Her health does not permit her to go with us.

Her health does not permit her going with us.

假使那主语是人，只可用第一种形式，如可以说He does not permit her to go with us，不可说He does not permit her going with us。

3.permit of作admit of解，但不及admit of普通。参见admit 1

4.参见allow 2

perpetually

Tom is perpetually talking about his new house里的perpetually的作用跟always相同，参见always 1，2和3

perplex(ed)

关于a perplexed manner（茫然不知所措的样子）等，参见much 3 (5) E

perseverant

perseverant现在很不普通，通常改用persevering。

persevere

persevere后面接in和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He perseveres in studying the subject，不可说He perseveres to study the subject。参见persist 2

persist

1.persist后面接in和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说She persisted in telling me about her pets，不可说She persisted to tell me about her pets。

2.persist不一定指好的事，但persevere一定指好的事，如He persisted in mispronouncing my name里的persisted不可改作persevered。

3.persist有时后面接以that引导的从句，作“继续说”解。例如：He persisted to me that he knew what he was talking about.

persistence

persistence通常指persisting那事实，persistency通常指persistent那性质，如the persistence of matter（物质不灭）和persistency as a moral quality。

persistency

参见persistence

person

1.this person和that person通常含有轻视的意思。a young person通常指“一个陌生的年轻女子”，尤其指西方社会里所谓“下流社会”的。the young person指“一般天真的少年”。

2.参见people 5

personal

1.personal remarks和personal reflections都是“对于某人说的坏话”，就是“人身攻击”，不是“个人的评论”和“个人的感想”。

2.Personal写在信封上或信内收信人地址的上面都说那信是私信，不是公函。

personality

1.personality在一般词典里注作“人格”，其实跟“人格高尚”、“人格卑鄙”等表达方式里的“人格”不同。personality通常有四个意思：（1）“一个人的本身”（personal identity），如His personality has not yet been determined。（还不曾查出他是谁。）（2）“一个人的个性”（distinctive personal character，但也兼指外表），如He has a charming personality。（3）“个性”（individuality，是抽象名词），如Personality is of as much importance as ability。（4）“动人性”（magnetic personal quality，是抽象名词），如He is a man with personality和She has personality。

2.注意下面三句里的personality和personalities的意思：

There seems to be a degree of personality in his remarks.（他的话里似乎有些人身攻击的成分。）

Jack said Helen was an absolute individualist—which was a personality she naturally resented.（杰克说海伦是一个绝对的个人主义者——那当然是她恨的一句人身攻击的话。）

We must avoid personalities.（我们必须避免人身攻击。）

personally

Personally I don't care to see the play等句子里的Personally往往可以省去。注意不可说Personally the play isn't interesting，该改作Personally I don't find the play interesting。

personify

注意下面各句的意思：

He is prudence personified.（他极谨慎。）

She is neatness personified.（她极整洁。）

She is personality personified.（她有极其动人的特性。）

personnel

1.personnel是集合名词，指“（一个机关或办事处的）全体员工”。例如：We have an efficient personnel.有时用作“人员”解，如fifty-two personnel, chief of naval personnel和these high-ranking military personnel。

2.“人事科”通常译作personnel department。

3.personnel不可跟personal混用，可以说He gives his personal attention to directing the personnel。

perspective

注意The comments of foreign critics often give us a new perspective (up)on our literary achievements里在perspective后面接on或upon。

perspiration

perspiration和sweat略有不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）说人的汗在生理学上用sweat，在一般文字里通常用perspiration。但in（或by）the sweat of his（或your等）brow（靠着劳力地）中的sweat不可改作perspiration。

（2）说人以外的动物的汗或说身体某部分的汗，只用sweat，不用perspiration。

（3）把果子等上出现的水比作汗，只用sweat，不用perspiration。

（4）说“出汗”perspiration主要是抽象名词，sweat是类名词。例如：Perspiration will do you good. A sweat will do you good.和He has nightly sweats. perspiration前面通常不加a，但可以说a light perspiration等。

perspire

说“出汗”在生理学上用sweat，在一般文字里通常用perspire。英美的上流社会女子往往不用sweat或perspire而用feel warm，glow或melt。

persuade

1.persuade现在作“说服”解，假使说了而未能说服便不可用persuade。如He has persuaded her to go是“他已经说服她去而她真的去了”。又如I shall persuade him to go是“我将说服他去而使他真的去”，没有“姑妄劝之”的意思。I shall try to persuade him to go或I shall advise him to go才有这个意思。I never persuade him to do it是“我说服他做这件事总是不成功”，不是“我决不说服他做这件事”，也不是“我总是说服他不做这件事”。

persuade用作“使（人）相信”解也指成功的，如I shall persuade him that he is mistaken是“我将使他相信他确实是错的”。

但He is persuading her to go是“他正在说服她去”，不一定成功。

2.下面两句意思相同，第二句语气重些，但不及第一句普通：

I have persuaded him to do it.

I have persuaded him into doing it.

perturb

perturb比disturb语气重，通常指心理或精神上的扰乱。例如：The mother was much perturbed by her son's illness.

perusal

perusal和reading的不同，相当于peruse和read的不同。参见peruse

peruse

peruse作“细心地阅读”解，说“阅读”通常该用read，不该用peruse。peruse是“文雅”的措辞，比较少用。

Philippine(s)

the Philippines=the Philippine Islands（菲律宾群岛）。

phonetics

参见-ics

phonograph

参见gramophone

photograph

1.下面各句意思不同：

I shall take a photograph.（我将自己动手拍一张照片［那被拍的不是我自己］。）

I shall have a photograph taken.（我将叫别人拍一张照片［那被拍的不是我自己］。）

I shall take my photograph.（我将自己动手替我自己拍一张照片。）

I shall have my photograph taken.（我将叫别人替我自己拍一张照片。）

“到照相馆里去拍照”该说I want my photograph taken或I should like to have my photograph taken，不可说I want to take my photograph或I should like to take my photograph，也不可把my改作a。

2.说“多张相同的照片”该说copies of the（或my等）photograph，不该用photographs。

physician

泛指“医生”在英国通常用doctor，不用physician，但在美国往往用physician。下面三句里的physician都有些美国英语味，在英国通常改用doctor：

Why not consult a physician?

My physician tells me my heart is weak.

He wishes to be a physician.

physics

参见-ics

pick

pick out（拣出）有时带有双宾语。例如：I shall pick you out a good one.

picnic

go for a picnic和go on a picnic都可以说。

picture

1.the pictures统指“电影”，比较下面两句：

He likes pictures.（他喜欢图画。）

He likes the pictures.（他喜欢电影。）

有时也指“电影院”。例如：It was very stuffy in the pictures.

2.a long picture是“一部长影片”，a short picture是“一部短影片”。

3.picture有时用作“照片”解。参见photograph

4.He looks the picture of health（他看来像健康的化身，他样子非常康健），He hung his head, the picture of misery（他垂着头，有一副很苦恼的样子）等句子里在picture前通常用the，很少用a。

pidgin

Pidgin English（或Pidgin-English）是中国人和欧美人在中国半殖民时代讲的一种很不纯粹的英语，就是上海人所说的“洋泾浜英语”。下面几点该注意：

（1）该词前面没有the。

（2）Pidgin English是很不纯粹的英语，但一切错误的英语并不都是Pidgin English，如I is a boy是错误的，但并不是Pidgin English。

（3）pidgin这词是business的误读，所以Pidgin English原来是“商业英语”的意思。

（4）Pidgin English也作Pigeon English，那是因为pidgin跟pigeon发音相仿，跟“鸽”没有关系。

（5）Pidgin English和Pigeon English里的Pidgin和Pigeon写作pidgin和pigeon也可以。

piece

a piece of后面接物质名词，如wood, paper, coal, glass, money, mutton和beef，也接抽象名词，如news, advice, information, work, music和composition。但不可接essay, story, tale等。

pig

1.在把猪当作打猎的对象的时候，通常用pig而不用pigs。例如：They went out sticking pig.在用作“猪肉”解时，pig是物质名词。例如：Does he eat roast pig?

2.pig在美国通常指“小猪”，说“猪”用hog。参见hog

pigeon

1.pigeon跟dove意思相同，pigeon比dove通俗。

2.关于Pigeon English，参见pidgin

pigtail

pigtail（=queue，发辫）并没有“豚尾”两字的轻视的意思。

pincer(s)

1.a pair of pincers和a pincers都可以说。

2.pincers movement（钳形进军）和pincer movement都可以说。

piteous

piteous是“（目的在于）惹人哀怜的”，如a piteous appeal和piteous cries，难得用作“感觉哀怜的”解。piteous不及pitiable普通。pitiable是“惹人哀怜的”或“惹人轻视的”，如pitiable condition, What a pitiable sight!和pitiable efforts，不可用作“感觉哀怜的”解。pitiful是“惹人哀怜的”或“惹人轻视的”，如pitiful poverty和pitiful income，难得用作“感觉哀怜的”解。说“感觉哀怜的”通常用compassionate。

pitiable

参见piteous

pitiful

参见piteous

pity

1.Pity he is no longer with us, isn't it?和Pity he never had any children等句子里的Pity...等于It is a pity that...或The pity is that...。

2.A pity, but it was the only thing we could do里的A pity等于It is a pity that we had to do it。

3.It is a pity that...里的a从前往往被省去，现在不可省去。

place

1.比较下面每组里的三句：

每组里的第一句和第二句意思相同。

下面各句主要用在美国：

I don't want to go any place.

What place you are going?

He went some place with her last week.

He often goes places with her.

He often takes her places.

He took her away some place the other day.

He is living some place in South China.

2.比较下面每组里的各句：

每组里的第一句和第二句意思相同。

3.I drink tea in (the) place of coffee等表达方式里的the用的少，不用的多。

4.注意下面两句里用with，不用to：

I have placed an order for some silk with the firm.

The author has placed his manuscript with a well-known publishing house.

plan

1.plan（名词）后面接for或of和动名词比接不定式普通，如a plan for（或of）developing the business和my plan for（或of）developing your business比a plan to develop the business和my plan (for you) to develop your business普通。

2.下面各句里习惯用复数形式plans，但并没有“多少计划”的意思：

I have made plans to spend the holidays with you.

He had intended to visit us, but the bad weather made him change his plans.

Her illness upset her plans.

3.plan（动词）后面接不定式。例如：I plan to call on them next week.在口语里往往接on和动名词。例如：I'm planning on calling on them next week.这两种用法里的plan作“意欲”解，原来都是美国用法。

4.They are planning a trip和They are planning for a trip都可以说。

5.He is busy planning out a new book里用planning out作“（正在）为…预先拟就一个计划”解。

6.according to plan（按照计划地）里不用the。例如：Everything went according to plan.

planet

1.this planet和this planet of ours都指地球。

2.统说一切行星在planets前面有the。例如：Jupiter（木星）is the largest of the planets.

plant

These works are equipped with modern plant里的plant统指一切设备、机器、工具等，注意没有a。

plate

plate往往统指金属的用具，包括杯、匙、叉、烛台等。例如：The table is covered with gold and silver plate（不作plates）.说这种用具的“一件”和“多件”该说a piece of plate和pieces of plate。

play

1.说“玩某种游戏”用play，有时用play at，说“玩”（某物）用play with，如play (at) football，play (at) chess和play (at) cards，play with a ball和play with a doll。说“弹奏（某物）”不可没有with。

2.说“弹奏（乐器）”现在说play比说play on（或upon）普通，如play the violin现在比play on（或upon）the violin普通。

3.These boys play in the garden every morning等句子里的play作“游玩”解。这意思专用于儿童，不用于成人，如不可说These men play in the garden every morning，该把play改作enjoy themselves或have a good time。at play（正在游玩）也专用于儿童。例如：The boys are at play.

playground

1.playground是“（学校里的）儿童运动场”，不指“游乐场”。

2.playground前面习惯用in，不用on。例如：The chidren were all in the playground.

plead

1.plead的过去式和过去分词在英国作pleaded，在美国往往作pled。

2.“向（某人）恳求”该说plead with。例如：She pleaded with him for mercy.和He was pleading with me anxiously not to leave him behind.不可没有with，后面通常接for或不定式。

注意下面一句里在pleaded后面也用with：

"Please come with me," she pleaded with me.

3.plead后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里有时用虚拟现在式。例如：He pleaded that his mother would allow him to go to the circus.和He pleaded that his mother allow（不用allowed）him to go to the circus.

4.He pleaded guilty to cheating里的to是介词，cheating不可改作cheat。

pleasant

pleasant是“使人感觉愉快的”，不是“感觉愉快的”。如可以说pleasant news，pleasant weather和a pleasant voice，又如可以说It is pleasant for me to see you，不可说I am pleasant to see you。

please(d)

1.注意下面四句的结构：

Please let me know.

Please to let me know.

Will you please let me know?

Will you please let me know.

第一句比第二句普通得多，第二句是旧式，现在只有“老派”的人用它。第一句和第二句都不及第三句客气。第四句的末尾用句号，因为全句在语法上虽然是疑问句而在作用上等于请求句，所以用句号也可以。第三句和第四句里的please后面加上to也可以，但现在一般不用to。

Please let me know的强势式是Do please let me know。

2.决不可用Please you...，如不可说Please you let me know，该把you删去。Please you...在15和16世纪里是用的，但现在绝对不可用。

3.关于Please kindly...，参见kindly 2

4.说“请不要…”用Please don't..., Please do not..., Please not to...和Don't please...都可以，似乎第四种表达方式最不普通。

5.下面各句里please后面的不定式有to或没有to都可以：

We ask you to please (to) send the goods immediately.

The members will please (to) leave their addresses with the secretary.

If you will please (to) look into the matter at once, we shall be very much obliged.

6.We ask you to please to send the goods immediately和We ask you to please send the goods immediately里的to please都是不定式。也可以说We ask you please to send the goods immediately，这句里的please不是不定式而是祈使句，它的前面和后面可以加上逗号。

下面各句里的please也都是祈使语：

Please(,) may I take this chair?

May I take this chair(,) please?

Please(,) can you tell me more?

Can you tell me more(,) please?

Don't(,) please(,) come here.

If so, may we(,) please(,) have an explanation?

Will you please let me know?和Will you please let me know（参见1）里的please通常不被当作祈使句，它的前面和后面不用逗号。但Please(,) will you let me know和Will you let me know(,) please里的please都是祈使句。

7.Those who would like to go to the pictures this evening please signify in the usual manner里的please是祈使句，那Those可以算作呼唤语。

8.much pleased, very much pleased和very pleased都可以说，但有些英美人以为第三种表达方式是不正当的。

9.说“乐于…”在pleased后面接不定式。例如：I shall be pleased to see you.和She was pleased to be witty.说“因…而快乐”在pleased后面接不定式或at和动名词都可以，如I was pleased to hear of his success和I was pleased at hearing of his success。

10.if you please往往有“竟然”、“出人意料”、“岂有此理”等意思，例如：

I thought I had lost my pen, which, if you please, was in my pocket all the time.

Instead of paying me the money he owed me, he wanted me to lend him more, if you please!

11.关于a pleased laugh（一个愉快的笑声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

pleasure

1.注意下面几句的结构：

I have the pleasure of sending you my photograph.

I have pleasure in sending you my photograph.

I have the pleasure to send you my photograph.

I have pleasure to send you my photograph.

I take pleasure in sending you my photograph.

I take pleasure to send you my photograph.

I take a pleasure in sending you my photograph.

It is a pleasure (to me或for me) to send you my photograph.

It gives me pleasure to send you my photograph.

It is my pleasure to send you my photograph.

第一句里有the，用of。第二句里没有the，用in。第三句和第四句都不很普通。第五句里没有a或the。第五句、第六句和第七句都不很普通。第八句里有a。第九句里用gives，没有a。第十句照字面讲作“把我的照片送给你是我的意志”解，就是说“我一定要把我的照片送给你”，语气傲慢，所以不该说。不过英美人往往这样说，当作客气话。

2.从1里的第五句和第七句看来，take pleasure in和take a pleasure in都可以说。注意不可说take my（或your等）pleasure in。

3.Will you do me（或us）the pleasure of dining with me（或us）?等是客气话，决不可说I（或We）shall do you the pleasure of dining with you。May I have the pleasure of dancing with you?等也是客气话，决不可说Will you have the pleasure of dancing with me?但可以说Will you do me the pleasure of dancing with me?

plenty

1.There is plenty of food in the kitchen里当然用is。There are plenty of books on the shelf里该用are，不用is。plenty前面加上a的用法现在已经过时了。

2.plenty只用在肯定句里，在疑问句和否定句里通常用enough，比较下面三句：

We have plenty of food for the holidays.

Have you enough（不用plenty of）food for the holidays?

We have not enough food for the holidays.

3.Good literature is plenty和Good books are plenty里的plenty用作表语形容词，现在在英国远不及在美国普通。There is plenty good literature和There are plenty good books里的plenty用作定语形容词，不很普通，最好把它改作plentiful。There is good literature plenty和There are good books plenty里的plenty用作形容词，修饰它前面的名词，不算正当，该在它的前面加上in。

plump

可以说She is tall and plump, without being fat。参见fat

plus

plus...是“有…被加上”，不是“被加在…上”，如可以说Automation（自动化）is mechanization plus automatic control，不可说Automation is automatic control plus mechanization。

pm（有时作PM）

1.pm是拉丁语post meridiem的简写形式，作“在下午”解。参见am

2.半夜12点钟也算pm，写作12 pm或12.00 pm。

pocket(-)book

pocket(-)book被用来指“金钱”或“经济状况”是美国英语，相当于英国的purse。例如：This book suits his taste but does not suit his pocket(-)book.（这本书合乎他的兴趣，但价钱太贵。）

poem

poem是一首一首的诗，如a poem, three poems和a selection of poems。poetry统指“诗”，前面通常不加a，但可以说He wrote a very beautiful poetry（他写出一种很美丽的诗），也没有复数形式poetries。verse有三个意思：（1）诗的一“行”，如a verse和a stanza of five verses。（2）诗的一“节”（=stanza），如a verse和a poem of three verses。（3）统指“诗”，如Do you prefer verse or prose?和Here is a book of modern verse。verse的第二个意思不算正当，该改用stanza。verse的第三个意思跟poetry相仿，但verse注重在诗的形式，poetry注重在诗的内容，形式不错而内容没有“诗意”的诗是verse，但不是poetry。如“这是英文用法书”一句“仄仄平平仄仄平”在形式上可算诗，但毫无诗意，所以是verse，不是poetry。

没有相当于poem的指一篇一篇的散文的单词，只得用piece of prose代替。跟poetry相对的词是prose，跟verse相对的词也是prose。

poet

1.poet laureate（桂冠诗人。是英国皇家的诗官，同时只有一个）前面没有the。例如：John Masefield was made poet laureate in 1930 in succession to Robert Bridges.

2.poet laureate里的poet是名词，laureate是形容词，所以复数形式是poets laureate，但也有人用poet laureates。

poetess

poetess和poet的区别，相当于authoress和author的区别。参见authoress

poetic(al)

说“有诗意的”通常用poetic，如poetic feeling和poetic prose。说“诗体的”通常用poetical，如poetical works和poetical composition。

poetry

参见poem

point

1.关于point of view下面几点该注意：

（1）point of view普通译作“观点”，但直译作“观察的地点”解现在很少见，如He painted the hill from the point of view in his bedroom虽然不错，却不很自然。可以把the point of view in删去。

（2）point of view往往被用作“意见”解，如a carefully reasoned point of view和a biased point of view。

（3）注意from my point of view，from Mr Sheridan's point of view, from the philosophical point of view, from the point of view of philosophy等表达方式里用from。

（4）from the philosophical point of view, from the literary point of view等表达方式里的the改作a也可以。但from the point of view of philosophy等表达方式里的the不可改作a。

（5）from my point of view等表达方式不可改作from the point of my view等，point of view决不可拆开。

（6）参见standpoint 和view(-)point

2.注意下面三句里的斜体字：

He is on the point of leaving the city.

He is on the point of action.

He is at（或on）the point of death.

第一句里用动名词，习惯用on。第二句里的action表示动作，习惯用on。第三句里的death表示状态，习惯用at或on。

3.There is not much point in doing that（做那个没有多大用处）等句子里的in偶尔被省去。

4.下面两句意思相同：

I hope you will make a point of coming to see me on your return to town.

I hope you will make it a point to come to see me on your return to town.

5.point用作“钢笔尖”解是美国英语，相当于英国的nib。

6.point用作“学分（credit）的单位”解是美国词。

7.point out有时有双宾语。例如：They pointed us out the building. (=They pointed the building out to us.)

poker

说“扑克牌”不可说poker card(s)，该说playing-card(s)，playing card(s)或card(s)。

police

1.police指“警方”或“多个警察”，不指“一个警察”，说“一个警察”该用a policeman或a policewoman，在英国往往用a constable或a police constable。

2.police在指“警方”的时候前面往往有the，如The police are investigating the matter，但也可以没有the，如Police were called to keep order。注意在两句里police都被当作复数。

3.police在指“多个警察”的时候，前面有时有数字，有时没有。例如：Extra police were drafted into the district. 和A hundred extra police were drafted into the district. 可以说a few police, six or seven police, twenty police, thousands of police等，但two police和three police似乎不及two policemen和three policemen普通。

4.关于police officer，参见police-officer

police-officer（或police officer）

police-officer（或police officer）有时指“警官”，有时指“警察”。

policy

1. Chinese policy, American policy等表达方式前面通常没有the。foreign policy前面也往往没有the。

2.下面各句里的policy作“策略”解，注意在第一句和第二句里没有a，第三句和第四句里的a可有可无：

Policy should not outweigh honour.

It was policy to consent.

It was (a) good policy to consent.

It was (a) bad policy to consent.

当然The policy of this course is doubtful等句子里的The不可省去。

3.注意a policy（保险单）on his house里用on，a life insurance policyfor ¥ 2000里用for。

4.说“我保了火险”该说I have taken out a fire insurance policy。

polite

polite作“有礼的”解。例如：He gave me a polite answer. 和You might at least be polite to him. 有时有“拘泥礼节（而不亲昵）”的意思。例如：I wonder why he got polite and called me Mr Ball instead of Billy that morning.

politic(al)

1.说“政治的”现在除了在body politic（国家，民族）中以外用political，不用politic。

2.political science（政治学）前面没有the。the political sciences指“政治学的各门”。a political science指“政治学的一门”。

politic(al)ly

相当于politic的副词通常是politicly，偶尔是politically，相当于political的副词是politically。

politician

关于politician和statesman的不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）在三百年前，在英国politician有时是“政治家”，有时是“政治阴谋家”。

（2）现在在英国politician和statesman都是“政治家”，但略有不同：politician着重在才能，statesman着重在权势。

（3）在美国politician通常是“政客”，往往有“政治阴谋家”的意味。但在“政界人物”中间用politician往往指“（从事于政治而并非从事于其他事的）政治家”。

（4）在美国statesman是“（有才能，有远见，为国为民的）政治家”。但有时指任何“政界人物”。

politics

1.politics在英国是“政治”、“政治学”、“政治方针”或“政治生活”，在美国往往是“政客的策略”或“策略”，有时有“阴谋”的意味。

比较下面两句：

Politics is an important subject.

What are his politics?

2.参见-ics

pond

1.in the pond是“在池里”，如There are no fish in the pond和Let's swim in the pond。on the pond是“在池上”，如There are geese on the pond和Let's skate on the pond.

2.pond在英国指人工掘成的池，在美国兼指人工的和天然的池。

ponder

ponder the question（或difficulty，problem，subject，saying，等）等表达方式里在ponder后面加上on，upon或over也可以。

pony

参见colt

poor

1.poor poet可能有三个意思：（1）“穷诗人”，（2）“可怜的诗人”，（3）“作低劣的诗的诗人”。在有可能被人误解的时候该避免poor这词。He is very poor和How poor the boy is! 等句子里的poor作“穷的”解，决不可作“可怜的”解。

2.my poor sister，my poor old uncle，my poor pussy等表达方式里的poor往往只含“已死的”的意思，不含其他“可怜的”的意思。

poorness

说“穷”不该用poorness，该用poverty。但说“低劣”该用poorness，如the poorness of his performance。the poorness of the harvest似乎比the poverty of the harvest好些。

porcelain

1.porcelain不及china通俗。

2.porcelain统指“瓷器”。porcelains指“多件瓷器”。“一件瓷器”通常不说a porcelain，却说an article of porcelain。

porch

porch用作veranda解是美国英语。

port

in port（在港内），into port（入港），at port of loading（在装货港），come to port（到港），get to port（到港），reach port（到港），enterport（入港），leave port（离港）等表达方式里没有a或the。

Portuguese

不论说一个葡萄牙（Portugal）人或多个葡萄牙人都该用Portuguese，并没有Portugueses这形式。Portuguee和Portugee（指一个葡萄牙人）都是不正当的。

position

1.a position as (a) typist，a position of (a) translator等表达方式里的a用的少，不用的多。

2.in a position to...（不定式）作“能够…”解。例如：I hope you are in a position to help me. 不可把a改作the，也不可把不定式改作of和动名词。但I found myself in the position of having to say something（我处于不得不说一些话的境地）不可改作I found myself in a position to have to say something。

3.is（或are等）not in a position to...比will not或cannot婉转。

positive

positive后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：I am positive that he will agree with me.

possess(ed)

1.possess作“有…”解，也作“使…有”解，be possessed of作“被使有…”解，就是“有…”，所以下面每组里的两句意思相同：

2.possess比have语气重，只用于好的东西，不用于坏的东西，如可以说He possesses many good qualities，不可说He possesses many faults。第二句里的possesses该改作has。

possession

在现代英语里in possession of是“有…的”，in the possession of是“被…有的”，如下面的第一句里没有the，第二句里有the：

Mr Day is now in possession of the vase.

The vase is now in the possession of Mr Day.

possibility

1.possibility在结构上跟impossibility相同。 参见impossibility

2.There is a possibility that they will come today和There is a possibility that they may come today都可以说。

3.复数形式possibilities作“前途的希望”解。例如：This scheme has great possibilities.

possible

1.possible的结构跟impossible相同。参见impossible

2.all the ways possible和the only way possible比all the possible ways和the only possible way普通。但all possible ways（没有the）和every possible way比all ways possible和every way possible普通。the best possible way也比the best way possible普通。the least possible delay也比the least delay possible普通。

3.It is possible that they will come today和It is possible that they may come today都可以说。

4.下面两句意思相同：

I will try as hard as possible.

I will try as hard as I can.

注意不可说I will try hard as possible as I can。

5.下面三句意思相同：

I will do my possible.

I will do my best.

I will do my best possible.

有人以为第一句不好，第二句最妥当，第三句的语法结构可能有两种说法：（1）best修饰possible，（2）possible修饰best。

possibly

1.Possibly they will come today和Possibly they may come today都可以说。

2.下面两句意思不同，第二句里有两个逗号：

They can't possibly come today. （他们今天不可能来。）

They can't, possibly, come today. （他们今天也许不能来。）

post

1.说“寄（信）”在英国多用post，在美国多用mail。I shall post the letter to him tomorrow是英国英语，I shall mail the letter to him tomorrow是美国英语。by post是英国英语，by mail是美国英语。Has the post come yet?是英国英语，Has the mail come yet?是美国英语。

关于post和mail的区别，下面几点该注意：

（1）用作动词时，post和mail有时都有双宾语。例如：We will post（或mail）you the booklet early next week.

（2）mail可以统指“信件”, post不可，如可以说He has a large amount of mail to answer every day和His desk is covered with unopened mail，但不可说He has a large amount of post to answer every day和His desk is covered with unopened post，该把post改作letters。在英国也有人用mail。mail往往包括报纸、杂志等。

（3）统指一包一包的邮件在英美都用mails。例如：The mails arrived by rail. 不可用post或posts。

（4）air mail（航空邮递），mail order（邮购、函购）和mail train（邮政列车）是英美通用的。

2.by post比by the post普通。但in the post和through the post里的the不可省去。The letter came by (the) post和The letter came through the post都可以说。The letter has gone astray in（或through）the post里的in（或through）the post不可改作by post或by the post。Please take this letter to the post里的the不可省去。

3.Post no bills（禁止招贴）是美国英语，相当于英国英语Stick no bills。

4.关于post card，参见postcard

postal

1.关于postal card，参见postcard

2.“邮票”不可说postal stamp，该说postage stamp或postagestamp。

postcard（或post card或post-card）

在英国postcard兼指邮局出售的明信片和私人制造的明信片，并没有postal card这名称。在美国通常用postcard指私人制作的明信片，用postal card指邮局出售的明信片。

posterior(s)

posterior和posteriors意思相同，都指整个的臀部，似乎现在用单数形式普通些。注意不可把posterior用来指“半个臀部”。参见buttock(s)

posterity

posterity（后世的人们、将来的人们）前面不用the。例如：This is done for the benefit of posterity.和We are working for posterity.

postmark

可以说The letter is postmarked London。

postponeZ

1.注意We have to postpone the meeting to Monday里用to。

2.postpone后面接动名词，不接不定式，如I have to postpone considering the matter till he comes里的considering不可改作to consider。

3.postpone indefinitely直译作“无限期延迟”，几乎等于“取消”。

postscript

1.postscript后面接to。例如：There is a short postscript to the new edition.

2.a few words of postscript等表达方式里把postscript用作抽象名词。

potato

potato有时被用作物质名词，如a piece of potato（一片马铃薯）和a spoonful of potato。

poultry

1.poultry统指“家禽”，并不指一只家禽，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式poultries。

2.poultry通常被当作复数。例如：The poultry are being fed.但The poultry are selling well和The poultry is selling well都可以说。

pound

1.说“磅”在数字后面用pound或pounds都可以，如three pound(s) of sugar和several pound(s) of lard。现在用pounds普通些。

2.说“镑”在数字后面用pounds，如five pounds。说“几镑几先令”用pound，后面没有and，如five pound ten或five pound ten shillings。也有人用pounds，但不很普通。说“几镑几便士”用pounds，后面有and，如five pounds and tenpence。说“几镑几先令几便士”用pound，在便士数目前面有and，如five pound, ten shillings, and tenpence和five pound ten and ten。也有人用pounds，但不很普通。

3.Egyptian pound和pound Egyptian都可以说。

4.用pound（磅）计算体重是美国方式，在英国习惯用stone（英石，等于14磅，单数和复数几乎总是同一形式），如“他体重150磅”在美国说He weighs a hundred and fifty pound(s)。在英国说He weighs ten stone ten。

pour

pour或pour out有时有双宾语。例如：She poured me (out) a cup of tea.

poverty

参见poorness

power

1.power（前面没有a或the）后面接不定式。例如：He used to have power to order us about. a power和the power后面接of和动名词比接不定式普通。例如：He used to have a（或the）power of ordering us about比He used to have a（或the）power to order us about普通。

2.his powers of mind，his powers of observation，his powers as a novelist，a novelist at the height of his powers等表达方式里习惯用复数形式powers。He has powers but hardly any power是“他有各种才能，但是几乎没有什么权力”。

powerful

powerful后面可以接不定式。例如：He is powerful to persuade others.

powerless

powerless后面可以接不定式。例如：He is powerless to persuade others.

practicable

practicable是“可以实行的”，practical是“实际上的”、“实用的”或“有实际经验的”。

注意下面两句里的practical和practicable：

Of all the plans devised by certain practical men with practical knowledge, only one proved to be practicable.

Practical minds are engaged in trying to invent a practicable method of producing something of practical value.

practical

参见practicable

practically

practically往往用作“几乎”或“差不多”解，如practically nothing，practically impossible和practically the same。

practice

1.practice在英国只用作名词，practise用作动词。但在美国名词和动词都用practice，很少用practise。参见practise

2.下面三句里的a可有可无：

It is (a) good practice to get up early.

It is (a) bad practice to go to bed late.

They went to bed at eight, as had long been (a) common practice.

3.practice in composition里没有the，用in，the practice of composition里有the，用of。

practise

1.说“在（乐器）上练习”用practise或practise on（或upon）都可以，有时也用practise at，如practise the piano，practise on（或upon）the piano和practise at the piano。

2.practise后面接动名词，不接不定式，如You must practise speaking English more里的speaking不可改作to speak。

praise

1.praise（名词）有时用单数形式，有时用复数形式。例如：His praise pleased her very much.和Their praises made the girl feel very proud.

2.比较下面每组里的两句：

pray

1.下面各句里的pray都可以改作please：

Pray let me know.

Do pray let me know.

Do, pray, let me know.

Pray don't let me disturb you.

Pray(,) what do you mean by that?

What do you mean by that(,) pray?

Let me know(,) pray!

但pray跟please的语法结构完全不同：pray=I pray（我请求）或=I pray you（我请求你）。参见please(d) 1，4和6

2.比较下面两句：

I pray you, let me know.

I pray you let me know.

在第一句里you后面有逗号，you当然是pray的宾语，let当然是祈使句。在第二句里you后面没逗号，全句的语法结构就可能有三种说法：（1）跟第一句相同，（2）let是没有to的不定式，（3）you let me know是名词从句，作pray的宾语。

precaution

precaution是“预防”，是抽象名词。例如：His life was saved by precaution. a precaution是“一个预防方法”，precautions是“多个预防方法”。

preface

1.preface后面接to。例如：There is a short preface to the book.参见introduction 1

2.a few words of preface等表达方式里把preface用作抽象名词。

prefer

1.I prefer this to that作“我喜欢这个而不喜欢那个”解，注意to的用法。

2.下面两句意思相同：

I prefer going to staying.

I prefer to go rather than stay.

下面几点该注意：

（1）第一句里的to是介词，后面的staying不可改作stay。

（2）第二句里的rather不可省去。

（3）第一句里的to不可改作rather than。

（4）第二句里的rather than stay改作to staying也通，但因为动名词staying和上面的不定式to go不相称，所以不好。

（5）在不说出那不被喜欢的行为的场合，说一次的事用不定式比用动名词普通，如I prefer to go this evening比I prefer going this evening普通。说经常的事用动名词比用不定式普通，如As a rule I prefer going in the evening比As a rule I prefer to go in the evening普通。

3.prefer后面可以接宾语和不定式。例如：Her parents prefer her to study Russian and English.

4.prefer后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：We prefer that each new student should take this course.和We prefer that each new student take（不用takes）this course.

5.prefer后面可以接宾语和表语。例如：I prefer my milk a little sweetened.

preferable

1.Going is preferable to staying里的to是介词，后面的staying不可改作stay。

2.This is preferable to that里的preferable前面不可加上more，因为两件东西里只有一件是preferable。有了三件东西，才可以说more preferable。例如：A is more preferable (than B) to C. 同样地，有了四件东西才可以说most preferable。例如：A is the most preferable (of A, B and C) to D.

prejudice(d)

1.prejudice是“偏见”（抽象名词）。例如：This is mere prejudice. a prejudice是“一种偏见”，prejudices是“多种偏见”。

2.prejudice后面接against或in favour of（或in my［或your等］favour）。例如：She has a prejudice against green clothes.和With all his prejudices in favour of long words, he always writes to his children in simple language.注意第一句里的against不可改作to。动词prejudice和形容词prejudiced后面也是这样。例如：I wonder what has prejudiced her against（或in favour of）green clothes.和She is prejudiced against（或in favour of）green clothes.

preliminary

1.initiate organizational preliminaries作make preparations解，是公文英语。

2.He wrote to me preliminary to visiting me等句子里的preliminary用作副词，习惯上不可把它改作preliminarily。 它后面的to是介词，visiting不可改作visit。

3.He is reading some books and articles as a preliminary to writing a report里的to是介词，writing不可改作write。

premier

在美国有时用American premier或premier，指“国务卿”（Secretary of state）。

premises

1.premises（房屋、处所）不可改作单数形式premise。

2.premises（房屋、处所）前面习惯用on，偶尔用at或in。例如：Nobody was found on（偶尔用at或in）the premises.

preoccupy

关于a preoccupied air（一个心不在焉的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

preparation

make preparations和make preparations for两种表达方式里的preparations改作preparation也可以，但很不普通。

preparatory

He wrote to me preparatory to visiting me等句子里的preparatory用作副词，习惯上不可把它改作preparatorily。它后面的to是介词，visiting不可改作visit。

prepare(d)

1.prepare有时有双宾语。例如：His wife is preparing him a meal.

2.The dinner is preparing. =The dinner is being prepared.

3.prepare to...（不定式）是“因为要…而作准备”。例如：I am preparing to undertake the task.（我正在因为要担任这个工作而作准备。）prepared to...（不定式）是“愿意（而且能够）…的”。例如：I am prepared to undertake the task.（我愿意［而且能够］担任这件工作。）prepared to...（不定式）里的prepared用作形容词，把它当作及物动词或不及物动词prepare的过去分词似乎都讲得通。

4.am（或are等）not prepared to…语气比will not或cannot婉转，通常用在公文里。

5.prepared后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should。例如：I am prepared that my son should have a tutor.

prescribe

下面三句意思相同：

The doctor prescribed me cod liver oil.

The doctor prescribed cod liver oil to me.

The doctor prescribed cod liver oil for me.

presence

in the presence of中的the省去的时候很少。

present

1.该说at present，不可说at the present，in present或in the present。但for the present里必须有the。at present是“现在”，for the present是“暂时”。

2.关于present和gift的区别，参见gift 1

3.It is a present通常作“这是人家送我的礼物”解。It is his present 通常是“这是他送我的礼物”。难得是“这是我送给他的礼物”。

4.说“把…送给（某人）”有下面的四种说法：

He presented a book to her.

He presented her with a book.

He made her a present of a book.

He made a present of a book to her.

注意present（动词）很少有双宾语，如很少说He presented her a book。

5.形容词present往往用在名词的后面作“到场的”或“出席的”解，如those friends present（那些出席的朋友）和There are other people present（还有其他出席的人们）。

presently

1.presently现在作“不久以后”解，除了在苏格兰以外，不作“现在”解。

2.presently往往用在of whom more presently，But of that presently等表达方式里，这两种表达方式作of whom more will be said presently和But of that something will be said presently解，那presently指“在下文”。

president

1.president用来指“大学校长或专门学校校长”是美国用法，在英国不作此解。下面几点该注意：

（1）即使在美国president也不指“中学或小学的校长”。

（2）说“校长”该用principal（参见该条目），headmaster（指中学或小学），schoolmaster（指小学）或head（指任何学校）。在英国往往用chancellor指“大学校长”。

（3）president在英国指牛津大学的Trinity，Magdalen，Corpus和St John's四所学院（college）和剑桥大学的Queens'学院的院长，不是校长。

2.president用来指工商企业界的头脑人物（例如银行行长等）是美国用法。

press

注意下面各句里的动词：

The press（报纸）is a social force.

The press（报纸）is（或are）in favour of it.

The press（报界人士）were entertained yesterday.

pressure

1.pressure of debts，pressure of poverty，pressure of business，pressure of modern life等表达方式前面有the，但pressure of work前面习惯没有the。

2.复数形式pressures偶尔被用来指“种种压迫”。例如：What pressures and fears drove him to send his own sister to her death?

3.under (the) pressure of public opinion等表达方式里的the可有可无。

presume

参见assume

presuppose

A presupposes B作“既有A，必先有B”解，就是“必须先有B才会有A”。例如：Clear writing presupposes clear thinking.（有了明白的思维才会有明白的写作。）

pretence

1.on pretence of friendship，on pretence of religion等表达方式里在pretence前面没有the（我见过on a pretence of sickness，当然不普通）。on pretence of后面接名词，不接动名词。on the pretence of后面接动名词。例如：He rushed away on the pretence of attending to something urgent.

2.under (the) pretence of friendship, under (the) pretence of religion等表达方式里的the有时有，有时没有。under the pretence of...ing似乎比under pretence of...ing普通。

3.pretence后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：She made no pretence that she was interested in the project.

4.That's only pretence是“那只是假装罢了”。That's only a pretence是“那只是一个托辞罢了”。

5.参见pretension 1

pretend

1.下面三句意思相同：

He pretended to be ill.

He pretended that he was ill.

He pretended illness.

2.注意下面第一和第二句里有to，第三和第四句里没有to：

He pretended to great learning.

She did not pretend to much wisdom.

He pretended illness.

She pretended friendship for us.

pretend(ed) to是“自以为有…（也许真有，也许没有）”，那后面的名词总是指“学问”、“智慧”、“美德”等，pretend(ed)是“假装着…”。

pretension

1.注意下面三句：

He has no pretension(s) to learning.（他并没有学问。）

He makes no pretension(s) to learning.（他并不自以为有学问。）

He makes no pretence to learning.（跟第二句意思相同。）

2.He has pretension but hardly any pretensions是“他是自负的，但是几乎没有什么足以自负”。

pretext

1.pretext后面接for和名词或动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He could not find a pretext for absence和He could not find a pretext for leaving the house，不可说He could not find a pretext to leave the house。

2.下面三句意思相同：

He declined the offer on（或upon，或under）the pretext of inability to do it.

He declined the offer on（或upon，或under）the pretext of being unable to do it.

He declined the offer on（或upon，或under）the pretext that he could not do it.

第一句里of后面接名词，第二句里of后面接动名词，第三句里pretext后面接连接词that。

prevail

1.prevail on（或upon）作persuade（但语气比persuade重）解，后面接宾语和不定式。例如：The man prevailed on（或upon）us to give his method a trial. 参见persuade

2.prevail with=prevail (up)on，但比较不普通。

3.prevail over作“胜过”或“压倒”解。例如：Reason prevails over emotion.（理智战胜了感情。）

4.prevail against=prevail over，但比较不普通。

prevailing

A widely prevalent pronunciation of a word may not necessarily be its prevailing pronunciation是“一个词的广泛流行的发音不一定是它的（压倒一切的）最流行的发音”。

prevalent

参见prevailing

prevent

1.prevent作“阻止成功”解，假使阻止而不成功不可用prevent。如She prevented him from going是“她阻止他去而他真的不去了”。而“她阻止他去，可是他还是去了”该说She tried to prevent him from going, but he still went。

2.下面两句意思相同：

She prevented him from going.

She prevented his going.

She prevented him going也有人说，但不算正当。注意不可说She prevented him to go。

preven(ta)tive

preventive比preventative普通。

previous(ly)

1.He wrote to me previous to visiting me等句子里的previous用作副词，习惯上很少用previously。它后面的to是介词，visiting不可改作visit。

2.注意下面第一句里有for，第二句和第三句里都没有for。

He was the man whom I had studied with for two months previously.

He was the man whom I had met two months previously.

He was the man whom I had met the day previously.

3.previously往往跟now相对。例如：They are now friends, but were previously bitter enemies.

pre(-)war

pre(-)war（［第一次或第二次］世界大战以前的）通常是形容词，如pre(-)war conditions和pre(-)war politics。但有时也用作副词。例如：That happened pre(-)war.

prey

可以说a prey，但不可说preys，注意下面第一句、第二句和第三句里用a prey，第四句和第五句里用prey，第五句里加上a也可以：

The bird fell a prey to the cat.

Two birds fell a prey to the cat.

He used to be a prey to sleeplessness.

Birds are the prey of cats.

In those days colonialists often regarded their slaves as legitimate prey.

price

1.price current和current price不同。price current是“商品时价表”，就是“价目表”（price list），current price是“目下的价目”，就是“时价”。可以说A price current is a list of current prices。

2.下面三句意思相同：

What is the price of cabbages today?

What price are cabbages today?

What are cabbages today?

3.注意下面两句里的without price意思不同：

These pearls are said to be without price.（这些珍珠据说是无价之宝。）

His service was often given without price.（他的服务往往是不取报酬的。）

pride

1.proper pride是“自尊”，是褒义的，false pride是“妄自尊大”，是贬义的。单用pride有时指“自尊”，有时指“妄自尊大”。比较下面两句：

Robert had too much pride（自尊）to tell lies.

Robert had too much pride（妄自尊大）to wash up.

2.take a pride in和take pride in都作“把…引为得意”解。

3.pride（动词）后面可以接反身代词和以that引导的从句。例如：She prided herself that she had won the title of advaced worker.

prime

of prime importance主要是公文英语。

principal

principal在英国指牛津（Oxford）和剑桥（Cambridge）大学的若干学院（college）的院长，也指若干大学的校长，在美国只指中学或小学校长，在苏格兰只指大学校长。

principle

1.说“道德”或“节操”用principle或principles都可以。例如：He has both ability（或abilities）and principle(s).

2.in principle是“一般地”或“就大体而论地”。例如：I accept the suggestion in principle.（就大体而论我接受这建议［对于若干细节未必接受］。）和The matter is simple in principle, the difficulty being in the details.（这件事一般说来是简单的，困难是在于细节上。）on principle是“根据原则”或“按照原则”。例如：I accept the suggestion on principle.（我根据原则接受这建议［并不出于私意］。）和He acted always on principle, not on impulse.（他行事总是按照原则，并不由于冲动。）

print(er)

1.print(er)和publish(er)不同。print(er)是“印刷（者）”，publish(er)是“出版（者）”。

2.in print有时指人。例如：He saw himself in print.（他见到他的著作被印刷［而出版］。）

3.print有时把magazine，newspaper等做主语。例如：The magazine prints essays and poems. 在这种用法里有时把“人”做宾语。例如：This magazine prints many young writers.（这个杂志刊登许多青年作家［的作品］。）

prior

He wrote to me prior to visiting me等句子里的prior用作副词，习惯上不可把它改作priorly。它后面的to是介词，visiting不可改作visit。

prison

in prison，out of prison，enter prison，leave prison，lie in prison，go to prison，condemn to prison，put in prison，put into prison，throw into prison，take to prison，send to prison等表达方式里没有the。

prisoner

1.prisoner指“被拘禁的人”，不一定有罪。

2.The prisoner proved an innocent man里的The往往省去，作Prisoner...。

3.take prisoner（把［某人］俘虏）是习语，prisoner前面没有a，如They have taken him prisoner。We have taken them prisoner和We have taken them prisoners都可以说。把take改作make也可以，但不很普通。The fly got into the cobweb and was thus held prisoner等句子里在prisoner前面习惯没有a。

private

private school在英国指“为了赚钱而办的私立学校”，在美国、苏格兰和英国的属地指“收费的学校”。

privation

注意下面第一句里用privation，第二句里用privations，第三句里用a privation：

He looked upon privation as no hardship.

The explorers underwent many privations.

She found it a great privation to have no fruit to eat.

probability

1.probability后面接of和动名词或以that引导的从句，不接不定式，如可以说There is no（或not much）probability of (our) seeing him again, There is no（或not much）probability that we shall see him again和There is a probability that school will close a week earlier than usual。不可说There is no（或not much）probability (for us) to see him again或There is a probability (for school) to close a week earlier than usual。

2.下面两句意思相同：

He says he is not sure whether the letter has miscarried, but the probability is that it has.

He says he is not sure whether the letter has miscarried, but the probabilities are that it has.

probable

1.probable的结构跟improbable相同。参见improbable

2.比较下面两句：

It's possible, but not probable.（那是可能的，但是大概不会实现。）

It's probable, not possible.（那是大概会实现的，不只是可能的。）

3.The most probable thing is that they will arrive late tonight里的is不可改作will be。

probably

下面每组里的第一句和第二句比第三句好：

probe

probe（名词）用作“调查”解，原来是美国英语，现在英国也用，尤其用在报纸的标题里。

problem

problem有时用作形容词，作difficult（难对付的）或restless（动荡不安的）或distressed（受灾难的）解，如a problem child和a problem area。

procedure

1.legal procedure，parliamentary procedure，laboratory procedure等表达方式前面没有the。

2.可以说democratic procedure和a tactless procedure，democratic procedures和tactless procedures。

proceed

1.proceed是不及物动词，后面通常接with，偶尔接in。例如：We proceeded with（偶尔用in）our game pleasantly.

2.proceed to...（不定式）跟go on to...（不定式）意思相同。参见go 6

3.proceed用作go解主要是公文英语。

process

1.in process of construction，in process of preparation，in process of completion等表达方式里在。process前面通常没有the。in process of time（日积月累地）里没有the。

2.in process of后面有时接动名词。例如：He was then in process of becoming a scientist.

proclaim

下面两句的结构相同，但两个proclaimed的意思不同。him后面可以加上to be，但通常不加：

They proclaimed him a scientist.

His manners proclaimed him a well-bred person.

procure

1.procure原来有“由于努力而取得”的意思，现在却往往作“取得”解。

2.procure有时有双宾语。例如：They procured him some furniture.

produce

produce（名词）统指一切农产品、天然产品或工业产品，前面不加a，也没有复数形式produces。a product是“一件（天然、农业、或工业）产品”，products是“多件（天然、农业或工业）产品”，如a product of the soil和products of manufacture。a production是“一件（文学或艺术）作品”，productions是“多件（文学或艺术）作品”，如a production of genius和the artist's early productions。

the literary products of the age和the literary productions of the age都可以说，前者把products用在譬喻里，把作品看作产品。

product偶尔作“产品总量”解。例如：The factory's product for 1959 exceeds that for 1958.

producer

producer在英国指“戏剧或电影的导演”，在美国指“戏院的老板”。在美国说“导演”用director。

product

参见produce

production

参见produce

productive

be productive of往往不及produce自然，如Carelessness is productive of mistakes不及Carelessness produces mistakes自然。

productivity

productivity现在比productiveness普通。例如：the productivity of labour（劳动生产率）

profess

1.profess用在抽象名词前面有时作“承认有”解，有时作“自称有”解。例如：He professes his dislike of books.（他承认不喜欢书。）和He professes a love of good books.（他自称喜欢好书。）

2.profess to...（不定式）作“自称”解。例如：He professes to be a learned man.

3.profess用在反身代词和名词的前面作“承认”解。例如：He professes himself a Buddhist.

4.profess用在反身代词和形容词的前面有时作“承认”解，有时作“自称”解。例如：He professes himself perplexed.（他承认弄不明白。）和He professes himself fond of good books.（他自称喜欢好书。）

profession

1.profession指“高尚”而非商业性质的职业，如医生、律师、牧师、教师、工程师、建筑师等职业，不指木匠、铁匠、书记、经理等职业。但by profession没有这限制。例如：He is a carpenter by profession.

2.profession不指“职位”。

professor

1.professor在英国是“大学教授”，在美国往往也用来指“中学教员”（似乎专指男的）。不论在英国或在美国，往往指跳舞、拳术、魔术等的教师。街头卖药或卖艺的人也往往自称professor。

2.说“某科博士…教授”有下面两种表达方式：

Professor Albert Lee, Ph D（哲学博士Albert Lee教授）

Professor Albert Lee Ph D

说“某科教授…博士”有下面的表达方式：

Dr Albert Lee, Professor of Mathematics

3.说“某校的教授”在校名的前面该用in或at，不用of。例如：Dr Albert Lee is a professor of mathematics in（或at）Oxford University在正式文字里用in，在非正式文字和口语里用at。但说“某校的某教授”在校名的前面该用of，不用in或at。例如：Professor Albert Lee of Oxford University，往往在of前面有逗号。比较下面两句：

Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch, Professor of English Literature in（或at）Cambridge University, is the author of many books.

Professor Arthur Quiller-Couch(,) of Cambridge University(,) is the author of many books.

第一句可以改作Arthur Quiller-Couch, Professor of English Literature, Cambridge University, is the author of many books。Cambridge University前面没有in或at而有逗号，但不很普通。

4.该说professor of English，professor of mathematics等，不可说English professor，mathematics professor等。

professor of English，professor of mathematics等表达方式里的of改作in也可以，但远不及of普通。

profit

1.profit作“益处”解前面不可加a，也没有复数形式profits。说“利润”用profit，a profit和profits都可以。例如：We hoped to sell the goods at a profit.和Part of the profits were devoted to charity.

说“利得税”用profit tax或profits tax都可以。

2.profit from, profit by和profit of都作“利用”或“得益于”解，profit from最普通，似乎在动名词前面总是用profit from。例如：

She profited from（或by，或of）this time to look at the paintings.

She profited from looking at the paintings.

progress

progress前面偶尔用a，如I am glad that you are making so great a progress in English和He aims at a steady progress, planned and determined。

progressive

参见advance(d) 2

prohibit

prohibit比forbid严正。它的宾语后面接from和动名词，如They prohibit him from doing it。很少接不定式，如最好不说They prohibit him to do it。用了forbid便该接不定式。参见forbid(den) 1

promise

1.promise不论用作名词或动词，后面接不定式。例如：She has made a promise to return the violin in the evening.和She has promised to return the violin in the evening.第一句里的to return不可改作of returning，第二句里的to return不可改作returning。

2.promise跟consent不可混用，如下面两句意思不同：

He has promised to give a lecture.（他已经允诺作一次演讲［不一定预先被人请求］。）

He has consented to give a lecture.（他已经同意作一次演讲［一定预先被人请求］。）

promise着重在“约束自己”，不含“应允他人的请求”的意思。说自己的“遵命”和他人的“首肯”都不可用promise。请求对方做什么事不可说Will you promise to...?

3.promise跟permit或permission不可混用，如下面每组里的两句意思大不同：

4.He has promised his daughter a fountain pen for her birthday和He has promised a fountain pen to her daughter for her birthday都可以说。

5.用promise该注意别犯双重被动的毛病，如不可说The lecture has been promised to be given at eight o'clock，可以把has been promised改作is。

6.注意下面第一句里用will，第二句里用would，第三句里用shall，第四句里用should，第五句里用shall，第六句里用should：

He has promised that he will help me.

He promised that he would help me.

He has promised that I shall have his help.

He promised that I should have his help.

He has promised that help shall be given me.

He promised that help should be given me.

第一句里用will，第二句里用would，因为在直接引语里是I will help you。第三句里用shall，第四句里用should，因为在直接引语里是You（或He，或She）shall have my help。第五句里用shall，第六句里用should，因为在直接引语里是Help shall be given you（或him，或her）。

promise用作名词也是这样。例如：

I hope he will keep his promise that he will help me.

He kept his promise that he would help me.

I hope he will keep his promise that I shall have his help.

He kept his promise that I should have his help.

I hope he will keep his promise that help shall be given me.

He kept his promise that help should be given me.

7.下面两句意思相同：

I'll warn him once more, I promise you.（我向你保证，我要再警告他一次。）

I'll warn him once more, I promise you that.

promote

1.下面三句意思相同：

The officer has been promoted to the rank of general.

The officer has been promoted to be general.

The officer has been promoted general.

注意不可说The officer has been promoted to general，这是英美人常有的错误。

2.可以说International friendship promotes peace，但不可说Containment policy promote war，因为promote不可用于坏的东西，可以把promote改作lead to。也不可说Drink promotes idleness或Inaccuracy promotes errors。可以把前句里的promotes改作leads to，后句里的promotes改作leads to或produces。

pronounce

下面每组里的三句意思相同：

proof

I am proof against even that inducemennt等句子里的proof后面通常接against，偶尔接to。

propaganda

1.propaganda通常有两个意思：（1）“宣传”，（2）“宣传机器”或“宣传运动”。不论哪个意思，都是单数：第一个意思是抽象名词，没有复数形式，第二个意思是类名词，它的复数形式是propagandas。

2.propaganda通常不指销售商品的广告（advertising）。

3.propaganda是“宣传”，那被宣传的消息可真可伪，意见可好可坏。但That's not true，it's mere propaganda等句子里的propaganda被用作贬义。所以有人避免用propaganda而改用publicity。

4.相当于propaganda的动词是propagandize。但这词很不普通，通常改用publicize。

propensity

propensity后面接to（或for）和名词，for（或to）和动名词或不定式，如a propensity to（或for）extravagance，a propensity for （或to）spending money freely和a propensity to spend money freely。

proper

proper用在名词后面作“…的本身”解，如Greece proper（希腊国的本部），the garden proper（园的本部），the Dictionary proper（本词典正文）和literature proper（狭义的所谓文学）。

property

property统指所有物。除作“地产”解以外，不可用a property或properties。说“一件所有物”该说a piece（或an article）of property，说“多件所有物”该说pieces（或articles）of property。注意下面各句里的斜体字：

The house and furniture are my property.（不用properties）

Much property was destroyed in the fire.（不用Many properties）

The vase is a fine piece（或article）of property.（不用a fine property）

He has a small property in the country.（a small property指“一小块地产”）

prophecy

prophecy是名词，prophesy是动词。

prophesy

参见prophecy

proportion

a proportion of用作a part of或some解，是公文英语。

proportionable

参见proportionate

proportional

参见proportionate

proportionate

proportionate跟proportional可以说没有区别。proportionable现在不普通。

proposal

1.proposal后面接不定式或for和名词，如his proposal to repair the house和his proposal for the repair of the house。

2.注意下面两句里用should或虚拟现在式：

His proposal is that the house (should) be repaired.

His proposal was that the house (should) be repaired.

第一句里的should改作shall也可以。

propose

1.propose（意欲）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：I propose to write（或writing）a complete grammar.用不定式比用动名词普通。

2.propose（提议）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：We propose to abolish（或abolishing）all weapons of mass destruction.也可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：I propose that a series of discussions (should) be started at once.和I proposed that a series of discussions (should) be started at once.第一句里的should改作shall也可以。

3.propose to或propose marriage to是“向…求婚”，不是“追求…”，如可以说He proposed (marriage) to her yesterday，不可说He has been proposing (marriage) to her for years。

proposition

1.除了在逻辑学、修辞学、数学等里用作专有名称以外，proposition跟proposal同样作“提议”解，但有下面两点该注意：

（1）往往两个单词通用。例如：The enemy made proposals of peace.和The enemy made propositions of peace.但proposition含有“明确”或“详细”的意思。只说提议某事而没有计划，通常是proposal。

（2）说“求婚”用proposal，决不可用proposition。用proposition不但用词不当而且要引起误会，因为近几年来proposition在美国俚语里可以用作名词作“向女子提出的猥亵要求”解，用作及物动词作“向（女子）提出猥亵要求”解。

2.在报纸上proposition用得很多，有种种不同的意思。例如：

This is a serious proposition（工作、问题或事件）.

This is a paying proposition（事业或企业）.

This lock is a troublesome proposition（物件）.

This is a new proposition（方法或计划）for improving our trade.

He is a tough proposition（难于对付的人）.

这些原来是美国用法，但现在在英国也很普通，有许多人以为是不正当的。

prose

1.prose统指“散文”（就如poetry和verse统指“诗”），前面通常不加a，但可以说He wrote a florid prose（他写出一种华丽的散文），也没有复数形式proses。prose相当于poetry，但没有相当于poem的词，说“一篇散文”该说a piece of prose，说“多篇散文”该说pieces of prose。

2.“散文作者”该说prose writer，prosaist极不普通。

prospect

1.注意下面各句里都用复数形式prospects：

He has good prospects.

Things are going strongly our way, and the prospects are very good indeed.

She was then a woman of no prospects.

The prospects of our work are brightening.

2.have a reasonable prospect（或no prospect）of...ing是公文英语。

protect

protect...against（或from）...作“保护…不使受到…的损害（或侵犯）”解，但对于较大的事情（如天灾）通常用against，对于较小的事情（如冷气）通常用from，如Some insurance policies do not protect the insured against acts of God（天灾）和I was wearing a fur coat to protect myself from the cold。

protest

1.“对于…提出抗议”或“反对…”在英国用protest against, 在美国往往只用protest，如They have protested against the proposal是英美通用的，They have protested the proposal是美国英语。

2.He protested that his mother thought otherwise是“他声明他的母亲有不同的想法”，不是“他反对他的母亲有不同的想法”。

3.protest parade（抗议游行），protest demonstration（抗议示威），protest strike（抗议罢工）等表达方式里用名词protest，不用protesting。

protocol

1.protocol在统指某国的一切外交惯例的时候是抽象名词，后面不可加s，如his knowledge of protocol。

proud

1.proud跟pride一样（参见该词条），有“自尊的”和“妄自尊大的”两个意思。例如：He is too proud to tell lies.和He is too proud to lend his books to his neighbours.

2.proud后面有时接for和宾语和不定式。例如：We are proud for you to dine with us.

3.proud后面接不定式，of和动名词，或以that引导的从句都可以。例如：

I am proud to be an artificer.

I am proud of being an artificer.

I am proud that I am an artificer.

prove

1.prove的过去分词在英国现在只用proved，但在美国往往用proven。

2.下面三句意思相同：

That proved him progressive.

That proved him to be progressive.

That proved that he was progressive.

3.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

注意每句里的proved都是不及物动词，作“被见到（是）…”解。

He has proved himself (to be) a fine teacher和He has proved (to be) a fine artist略有不同。加上了himself含有“他已经渐渐被人见到是…”的意思，不加上himself含有“他到后来已经被人见到是…”的意思。

provide(d)

1.下面四句意思相同：

We provided them with board and lodging.

We provided board and lodging for them.

We provided board and lodging to them.

We provided them board and lodging.

第三句不及第二句普通。第四句里provided有双宾语，是比较新的结构。

2.provide（规定）后面的以that引导的从句里用shall或should，不用will或would。例如：The contract provides that only the best materials shall be used.和The contract provided that only the best materials should be used.有时用虚拟现在式。例如：The contract provides（或provided）that only the best materials be used.

3.provided用作连接词，原来是provide（规定）的过去分词，provided...或provided that...作“规定…”解，也就是“以…作条件”的意思。也有人用providing代替provided，但有人认为不算正当。

provided...或provided that...可以说等于if...，通常都用在比较正式的英语里。例如：I will go provided (that) you will go with me. ＝I will go if you will go with me.但并不是一切可以用if的场合都可以用provided或provided that代替它。因为provided原来作“规定”解，它所引导的从句该是一种“规定”，而且那“规定”该是那“规定者”所认为该实现的。如I will go provided(that) you will go里的you will go是“规定”，I是“规定者”，I认为那“规定”该实现，就是说I认为you will go该是事实。I will not go provided (that) you will not go便不对，该把provided (that)改作if，因为这里的“规定者”I并不认为那“规定”you will not go该实现。下面各句里的if都不可改作provided或provided that：

You may lose your membership if you make the same mistake again.

What will happen if they see us?

He said he would punish me if I was lazy.

Things would have been different if we had taken another course of action.

假使你觉得provided难用，你尽可以不用它，在一切可以用provided的场合用if总是不错的。

providence

Providence（偶尔用providence）在用作“上帝”或“天公”解的时候，用he，him，his等词或用it，its等词代它都可以。也有人用she，her等词，不算正当。

provident(ial)

provident作“顾及将来的”解，转作“未雨绸缪的”或“节俭的”解。providential作“由于天意的”解，转作“幸运的”或“凑巧的”解。

providing

参见provide(d) 3

province

1.Jiangsu Province，Fujian Province等前面没有the。但Province of Jiangsu，Province of Fujian等前面必须有the。

2.the provinces指首都以外的全部国土。

3.不可用province指英国的郡（county）或美国的州（state）。但在加拿大用province。

proximo

proximo（简写作prox.）作“下月的”解，用于注明日期，如the 28th proximo（或prox.）。现在不及从前普通，最好不用，该用of next month或说明月份，如the 28th of next month和28 November。注意proximo是形容词，不是名词，所以不可说of proximo。事实上简写形式prox.用得比较多些。

prudent(ial)

prudent作“谨慎的” 或“并不轻举妄动的”解。prudential作“由于谨慎的”或“为谨慎起见的”解，往往含有“为自己打算”或“自私”的意思。同一个行为，说它prudent便是说它好，说它prudential往往是说它不好。

psychology

psychology有时指“心理状态”，如the psychology of a criminal和the psychology of cats。

public

1.the public（大众）被当作单数或复数都可以。例如：The public is favourably impressed with the new policy.和The public are favourably impressed with the new policy.

2.public school在英国指公学，它们的学生大都是寄宿生或寄膳生，教育他们使他们预备入大学或公务机关。在美国、苏格兰和英国的属地指公立中学和小学，跟英国的council school相当，通常是免费的。

publication

cease publication指“杂志、报纸等停刊”，suspend publication指“暂时停刊”。

publish(er)

1.关于publish(er)和print(er)的区别，参见print(er) 1

2.publish往往把著作者或编辑者作主语。如假定Hardy写了一本书，被出版家Wilson出版了，说Hardy has published his book和Wilson has published Hardy's book都可以。又如假定Hardy写了一篇文章，在Wilson所办Thompson所编的报纸或杂志里发表了，说Hardy has published his article，Thompson has published Hardy's article和Wilson has published Hardy's article都可以。

3.publish有时作“出版（某人）的作品”解。例如：We have published many modern authors.和Wilson used to publish Hardy.

4.说杂志、报纸等被在“某地点”出版，在published后面接from或at都可以，说杂志、报纸等被某机关等出版，在published后面接from或by都可以。例如：The Beijing Review is published from（或at）Beijing.和The book is published from（或by）the Foreign Languages Press.

5.publisher单独用在英国通常指书籍出版家，在美国通常指报纸的所有人。英国报纸的publisher并不是它的所有人，却是代替那所有人发行那报纸的人。

6.published price是书的“定价”，等于the price at which a book is published。

Punch

Punch是英国的一本幽默杂志，前面没有the。

punish

Is it necessary to punish such an offender?和Is it necessary to punish such an offence?都可以说。

Punjab

Punjab是印度地名，前面有the。

pupil

1.pupil通常指小学生或中学生，在美国几乎总是指小学生，但在跟教师并称的时候也可以指大学生。例如：teacher and pupil和one of Professor Allen's pupils

2.pupil是跟teacher相对的，自学者并不是pupil，如音乐家的学生是他的pupil，但自学音乐者是student of music。

3.注意my pupil in grammar里用in。

purchase

1.purchase是庄重的词，大概说购买产业或大批器材或名贵古董的时候用，普通说买菜、买肉等是不用的。

2.purchasing power有时指人的“购买力”，有时指钱币的“购买力”。

purport

1.注意下面各句里用purports和purporting，不用is purported和purported：

The story purports to be an autobiography.

The letter purports to interpret public opinion.

Here is a cheque purporting to bear his signature.

The book contains some information purporting to have been gathered from certain unknown sources.

2.不论用作动词或用作名词，purport通常用在正式的英语里。例如：However obscure the details may be, the general purport, at least, is clear.

purpose

1.for charitable purposes，for military purposes，for practical purposes，for instruction purposes等表达方式里用复数形式purposes。

2.for (the) purposes of travel，for (the) purposes of medicine等表达方式里的the用的少，不用的多。注意用复数形式purposes。

3.my purpose in writing this book，his purpose in going to Australia等表达方式里用in，不用of。the purpose of writing this book，the purpose of going to Australia等表达方式里用of，不用in。不可说the purpose of my writing this book等。

4.purpose（动词）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：I purpose to devote（或devoting）myself to the cause from now on.和I purpose to give（或giving）the committee all the details.用不定式比用动名词普通。也可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall。例如：We purpose that such disasters shall not occur again.

pursuance

参见pursuant

pursuant

pursuant to the contract，they paid on 14 April等句子里的pursuant用作副词，习惯上不可把它改作pursuantly。

pursuant在英国公文里现在不及从前普通。in pursuance of也是这样。

pursue

pursue是“因为要得到…而追”，不是“赶去”。

put

1.put是一时的动作，如可以说I put the pot on the shelf an hour ago，不可说I have put the pot on the shelf for an hour，该把put改作kept。又如I put my books in my study and my clothes in my bedroom等句子里的put该改作keep。

同样地，put on（把…穿上或戴上［on是副词］）也是一时的动作，如可以说He put on his cap and went out，不可说He put on his cap all day，该把put on改作wore。参见wear 1

2.put指“放…（在那里）”的动作，没有“使…留（在那里）”的意思，如“你可以把帽子留在桌上”该说You may leave your cap on the table，不该用put。

puzzle(d)

1.puzzled是过去分词用作形容词，后面可以接以that，how或what等词引导的从句。例如：You seemed puzzled that the conjuror had produced a rabbit out of a cap.和The children are puzzled how the world came into being.

2.关于a puzzled look（困惑的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

puzzling

It is puzzling me里的is puzzling属于进行时态，It is puzzling to me里的puzzling是形容词。

pyjamas

1.pyjamas是英国拼写形式，pajamas是美国拼写形式。

2.pyjamas是复数形式，原来即使指一个人穿的也说these pyjamas。但可以说this pair of pyjamas和some pairs of pyjamas。现在也有人用单数形式pyjama。例如：this pyjama和another pyjama

Q

qualification

1.qualification在一般英汉词典里注作“资格”，当然不算错，但这译法可能被误解。如假定要做某项工作必须历史清楚，身体健康，不嗜烟酒，通晓汉语，有了这四个条件便是有了四个qualification。要是说“只有资格，没有本领”，这句话里的所谓“资格”并不是qualification。

但qualification也往往指法律上或手续上的“资格”，如一个本领很好的医生，假使不曾被检定，便没有qualification。

2.往往必须用复数形式qualifications，例如：We require a young man of your qualifications.和She has the qualifications for the post.

qualified

qualified有时是“有所需的本领的”，如a qualified typist，有时是“检定合格的”，如a qualified doctor。用在指必须通过检定才能开业的人的词的前面（如医生和律师）, qualified总作第二个解。

qualify

下面每组里的两句意思不同：

参见qualified

quality

1.quality有时被用作形容词，作“优良的”解，如quality merchandise和quality clothing。这用法主要流行在美国。

2.paper of good quality, good quality paper和a good quality of paper都可以说。This paper is (of) good quality里的of可有可无。

quantity

quantity用于可数名词和不可数名词都可以，如a quantity of flowers和a quantity of water。

quarter

1.下面四句意思相同：

I bought it for a quarter of the price.

I bought it for quarter of the price.

I bought it for a quarter the price.

I bought it for quarter the price.

2.“一刻钟”该说a quarter of an hour，不可没有an，也不可单用a quarter，但在a quarter past three，a quarter to five等表达方式里没有of an hour。说“一刻钟或半小时”该用a quarter or half an hour，quarter后面的of an hour因为half后面有了an hour而省去。

3.a quarter past three，a quarter to five等表达方式里的a往往被省去。

4.one and a quarter feet和a foot and a quarter都可以说。（参见a, an 33）three and a quarter millions和three millions and a quarter也都可以说。

5.a quarter mile=a quarter of a mile，a quarter century=a quarter of a century。但通常不说a quarter hour。

6.I am going to take up (my) quarters with a friend（我将跟一个朋友住在一起）里的my现在用的少，不用的多。

queen

1.queen是“王后”，不是“皇后”。“皇后”是empress。

2.Queen's College在英国Oxford大学，Queens' College在英国Cambridge大学，不可混淆。

question

1.out of question是状语短语，作“必定地”解，现在很不普通。out of the question是形容词短语，作“必不可能的”解。例如：He is now so tired that to walk another mile is out of the question.注意在该用out of the question的场合不可没有the。也注意out of question和out of the question都不作“当然的”解。

2.There is（或was）no question of (his)...ing作“…是不可能的”或“不必…”解。例如：The weather is so good that there is no question of wearing our raincoats.和Since you have perfect teeth, there is no question of your having to have false teeth made.

但there is no question后面接of和名词可能有两个相反的意思，如There is no question of his deep and lasting love for his wife可能是“他决不会对他的妻子有深切而永久的爱情”，也可能是“他当然对他的妻子有深切而永久的爱情”。 There could be no question of separate lessons for every nationality with explanation in each foreign language: a single series had to serve all students and make itself as clear as possible in Chinese alone里的There could be no question of...只可能有一个意思，便是“…是不可能的”。

There is no question that...作“…是没有疑问的”解。例如：There is no question that a vast number of people have had the same experience.在that前面加上but全句意思不变。

3.The question (of) whether to go to Beijing or to Tianjin，thequestion (of) when to start等表达方式里的of可有可无。

4.The question is whether to go to Beijing or to Tianjin等句子里的the在口语里往往省去，作Question is...。

quick(ly)

1.quick（形容词）to...（不定式）作“（在性情或智力上）易于…”解。例如：He is quick to sympathize.（他易于同情［他人］。）和This child is quick to learn.（这个孩子［对于任何事情］一学即会。）说“工作得快”和“写得快”不可说quick to work和quick to write。

2.在口语里quick往往被用作副词，用在动词后面。例如：Come quick!和Run as quick as you can. He quickly opened the door and ran out里的quickly不可改作quick。

quietly

quietly有时用作感叹语，作“轻一些！”解。例如：Quietly! Don't wake her up.

quit

1.quit的过去式和过去分词在英国通常是quitted，在美国通常是quit。

2.quit在英国很少用，在美国很常用，下面各句都多少有些美国英语味：

The doctor advises him to quit smoking.

Arthur always quits work at five o'clock.

He hopes to quit at sixty-five.

She quit last year because of ill health.

quite

1.关于a quite...和quite a...，参见a, an 24

2.quite right和all right都可以说。也有人说quite all right，但这种说法不合理，该避免。

quiz

quiz（名词）用作“非正式的考试”解和（动词）用作“对（学生）举行非正式的考试”和“举行非正式的考试”解是美国英语。

quotation

quotation有时统指一切引语。例如：The book has a wealth of illustrative quotation.

quote

1.quote the book和quote from the book意思相同，quote the author和quote from the author也意思相同。

2.quote有时有双宾语。例如：Let me quote you the following passage from Shakespeare.

3.在商业信函里往往有We will quote（开价）specially for larger quantities，We shall quote you（向你开价）on the most favourable terms等句。

R

race

1.the races指“赛马”。例如：He met them at the races.

2.关于human race，参见human 1

radio

注意下面第一句和第二句里没有the，第三句里有the：

I am interested in radio.

I have received a message by radio.

I have heard the news on, （或upon，或over）the radio.

这三句里的radio在英国往往改用wireless。就字面讲，“无线（电）”是从wireless译出的，radio直译作“辐射（电）”。

railroad

railroad（铁路）在英国现在不通用，但在美国比railway 普通。

railway

railway当然是类名词，但可以说a stretch of railway和three thousand miles of railway。

rain

a rain是“一阵雨”,rains是“几阵雨”，the rains指“（热带地方的）雨季”。

raise

1.raise wheat，raise cattle和raise children是美国英语，相当于英国英语grow wheat，breed cattle和rear children。

2.a raise in（或of）salary（薪水的增加），a raise in（或of）wages（工资的增加）和a (pay) raise（薪水或工资的增加）都是美国英语，在英国不用raise而用rise或increase。

range

He was shot at close（或short）range等句在at后面没有a。

rank

In a short time he rose to the rank of major等句子里在major 前面没有a。

rare(ly)

1.下面三句意思相同：

In the old society it was rare for a poor man's son to go to college.

In the old society it was rare that a poor man's son went to college.

In the old society it was rarely that a poor man's son went to college.

第三句等于In the old society a poor man's son rarely went to college.

2.注意Rarely do we see such things nowadays等句子里用do we see，不用we see。

3.in rare cases不及rarely普通。

rate

at the rate of five miles an hour等表达方式里的the改作a也可以。

rather

1.注意下面两句里都用go，第一句里不用going，第二句里不用went：

He insisted on staying rather than go.

He stayed rather than go.

但下面第一句里用reading而不用read，第二句里用said而不用say：

He was engaged in studying rather than reading the newspaper.

He called rather than said to me 'Thank you'.

staying rather than go和stayed rather than go（宁愿留，不愿去）都表示主观的愿望，studying rather than reading和called rather than said表示客观的事实：

2.注意下面两组句子的结构：

rather than和more...than都可以说，但既然用了more...than便不可加上rather。

3.a rather big dog和rather a big dog都可以说。参见a, an 24

4.had rather是习语，必须用had，不可用have，后面接没有to的不定式，例如：I had rather stay with John than with Charles.

5.I would（或had）rather you paid me now, He would（或had）rather his children didn't make so much noise等句子里的rather后面通常接不用that引导的从句，那从句里用虚拟过去式。

raw

raw用于水果作“未煮的”（uncooked）解，不作“未成熟的”解。说“未成熟的”该用“unripe”。

re

re（关于…）用在商业或法律文件里，不该用在一般文字里。例如：We have not yet heard from them re the situation.和The case re the property will be heard tomorrow.（关于这项财产的案件将在明天开审。）

reach

1.reach作“（伸手）递给”解，往往有双宾语。例如：She reached me a slice of bread.

2.within (the) reach of（被…所及得到）里有时有the，有时没有the。out of (the) reach of（被…所及不到）里也有时有the，有时没有the。beyond the reach of（被…所及不到）里通常有the。within easy reach of our school等表达方式里没有the。

reaction

1.注意下面各种表达方式里的介词：

the reaction of copper to sulphuric acid,

the patient's reaction to the doctor's treatment,

the reaction of the public to the new policy

也有人说：

the reaction of sulphuric acid on copper,

the reaction of the doctor's treatment on the patient,

the reaction of the new policy on the public

但都不算正当，该把reaction改作action，effect或influence。

2.严格地说，What is your reaction to the proposal? 和They have not yet expressed their reactions to the announcement等句子里的reaction或reactions是临时的情感上的“反应”，不是“意见”，并不是从思考中得到的。

read

1.read有时有双宾语。例如：He used to read me stories about his adventures.（他过去常常读他的历险故事给我听。）

2.read aloud，read out和read out aloud都作“读出声来”解。

3.关于read books，参见book 1

4.I read（是现在时态）in the newspaper that the Great Hall of the Pepole（人民大会堂）at Beijing was completed in less than eleven months和I have read in the newspaper that...意思相同。

5.下面各句里的reading和reading up主要用在英国：

He is reading for the medical profession.

He is reading law.

He is reading up the subject.

He is reading up the notes.

He is reading up on the subject.

6.He is deeply read in English literature，There is no-one so widelyread but that he may make pleasant discoveries among authors that are new to him等句子里的read是不及物动词read的过去分词，read用作形容词。

reader

1.reader作“大学讲师”解是英国英语，后面接in，如a reader in phonetics。

2.reader用作呼唤语是称本书或本文的读者，前面不用my。例如：Reader, did you ever come across such an expression?

readiness

readiness后面可以接不定式。例如：We appreciated her readiness to undertake that difficult task.

ready

1.clothes ready to be worn，clothes ready to wear，clothes ready for wearing和clothes ready for the wearing都可以说，似乎不说clothes ready for being worn。We are ready to eat和The dinner is ready to eat两句里的ready to eat不同，第一句里的to eat是及物动词，第二句里的to eat是及物动词，等于to be eaten。

2.too ready to blame others，too ready to take offence，too ready to make mistakes等表达方式里的不定式修饰ready，并不修饰too，它们在结构上跟too weak to walk等表达方式不同。

reason

1.for business reasons，for health reasons，for political reasons等表达方式里该用复数形式reasons。for reasons of space，for reasons of her own等表达方式里也用复数形式reasons。

2.注意下面各句里的斜体字：

I have reason to call him dishonest.

I have reason for calling him dishonest.

I have no reason to call him dishonest.

I have no reason for calling him dishonest.

I have every reason to call him dishonest.

I have every reason for calling him dishonest.

I have good reason to call him dishonest.

I have good reasons to call him dishonest.

I have a reason for calling him dishonest.

I have reasons for calling him dishonest.

I do not think I have any reason for calling him dishonest.

不可说my reason to call him dishonest或the reason for me to call him dishonest，该说the reason for my calling him dishonest。

3.the reason for his attitude, the reason for her absence, the reason for my refusal等表达方式里通常用for，偶尔用of。

4.The reason (why) I love him is that he has a perfect character等句子里的that在口语里通常被省去。

5.下面第一句里的due to和第二句里的on account of该删去，第三句里的because最好改作that：

The reason (why) I love him is due to his perfect character.

The reason (why) I love him is on account of his perfect character.

The reason (why) I love him is because he has a perfect character.

6.The reason is（或was），...=The reason is（或was）that...。例如：The reason is, nobody has expected him so early.

7.by reason of（因为…）中没有the。主要是公文英语。

recall

1.recall（动词）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I recall meeting him somewhere，不可说I recall to meet him somewhere。把meeting改作having met意思不变。

2.Let me recall a case within my recent experience里的recall不但是“回忆”，而且是“从回忆中重述”。

3.recall比recollect通俗。

4.recall用作“罢免权”或“罢免”解是美国英语。the recall指“罢免权”。 power of recall（罢免权），the threat of recall（罢免的威胁）等表达方式里在recall前面没有the。

receipt

1.on（或upon）(the) receipt of（一收到了…立刻）里的the可有可无。例如：I shall write again on（或upon）(the) receipt of further news.和On（或upon）(the) receipt of this letter, if you advise me as to whether you are still interested in information of this kind, I will be guided accordingly. in receipt of（收到了…的）是商业文件和公文用语，没有the。例如：I am in receipt of your letter.

2.关于acknowledge (the) receipt of，参见acknowledge 2

3.在商业文件里receipt（收据）前面往往没有a或the。例如：Please send receipt by return.和I am enclosing receipt for the goods received.

receive

1.关于receive和accept的区别，参见accept 1

2.receive是一时的动作，所以不可说I have received your letter (for) five days，该说I received your letter five days ago或It is five days since I received your letter。

3.说“从…收到（款项）”用receive from或receive of都可以。例如：Received from（或of）Mr David B. Little the sum of seven pounds.

4.英美人写复信时第一句往往是Your letter of...received，把is，has been或was省去。

recent(ly)

1.on a recent day，on a recent morning，on a recent night等表达方式不合习惯，该说the other day，the other morning，the other night等。参见other 7

2.关于of recent date（recent前面没有a），参见date 2

3.as recently as 15 May, as recently as 1999等表达方式里在第二个as后面没有on或in。

4.in recent years里不可加上the。of recent years=in recent years，通常修饰属于完成时态的动词。例如：In（或of）recent years I have not seen much of them.

5.recently可以修饰属于完成时态或过去时态的动词。例如：I (have) heard from him recently.

recitation

1.recitation在英国作“背诵”解，必须背出声来，“默诵”并不是recitation。在美国也指上课的一切事项，包括问答、练习、朗读、笔记等。

2.recitation room（教室）是美国英语。

recite

参见recitation

reckon

1.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

2.I reckon on（或upon）hearing from him before long等句子里的reckon on（或upon）作“信赖”解，主要用在口语里，在文字里通常用count on（或upon）。

recognize

1.recognize在一般英汉词典里注作“认识”，实际是“见了某人而认出（他）”，是一时的动作。例如：As soon as I saw him, I recognized him.和As I have not seen him for nearly twenty years, I am afraid I should not recognize him if I met him today.说“我认识他五年了”和“我在五年前的一个晚上认识他”不可用I have recognized him for five years和I recognized him one evening five years ago来表达，该说I have known him for five years和I made his acquaintance one evening five years ago。

2.下面两句里的recognize意思不同：

When he met her in the street, he could hardly recognize（认识）her because she was very much changed.

When he met her in the street, he refused to recognize（招呼）her because he thought they were no longer friends.

recollect

1.recollect作“回想到”或“记得起”解，不是单纯的“记得”，是有意志的动作，如说“我记得他的名字”不可说I recollect his name，该把recollect改作remember。I do not remember his name是“我不记得他的名字”。 I cannot recollect his name是“我想不起他的名字”。

2.recollect后面通常接动名词。例如：I can well recollect hearing （或having heard）the song when I was a little boy.把hearing（或having heard）改作to have heard意思不变，但不很普通。

3.recollect不及recall通俗。

recommend

1.recommend往往有双宾语。例如：Can you recommend me an English dictionary?

2.I recommend the reader to be on the lookout for idioms等句子里偶尔在recommend后面加上to，但很不普通，加上it to也可以，比只加上to普通。

3.recommend后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I recommend being on the lookout for idioms，不可说I recommend to be on the lookout for idioms。

4.recommend后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用虚拟现在式。例如：I recommend that the reader be（不用is）on the lookout for idioms.和I recommended that the reader be（不用was）on the lookout for idioms.

5.He recommended the new book to us和He recommended us to the new book意思相同，第一句比第二句普通。

6.在口语里有时把recommend用作名词，作recommendation解。例如：Did he give you a recommendation for the post?这用法主要用在美国。

recommendation

1.注意下面两句里用虚拟现在式：

His recommendation is that each member bring（不用brings）a story-book to the club.

His recommendation was that each member bring（不用brought）a story-book to the club.

2.That letter from the writer is recommendation enough是“那作家写的那封信作为推荐足够了（不必要其他推荐了）。” My coat is hardly a recommendation for my tailor是“我的上装不足以推荐我的裁缝”，就是“我的上装做得不好”。

reconcile

reconcile...to...（使…忍受…）里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以后面该接动名词，如He could not reconcile himself to living alone里的living不可改作live。

reconsider

reconsider直译作“再考虑”，但往往含有“取消”的意思。例如：Allen reconsidered his resignation and remained in the post.

reconstruction

参见construction(al)

record(ing)

1.recording从“录音”转作“被录的音”解，再转作“唱片或录制品”解，所以recording=record。例如：Record(ing)s of the text are now available.但recording和record虽然指同一东西，但recording着重在“音”，record着重在“唱片或录制品”，如The author has most usefully provided recordings of the lessons里用recordings，但He keeps all his old gramophone records in his basement里用records。

2.注意a record spoken by James Mandy里用spoken。

recourse

He could not do it without recourse to disguising himself as a foreigner里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以它后面的disguising不可改作disguise。

recover

1.下面四句意思不同：

He recovered.（他复原了。）

He had recovered.（他已经复原了。）

He was recovered.（他已经在复原的状态中了。）

He was recovering.（他正在复原中［尚未复原］。）

2.下面四句都作“他已经复原了”解，但第四句不很普通。

He has recovered.

He has recovered his health.

He has recovered from his illness.

He has recovered his illness.

recreation

Gardening is (a) good recreation里的a可有可无。Gardening and fishing are good recreation(s)里用单数或复数形式都可以。

red

red tape（繁文缛节）前面没有a或the。

reduce

1.reduce（使…不得不）的宾语后面接to和动名词比接不定式普通，如In those days poverty reduced many to begging in the streets 比In those days poverty reduced many to beg in the streets普通。

2.下面两句意思不同：

Production was reduced to thirty per cent.（生产减少到百分之三十。）

Production was reduced by thirty per cent.（生产减少了百分之三十［减少到百分之七十］。）

refer

refer不论用在哪个意思里，也不论用作及物或不及物，后面都接to。例如：He referred me to the dictionary.和He referred to the dictionary.

reference

1.reference不论用在哪个意思里，后面都接to。例如：All are admitted, without reference to age or sex.和On receiving her application he made a reference to her parents.

2.商业复信的开首往往用With reference to your letter...。在一般通信里该避免。

3.with reference to比in reference to普通。两种表达方式都主要用在商业信函和公文里，很少用在口语里。注意那to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以With（或In）reference to editing a school paper, he has given us several valuable suggestions里的editing不可改作edit。

referendum

referendum（复决权）前面有the。

referring

商业复信的开首往往用Referring to your letter...。在一般通信里该避免。

reform(ation)

reform统指“改革”，a reform是“一项改革”, reforms是“多项改革”。reformation着重在“改革的行为”或“被改革的状态”，比reform范围广些。例如：

The article deals with language reform.

This is an important political reform.

These economic reforms are of great importance.

The author advocates the reformation of manners.

refrain

1.refrain后面接from和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I refrained from speaking of her，不可说I refrained to speak of her。

2.参见abstain 2

refreshment

take some refreshments比take some refreshment普通。

refund(ment)

refund用作名词比refundment普通。

refusal

refusal后面接不定式，如his refusal to go with us。

refuse

1.Jack refused her money和Jack refused money to her都可以说。Jack refused her nothing和Jack refused nothing to her是“她要什么杰克就给她什么”。

2.refuse后面接不定式，不接动名词，如He refused to go with us里的to go不可改作going。

3.refuse后面不可接宾语和不定式或以that引导的从句，如不可说He refused me to use his bicycle或He refused that I should use his bicycle，该改作下面任何一句（当然语气各有轻重）：

He refused me permission to use his bicycle.

He refused to let me use his bicycle.

He refused to allow me to use his bicycle.

He did not allow me to use his bicycle.

He did not consent to my using his bicycle.

4.对于对方的邀请、请求、提议等，在表示“不接受”的时候，不该用refuse，也不该用reject，该用cannot accept，cannot comply with，decline等。

regard

1.I regard her as a good worker，I regard her as good等句子里的as不该省去。I regard her to be a good worker和I regard her to be good不算正当，该把to be改作as。

2.with regard to，in regard to，in regard of和as regards都作“关于”解，下面几点该注意：

（1）in regard of最不普通。

（2）不可说with regard of。

（3）as regards里的regards是及物动词，s不可省去，后面不可加上to。

（4）as regards里的regards属于现在时态，但是也用于过去的事。例如：Before graduation I knew very little as regards foreign affairs.

（5）with regard to和in regard to两种表达方式里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以With（或In）regard to writing essays, I should like to have your advice里的writing不可改作write。

（6）各种表达方式都主要用在正式的文字里，很少用在口语里。

3.下面各种形式都是信的结尾：

Please give my best regards to your parents.

Yours sincerely,

W.Hall

Best regards.

Yours sincerely,

W. Hall

With best regards,

Yours sincerely,

W. Hall

第一种形式Please...是全句，后面当然用句号，第二种形式里的Best regards等于I send you my best regards，也是全句，所以后面也用句号，第三种形式里的With best regards是短语，所以后面用逗号。

regarding

regarding（关于）是regard的现在分词用作介词，后面不可加上to，如Nothing is known regarding his plans for the future里在regarding后面不可加上to。

regardless(ly)

regardless of比regardlessly of普通得多，如He acted regardless of what might happen afterwards里的regardless假使改作regardlessly便很不普通。

register

1.说“把（信件）挂号”时，可以把寄信人或邮局职员做register的主语，寄信人可以向邮局职员说I want to register this letter或Please register this letter。 I want to have this letter registered和Please have this letter registered也都可以说，have this letter registered作“使这封信被挂号”解，不管谁做register的动作。

2.说“向（某人）登记或注册”该在表示“某人”的词的前面用with。例如：All the local newspapers should be registered with the municipal authorities.

3.Let me register my admiration for your work等句子里的register 作“表示”解，这用法似乎近几年来才有。

registry

registry fee（信件的挂号费）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的registration fee。

regret

1.I（或We）regret that...，I（或We）regret to say that...，I（或We）regret to have to announce that...等表达方式是用来报告不愉快的事的，语气可重可轻。例如：I regret to tell you that my brother died yesterday afternoon.和We regret to say that we cannot accept your kind offer.注意这两句里的regret都是动词，不可说I（或We）have the regret that...，I（或We）have the regret to say...等。

下面三句意思相同：

I regret that I cannot accept your kind offer.

I regret to say that I cannot accept your kind offer.

I regret to have to say that I cannot accept your kind offer.

也有人说I regret it that I cannot accept your kind offer但不普通。

2.说“因…而感觉悲哀或不愉快”在regret（动词）后面通常接不定式，偶尔接动名词。例如：I regret to hear of your sister's death. I regret to have to trouble you again.和I regret having to trouble you again.说“因…而感觉懊悔”在regret（动词）后面接动名词，如I regret causing him so much inconvenience和I regret having caused him so much inconvenience。注意regret是及物动词，后面不可加上for。

比较下面三句：

I regret to have to trouble you again.

I regret having to trouble you again.（1.我［现在］不得不再麻烦你，感觉不安。2.我［以前］不得不再麻烦你，感觉懊悔。）

I regret that I have to trouble you again.

3.比较下面每组里的两句：

4.下面第一句里用the regret，第二句里用his regrets或his regret：

He expressed the regret that he could do nothing about it.

He expressed his regret(s) that he could do nothing about it.

5.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

6.admit with regret用作regret或admit解，不是过分客气，便是不够诚恳。

regretful

1.regretful是“懊悔的，遗憾的”，regrettable是“令人遗憾的”，就是“可惜的”，下面各句里的regretful和regrettable不可对调：

I am regretful for it.

He made a regretful apology.

This is a regrettable error.

It is regrettable that they have left the city already.

He made a regrettable mistake a year ago and has since been regretful.

2.regretful后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：She felt regretful that she could not find more time for study.

regrettable

参见regretful

reinforcement

可以说a reinforcement of fifty men。

reject

参见refuse 4

rejoice(d)

下面每组里的两句意思相同，第一句不及第二句通俗：

relate

relate to是“涉及…”或“跟…有关系”, be related to是“在性质上跟…相关”或“跟…有亲属等关系”，下面各句里的relate(s) to和be related to不可对调：

This paragraph relates to the War of Independence.

The speech relates to the relaxation of international tension.

I do not understand how the different parts of the machine relate to each other.

He has collected many proverbs and popular sayings that relate to the seasons, the weather, and agricultural pursuits.

These occurrences seem to be related to each other.

Mr Bryan is closely related to Mr Carson.

The domestic cat is distantly related to the tiger.

This plant is said to be related to that.

relation(ship)

1.relation和relative都可以用作“亲属”解，relative比relation普通。但下面三句里的relation不可改作relative。

Is he any relation to you?

What relation is he to you?

He is no relation (to me).

注意He is no relation to me里用no和to me，He is not a relation of mine里用not a和of mine。He is no relation (to me)作“他跟我同姓不宗”解。

2.relation和relative并不专指所谓“亲戚”，也包括父、母、子、女、祖、孙、伯、叔等。his（或her）relations（或relatives）通常指“他（或她）的家属”。

3.relation和relative都不指亲戚的亲戚，如你的姐夫的姐夫并不是你的relation或relative。

4.说“父子关系”、“师生关系”等用单数形式relation，如the relation of father to son和the relation between them as teacher and pupil。说人和人、店和店、国和国等之间的“关系”时则用复数形式relations。例如：

The relations between father and son are of the best kind.

We have very pleasant relations with the firm.

The book is a study of the diplomatic and cultural relations of this country.

注意human relations problems和public relations officers里也用复数形式relations。

5.relationship跟relation（亲属）的关系，相当于friendship跟friend的关系。但relationship也往往用作“关系”解。

relative

1.参见relation 1, 2和3

2.He wrote to me relative to going to college等句子里的relative用作副词，习惯上不可把它改作relatively。它后面的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以那going不可改作go。

religion

1.religion统指“宗教”，a religion是“一种宗教”，religions是“多种宗教”。

2.说“…教”该有the，如the Buddhist religion和the Christian religion。

reluctance

reluctance后面接不定式，不接of或for和动名词，如可以说reluctance to go，不可说reluctance of（或for）going。

reluctant

reluctant后面接不定式，如reluctant to go。

rely

rely on（或upon）后面往往接宾语和不定式。例如：I rely (up) on you to let me know all about it.

remain

1.remain后面往往有表语。例如：He remained faithful to his wife all his life.和For a long time he remained a bachelor. He continued to remain...是英美人常有的错误。

2.在信的信尾客套语前面，有时用I remain，下面几点该注意：

（1）第一次通信不可用I remain，该用I am。

（2) remain后面的Yours（或yours）是表语，所以照语法在remain后面不该有逗号，但习惯上很多人用逗号。

（3）I remain现在不及从前普通。

（4）I（或We）beg to remain是商业信函里的陈套语。

remains

The remains of the meal are kept here里的are改作is也可以。

remark

remark（有评论性质的话）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He left the meeting with the remark that he had learnt a good lesson from it.

remarkable

可以说This is a remarkable book，但不可说：

This is not a remarkable book.

Is this a remarkable book?

If this is a remarkable book, I should like to read it.

Can you recommend me a remarkable book?

I want to read some remarkable books.

参见most 4

remarry

remarry用作不及物动词作“再娶、再嫁”解。例如：He lost his wife in 1989 and remarried in 1991.和She lost her husband in 1989 and remarried in 1991.用作及物动词作“再娶（已离婚的妻）”或“再嫁给（已离婚的丈夫）”解。例如：He divorced his wife in 1989 and remarried her in 1991.和She divorced her husband in 1989 and remarried him in 1991.注意不可说He lost his wife in 1989 and remarried Miss Reed in 1991，或She lost her husband in 1989 and remarried Mr Bain in 1991，该把remarried改作married。

remember

1.参见recollect

2.下面四句意思相同：

I remember meeting him a year ago.

I remember having met him a year ago.

I remember to have met him a year ago.

I remember that I met him a year ago.

注意不可说I remember to meet him a year ago。remember to...（不定式）作“记着必须…”解。例如：You must remember to meet him at the station tomorrow morning.

下面四句也意思相同：

I do not remember ever doing so myself.

I do not remember ever having done so myself.

I do not remember having ever done so myself.

I do not remember ever to have done so myself.

第三句不及第二句普通。 注意不可说I do not remember to have ever done so myself。

3.remember后面有时接宾语和现在分词。例如：I remember John saying that he would not do it again.

4.下面各句都不合理：

I never remember to have seen him before.（可以改作I do not remember ever having seen him before或I do not remember ever to have seen him before。）

I remember not many years ago that there was an arbour here.（可以改作I remember that not many years ago there was an arbour here。）

When I was a small boy I remember an old woman who called on my mother almost every day.（可以改作I remember that when I was a small boy an old woman called on my mother almost every day。）

When I remember him, he was a college student.（可以改作I remember him as a college student。）

remind

1.比较下面两句：

He reminded me to write the letter.（他［有意地或无意地］提醒我，叫我写那信。）

He reminded me of writing the letter.（他［有意地或无意地］使我想起写过那信。）

2.remind的宾语后面可以接以that，how等词引导的从句。例如：He reminded me that I ought to do it at once.和He reminded me how careful I ought to be in doing it.

3.“某人（A）remind某人（B）of某人（C）”往往作“A在外貌上像C，所以使B见了A便想起C”解。例如：You remind me of Addison.（你在外貌上像Addison，所以使我见了你便想起Addison。）这用法有时也用在比喻里。例如：He reminded me of a tiger.（他在外貌上像虎，所以使我见了他便想起虎。）

reminiscence

He has published three volumes of reminiscence(s)里用单数形式reminiscence或复数形式reminiscences都可以。

reminiscent

reminiscent后面接of，如These pictures make me reminiscent of my late mother和These pictures are reminiscent of my late mother。

remittance

1.make a remittance比send a remittance普通。

2.on receipt of remittance for ten yuan等表达方式里在remittance前面习惯没有a或the，后面习惯用for。

remove

1.remove作“搬家”解是不及物动词。例如：When did you remove to Shanghai? remove his（或my等）family通常作“把他（或我等）的家属迁居”解，那remove的主语所代表的人并不一同去。

2.remove用作名词作“搬家”解现在远不及removal普通。

render

render（使）后面接宾语和表语。例如：The rain rendered the journey difficult.和The rain rendered the journey an impossibility.那宾语后面不可接不定式，如不可说The rain rendered the journey to be difficult。比较下面三句：

The rain rendered the journey difficult.

The rain made the journey difficult.

The rain caused the journey to be difficult.

rendition

a complete rendition（翻译）of Shakespeare和her rendition（演奏）of a piano solo里的rendition主要是美国用法，在英国通常用rendering。

rent(al)

1.rent统指“租金”，a rent是“一项租金”，rents是“多项租金”，rental是“租金的额（不论一项或多项）”。比较下面四句：

Tom had to let his house for rent.

I pay a rent of five hundrend yuan.

As I support both my family and my brother's, I have to pay two rents.

As I support both my family and my brother's, I have to pay a rental of five hundred yuan.

2.rent作“租用”或“租出”解都可以。例如：Tom rented（租用）this house from Mr Little, and rented（租出）two rooms to Mrs Addams.

3.rent在英国通常只用于房屋和土地，但在美国往往用于任何东西，下面各句都是美国英语：

He rented a motor-car and went to see a friend.（在英国用hired）

We rent books to members only.（在英国用lend）

We have new books for rent.（在英国用for hire或to lend）

对于房屋和土地，在美国也比在英国多用。例如：

This room is for rent.（在英国用to let）

He rented his farm and removed to town.（在英国用let）

renter

renter在英国极不普通，但在美国很普通。参见rent 2和3

repair

1.注意下面两句意思不同：

The house is in repair.（这房子是完好的。）

The house is under repair.（这房子正在修理。）

2.in repair（完好的）=in good repair，out of repair（不完好的、失修的）=in bad repair。注意good和bad的前面没有a。

3.repairs作“修理工程，修理工作”解。例如：This house needs a lot of repairs before anyone can live in it.和The tenant has to do all the repairs.不可说a repair。

4.上面一条说不可说a repair。The breach（感情上的破裂）seems to have been repaired, but it was only a brief repair里用a，指“一次”或“一件”。

repa(i)rable

The mistake is easily reparable里用reparable，不用repairable。The house is easily repa(i)rable在英国通常用repairable，在美国通常用reparable。

reparation

“赔偿”通常用复数形式reparations。例如：They demanded reparations for the damage.

repay

1.repay a visit（回访）现在不及return a visit普通。

2.repay back里的back是多余的，该删去。

3.下面两句意思相同：

I cannot repay all your kindness.

I cannot repay you for all you kindness.

repeat

repeat作“重复”解，repeat again是“第二次重复”，连着本身的一次共有三次。说“重复”不该说repeat again，如He read the paragraph once over and then repeated it again里的again该删去。He repeated the paragraph five times（他把这段文字重复读了五次）该指“一共读了六次”。

repellent

repellent语气比repulsive轻得多。

repent

repent和repent of意思相同。例如：He soon repented (of) his folly.和You may repent (of) it some day.但I have nothing to repent of, She has many things to repent of等句子里通常有of。

replace

下面四句意思相仿：

Mr Lincoln has replaced Mr Porter as secretary.

Mr Porter has been replaced by Mr Lincoln as secretary.

We have replaced Mr Porter by Mr Lincoln as secretary.

We have replaced Mr Porter with Mr Lincoln as secretary.

reply

1.reply作“回答”解是及物动词。例如：He had nothing to reply.和He did not know what to reply.作“答复”解是不及物动词，如He did not reply和He did not know how to reply。不可用作“答复（人）”，“答复（信件）”，“答复（问题）”等解，如不可说：

He did not reply me.

He did not reply my letter.

He did not reply my question.

每句里的reply后面该加上to。

注意下面每组里的两句意思不同：

2.reply后面不可接指人的词和以that引导的从句，如不可说He replied her that he should be glad to learn what she thought about his plan，该把her删去，或在her的前面加上to。

3.关于reply和answer的不同，参见answer 2

4.商业复信的开首往往用In reply to your letter...，Replying to your letter...或...in reply we wish to state...。在一般通信里该避免。

report

1.report（动词）不作“向…报告”解，如“我将向你报告”，不可说I shall report you，该在report后面加上to。I shall report you作“我将告发你”解。

也不可说He reported me that he had just received a letter from his sister，该在reported后面加上to，或把reported改作told, informed或notified。

2.下面两句里的on或upon可有可无：

He will soon report（on或upon）the condition of the crops.

The developments of the situation were reported（on或upon）from time to time.

3.说“报到”用report或report himself（或myself等）都可以。例如：He reported (himself) at the Education Bureau on 18 September.

4.report有时有表语。例如：They reported him insane.和The situation is reported serious.在insane和serious前面加上to be也可以。

5.Report said that the poet had left for England，Report has it that they will visit Paris and London before long等句子里的report作rumour解，前面没有the。

reportage

注意He did interesting reportage（报道）on international affairs里用did和on。

reporter

reporter（访员）后面接to，on或for和报纸名。例如：He became a reporter to（或on，或for）the People's Daily in 1952.

represent

1.represent作“代表（某人）”解，比较下面两句：

He represented me at the meeting.（他在会上代表我。）

He delegated me to the meeting.（他派我代表他到会。）

2.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

representation

说“请求”或“抗议”习惯用复数形式representations。例如：They made representations for the establishment of a night school.和He made earnest representations against it.

representative

1.representative用作名词是“代表”，并不像delegate有“被派当代表”的意思。参见represent 1和delegate

2.representative（足以代表的）后面接of，如These pictures are representative of old Chinese art和The aim has been to make the selection representative of the best work of the kind in the twentieth century。

reprint

1.reprint（名词）指“（没有修订的）重印本”。例如：This library is a series of cheap reprints of standard works.

2.The book is reprinting.=The book is being reprinted.

reproach

They reproached me with carelessness，You reproach me with not caring to help you等句子里用with比用for普通。

reprove

They reproved me for carelessness等句子里的for不可改作with。参见reproach

repugnance

repugnance后面接to和动名词，不接不定式，如I have no repugnance to being with you over Friday里的being不可改作be。

repulsive

参见repellent

reputation

1.of reputation是“有好名声的”，等于of good reputation，of no reputation是“有坏名声的”，不是“不著名的”，等于of bad reputation。注意good和bad前面没有a，of world-wide reputation等表达方式里也没有a。

2.reputation不一定指“好名声”，如He has a reputation for being kind to animals和He has a reputation for being unkind to animals都可以说。

3.注意下面第一句里用a和for，第二句里用the和of：

He has a reputation for being kind to animals.

He has the reputation of being kind to animals.

说He has a reputation of being...或He has the reputation for being...也可以，但不很普通。

4.He has the reputation of (being) the most learned man in the city等句子里的being用的多，不用的少。

5.know...by reputation作“闻…的名”解，reputation并没有“好名声”或“坏名声”的含意。例如：I have known the young teacher by reputation very long as the daughter of one of my oldest friends.

repute

1.of repute=of reputation，of good repute=of good reputation，of bad repute=of bad reputation，似乎没有of no repute 的说法。

2.下面每组里的三句意思相同，第三句最不普通：

request

1.request不及ask通俗，通常不用在口语里。

2.request在用作名词的时候后面接for，如a request for assistance。但在用作动词的时候是及物动词， 后面不可有for，如He requested assistance里不可在requested后面加上for。

3.request（动词）后面不可接宾语和for，如不可说We requested them for assistance，该改作下面的任何一种表达方式：

We asked them for assistance.

We requested assistance from them.

We requested them to give us assistance.

We requested that they would give us assistance.（语气比用should婉转）

We requested that they should give us assistance.

We requested that they give（虚拟现在式，不用gave）us assistance.

We requested to be assisted by them.

4.request后面不可接宾语和以that引导的从句，如不可说I requested him that he would help me，该把him删去。

5.说“应某人的请求”在request前面用at。例如：He came at my request.

6.by request作“依照请求”解，request前面不用his, her等词，如She supplied him, by request, with all details of the case和no flowers by request（遵死者遗志不受花圈）。

7.on（或upon）request作“一经请求”解，通常用在商业文件里。例如：

8.request（名词）后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：His letter contains a request that his aunt should get a room ready for him.和His letter contains a request that his aunt get（不用gets）a room ready for him.把should改作would也可以，语气婉转些。

require(d)

1.The rule requires (of) all the clerks to arrive at the office by two o'clock和The Minister requires (of) you to attend a special conference to be held on Monday等句子里的of用的少，不用的多。用了of，那requires把不定式to arrive和to attend作宾语，of all the clerks和of you都是状语短语，所以不可说All the clerks are required of to arrive at the office by two o'clock和You are required of to attend a special conference to be held on Monday，该把of删去。

上面两句里的requires都作orders或commands解，只用在正式文字里。

2.require后面的以that引导的从句里用shall或should。例如：The rule requires that all the clerks shall（或should）arrive at the office by two o'clock.和The rule required that all the clerks should arrive at the office by two o'clock.也往往用虚拟现在式。例如：We require that each of you reply（不用replies）promptly.和We required that each of you reply（不用replied）promptly.

3.He required an apology of her和This is all that is required of you等句子里的of不可改作from。

4.require后面的动名词一定属于主动语态，但在意思上一定是被动的。例如：

The dog will require watching.

The whole place requires cleaning.

The baby requires looking after.

The matter requires thinking over.

假使把动名词改作不定式，必须用被动语态。例如：

The dog will require to be watched.

The whole place requires to be cleaned.

The baby requires to be looked after.

The matter requires to be thought over.

5.require的宾语后面有时接过去分词。例如：The storm required all the windows closed.

6.required course（必修科）和required subject是美国英语。在英国通常不用required而用compulsory或prescribed。

requirement

1.requirement是“需要”或“需要物”, requisite是“需要物”，不作“需要”解，如A pen and a piece of paper are the requirements或A pen and a piece of paper are the requisites都可以说，但This will meet my requirements不可改作This will meet my requisites。

说“需要物”requisite比requirement多含“决不可缺”的意思。requirement通常指人为的或主观上的需要物，requisite通常指自然的或客观上的需要物，比较下面各句：

One's requirements may be many, though one's requisites may be few.

A strong constitution was one of the requirements for admission to the athletic club.

Eagerness to learn and willingness to study are the prime requisites for any genuine education.

2.requirement（需要物）后面通常接of或for，如the requirements of daily life和the requirements for college entrance。requisite后面通常接of或for，偶尔接to，如the requisites of happiness，the requisites for a long journey和the requisites to success。

3.下面两句意思相同：

The first requirement is that each of us should start work at once.

The first requirement is that each of us start（不用starts）work at once.

requisite

1.a necessary requisite里的necessary是多余的，该去掉。

2.参见 requirement

rescue

come to the rescue 和 go to the rescue都通常作“来（或去）援助”解，不一定有“救”的意思，用come比用go普通。come to his（或my等）rescue和go to his（或my等）rescue通常作“努力救他（或我等）”解，用come比用go普通。

research

1.research和researches都可以用，但很少用a research。

2.his research(es) in nuclear physics，her research(es) into Latin literature, their research(es) on guided missiles等表达方式里用in，into或on没有绝对的区别。似乎对于抽象的东西通常用in或into，对于具体的东西通常用on。

3.research现在通常用作不及物动词，后面接into。例如：He is researching into the problem.

resemble

resemble现在只用作及物动词，后面没有to，如He resembles his brother里不该在resembles后面加上to。

resent

1.resent后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He resents being kept waiting，不可说He resents to be kept waiting。

2.resent很少把指人的词做宾语，如通常不说He resents her。

3.resent后面偶尔接以that引导的从句。例如：He resents that he is often kept waiting.

reservation

1.reservations用作“在旅馆、火车等预订的床位或座位”解是美国英语。例如：We made reservations for the holiday season.

2.下面四句里的reservation或reservations都不及用reserve普通。

I recommend Mr Charles L. Maugham without reservation.

I accept your statement without reservation.

We make this announcement with all due reservation.

He agreed with reservations.

reserve

1.参见reservation 2

2.下面两句都可以说：

He wrote to the hotel to reserve a room.

He wrote to ask the hotel to reserve a room.

reside

reside远不及live普通。有时reside和live被用在同一句子里，reside含有“正式（居住）”或“规定（居住）”的意思。例如：The engineer resides at the works but lives for several months each year at home in the country.

residence

take up his（或her等）residence现在不及take up residence（没有his，her等）普通。

resign(ed)

1.下面四句都可以说：

He has resigned.

He has resigned his secretaryship.

He has resigned from his secretaryship.

He has resigned from the company.

第三句在美国比在英国用得多，在英国在表示“职位”的词的前面通常用resign而不用resign from。

2.Mr Hart has been appointed as our representative in place of Mr Mills (resigned)里的resigned作“已经辞职的”解，是不及物动词resign的过去分词用作形容词。

3.He resigned himself to living alone（他忍耐着独居）和He soon grew resigned to living alone等句子里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以living不可改作live。

4.关于resigned lassitude（逆来顺受的心灰意懒）等，参见much 3 (5) E

resist

resist（免于…、欲…而不）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He couldn't resist taking aim at the wild geese as they flew over，不可说He couldn't resist to take aim at the wild geese as they flew over。

resistance

There was still considerable resistance in him to recounting the full details of his sordid past（他仍旧很不願把他肮脏的过去的详情详细地讲出来）等句子里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以它后面的recounting不可改作recount。

resolution

1.resolution（决意）后面接不定式，不接of或for和动名词，如可以说He made a resolution to study hard，不可说He made a resolution of（或for）studying hard。

2.说个人的“决心”用resolve比用resolution普通，如That's an admirable resolve，He is still keeping his resolve和I hope you will stick to your resolve里通常用resolve。但good resolutions和a new year's resolution里用resolution(s)。说“坚决性”用resolution比用resolve普通，如He should great resolution.里通常用resolution。

resolve(d)

1.下面两句意思不同：

He resolved to do it.（他决意做这个［是一时的动作］。）

He was resolved to do it.（他已经决意做这个［表示状态］。）

第二句里的resolved是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。一个人一经resolve，便继续be resolved。这两句里用resolved都不及用determined通俗。参见determine(d) 2

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同，第一句比第二句普通。

3.resolve（决议）后面接以that引导的从句，从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：We have resolved that our school should have a dining-room. 和We have resolved that our school have（不用has）a dining-room. We resolved that our school should have a dining-room. 和We resolved that our school have（不用had）a dining-room.

4.Resolved, That thinking is as important as doing等表达方式里的Resolved是过去分词，后面用逗号或冒号都可以，That必须用大写字母开首。

5.参见resolution 2

resort

1.resort不论用作名词或动词后面都接to和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说He could not escape without resort to lying和He had to resort to lying，不可说He could not escape without resort to lie和He had to resort to lie。

2.without resort（名词）to跟without resorting to意思相同。

resource

1.resources（资源）后面接in，如resources in coal and iron。

2.注意下面每组里的两种表达方式意思不同：

respect

in respect of比in respect to普通。with respect to比with respect of普通。严格地说，in respect of是“就…而论”，with respect to是“关于”，如In respect of style this essay is much better than that和With respect to the question of style this book has not much to say。但事实上这两种表达方式往往通用。

respectable(-ly)

1.respectable是“可敬的”，不是“恭敬的”，respectably是“可敬地”，不是“恭敬地”，respectful是“恭敬的”，respectfully是“恭敬地”。比较下面各句：

He is a respectable authority on English phonetics.

All the children are respectful to their teachers.

He conducts himself respectably at all times.

The man bowed respectfully to the old lady.

2.关于respectable有下面三点该注意：

（1）respectable直译作“可敬的”，当然不错。但在阶级社会里往往把财产、地位、门第等作为受人尊敬的条件，所以respectable往往作“上流社会的”或“高尚的”解。

（2）respectable从“可敬的”转作“还算好的”或“说得过去的”解，有时竟然有“不过如此的”的意思。

（3）用讥讽的口吻说别人respectable往往有“高雅得俗不可耐”的意思。

3.He is our respectable leader和She is our respectable teacher等句子里的respectable用得不妥当，该改作respected。

4.信函里的信尾客套语Yours respectfully决不可改作Yours respectably。Yours respectfully现在比较少用。

respectful(ly)

参见respectable(-ly)

respond

respond现在只用作不及物动词，后面接to。例如：How did he respond to your efforts to be friendly? 和Many young people responded to the call for service in the countryside.

response

商业复信的开首往往用In response to your request（或inquiry）...。在一般通信里该避免。

responsibility

1.比较下面三句：

I can take the responsibility of doing it. （我能负责去做这件事。）

I can take responsibility for doing it. （我能对于做这件事负责。）

I can take the responsibility for doing it. （意思可能跟第一句相同，也可能跟第二句相同。）

下面各句里用of或for都可以：

He has the responsibility of（或for）keeping the machinery in good working order.

She is charged with the responsibility of（或for）receiving callers and answering letters.

I have to remind you of your responsibility of（或for）sending in weekly reports on your studies.

2.have a responsibility后面偶尔接不定式。例如：I feel I have a（或the）responsibility to share my memories with my readers.

responsible

1.The cold weather is responsible for his absence（他因为天冷而缺席）和Her illness is responsible for her long silence（她因为有病而好久不写信）等句子里的is responsible的主语并不是人，这种用法主要流行在美国。

2.the person responsible是“负责人”。例如：I want to see the person responsible. 和Who's the person responsible?

比较下面两句：

He is the responsible person I spoke of just now. （他就是我刚才说起的那个可靠的人。）

He is the person responsible I spoke of just now. （他就是我刚才说起的那个负责人。）

3.responsible后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：The writer of a letter is responsible that it will be understood by its recipient.

rest

1.rest统指“休息”，a rest是“一次休息”，rests是“多次休息”。take rest和take his（或my等）rest通常作“就寝”解，take a rest和have a rest作“休息”解。go to rest（就寝）不及go to bed普通。

2.the rest（其余部分）被当作单数或复数，要看所指的什么而定。例如：I have read a large part of the book, the rest is more difficult. 和I have about a hundred books, sixty-seven are in Chinese and the rest are in English.

restore

下面三句意思相仿：

A long rest will restore you to health.

A long rest will restore you.

A long rest will restore health to you.

result

1.result from是“因…而起”，result in是“生出…的结果”，就是“引起…”。例如：Success results from hard work. 和Hard work results in success.

2.The result(s) of the examination will be published early in May等句子里用result或results都可以。

3.The result is that he came home a greater fool than before等句在口语里往往省去The，改作Result is that...。

4.as a result of比as the result of普通。近几年来也有人用as result of，没有a或the。

5.with the result后面通常接以that引导的从句。例如：My room was small and looked out on a narrow courtyard, with the result that I always felt fenced in.

resume

resume后面接动名词，不接不定式，如We must resume reading where we left off里的reading不可改作to read。

retail

在英国只说by retail，不说at retail，在美国通常说at retail。

retire(d)

1.说“就寝”retire不及go to bed普通。

2.a retired officer（已经退休的军官）和a retired professor等表达方式里的retired是不及物动词retire的过去分词用作形容词。

3.注意He is going to retire to Qingdao里在retire后面接to。

4.比较下面三句：

He will retire next year.

He is retiring next year.

He retires next year.

三句都作“他将在明年退休”解。在口语里第二句比第一句普通。第三句有“预定将在明年退休”的意思。

5.He is a retired man, more at home in a garden than in a club等句子里用retired（离群索居的、不喜交际的）现在不及用retiring普通。

retreat

参见withdraw(al)

return(ed)

1.return again和return back两种表达方式里的again和back都是多余的，该删去。

2.return（动词或名词）往往用作“再来”解。例如：The bad weather has returned. 和A return of bad weather is expected. 假使你拜访某人，他正在忙着，向你说Please return at...，就是说“请在…（时候）再来”。

3.return往往用现在时态或现在进行时态指将来，如He returns tomorrow或He is returning tomorrow作He will return tomorrow解。

4.在信函里说I（或We）return跟I am（或We are）returning意思相同。例如：I return your book with thanks.

5.by return，by return of post，by return post和by return mail都作“由下一班回邮”解，不作“用复信”解。

6.He has returned和He is returned的不同，相当于He has come和He is come的不同。参见come 3

7.注意I had been out when he returned my call里的returned的宾语是my call，不可把my call改作his call或a call。

8.to return可以单独用作“言归本题”解。例如：But to return, Mr Fox did not marry her. （可是话归本题，Fox先生不曾跟她结婚。）也可以说Returning to Mr Fox, he did not marry her。

9.returned emigrant，returned clergyman（已经从属地回到英国本土的教士），returned student（已经回国的留学生），returned prodigal（已经悔过而回家的浪子）等表达方式里的returned都是不及物动词return的过去分词用作形容词。Her brother, lately returned from England, is staying with her等句子里的returned也是不及物动词return的过去分词用作形容词。

Rev.

参见reverend

revealing

revealing（有所显露的，揭发真相的）近几年来很普通。例如：The author gives a revealing picture of Afro-American's life in America. 后面接of。例如：Little things are often revealing of one's character.

revelation

新约圣经里的“启示录”叫作The Revelation of St John the Divine，但通常称它The Revelation，Revelations和The Revelations都有，但不可称它Revelation。严格地说，The Revelation是正确的，Revelations是通俗的，The Revelations是两种形式的混合。

revenge

revenge在结构上跟avenge相同，但意思略有不同。参见avenge

revenge（名词）前面有时有a。例如：They were devising a revenge on us.

reverend

用Reverend或它的简写形式Rev. 称牧师，下面几点该注意：

（1）Reverend或Rev. 前面用the（或The）或不用都可以，如the（或The）Reverend John Bowen和the（或The）Rev. John Bowen, Reverend John Bowen和Rev. John Bowen。

（2）必须用名和姓或名的起首字母和姓，不可只用姓，如可以用the（或The）Reverend（或Rev.）John Bowen和the（或The）Reverend（或Rev.）J. Bowen，不可用the（或The）Reverend（或Rev.）Bowen。

（3）假使不知道那牧师的名或名的起首字母，该在那姓的前面加上Mr（假使是博士，便用Dr），如the（或The）Reverend（或Rev.）Mr（或Dr）Bowen。

reverse

the reverse of（跟…相反）后面接形容词成为形容词短语。例如：His opinion is the reverse of favourable. （他不赞成。）the reverse of后面接副词成为状语短语。例如：It struck him the reverse of favourably.

review

1.review the lesson（温课）是美国英语，相当于英国英语revise the lesson。参见revise(d) 1

2.review有时被用作抽象名词。例如：The author has sent the book to the editor for review. the book under review用在书评里，作“在本文里评述的这本书”解。

3.book review通常是“书评”，也可能是刊物里的“书评栏”，也可能是“书评杂志”。

revise(d)

1.revise the lesson（温课）是英国英语，相当于美国英语review the lesson。但revise的这样用法，在英国似乎也并不普遍，通常用go over。

2.revise作“修改”或“修订”解。把书的第一版“修改”或“修订”了，出第二版，那第一版受revise的动作，第二版并不受revise的动作，但revised edition却指那第二版，不指那第一版。参见misprint 2和mis-spell

3.revised from作“根据…修订而成的”解。例如：Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases Revised from Peter Roget by D. C. Browning（D. C. Browning根据Peter Roget所著而修订的《英语单词和成语宝库》）

revolt(ed)

1.revolt作“背叛”解，是不及物动词，不作“使…背叛”解，revolted作“背叛的”解，是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。the king's revolted subjects是“那国王的起义的人们”，the king's revolting subjects是“那国王的正在起义的人们”。

2.revolt用作及物动词作“使…感觉不快”或“使…起反感”解，但用作不及物动词作“感觉不快”或“起反感”解，不作“使人感觉不快”或“使人起反感”解。比较下面两句：

The distressing scene revolted all who saw it.

All who saw the distressing scene revolted at（或against，或from）it.

revolution

revolution统指“革命”，a revolution是“一次革命”，revolutions是“多次革命”。American Revolution, French Revolution, Industrial Revolution, October Revolution, Chinese Revolution等表达方式前面都有the。

revolutionary

不论说“革命的”或“革命者”，在英国几乎总是用revolutionary而不用revolutionist。在美国两个单词都用，下面几点该注意：

（1）说“革命的”两个单词都用，但说政治以外的革命总是用revolutionary而不用revolutionist，如revolutionary techniques in foreign language teaching和revolutionary methods of study。说政治上的革命通常也用revolutionary，偶尔用revolutionist。

（2）说“革命者”用revolutionist比用revolutionary普通，但说政治以外的“革命者”似乎用revolutionary比用revolutionist普通。

revolutionist

参见revolutionary

reward(ing)

1.They rewarded him for his services和They rewarded his services都可以说。

2.reward不可有双宾语，如不可说They have rewarded me ¥100，该在me后面加上with。

3.rewarding可以用作形容词，作“有益的”解。例如：This is a peculiarly rewarding book. （这是一本特别有益的书。）

rhetoric

1.说“一本修辞学书”和“多本修辞学书”现在在英国不用a rhetoric和rhetorics，却用a book（或treatise）on rhetoric和looks（或treatises）on rhetoric，但在美国通常用a rhetoric和rhetorics。

2.rhetoric在英国通常指“演说术”，在美国通常指“修辞学”，有时简直跟“作文法”相同。

3.rhetoric在英国往往指“华而不实或渲染过甚的文字”。

rhetorical

参见rhetoric 2和3

rhetorician

a mere rhetorician指“一个只有词藻而内容贫乏的演说家或作家”。参见rhetoric 2和3

Rhineland

Rhineland（德国地名）前面有the。

rice

rice不论指“稻”那植物或“米”那东西都是物质名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式rices。说“一粒米”和“多粒米”该说a grain（或corn）of rice和grains（或corns）of rice。

riches

riches（财富）原来是单数形式，但现在通常当作复数。例如：Riches do not always give happiness.

ride

1.ride（名词或动词）用作“在火车或轮船上（的）旅行”解是美国英语。

2.ride a horse和ride a bicycle通常着重在“骑”的动作。ride on a horse和ride on a bicycle通常着重在“骑”的状态。如说“你能骑马吗？”通常说Can you ride a horse? 没有on，说“他骑着一匹白马而来”通常说He came riding on a white horse，有on。前一句里的a horse可以省去，因为ride单独用便指“骑马”。后一句里的riding也可以省去，因为on a white horse虽然不说“骑”而也有“骑”的意思。

3.关于ride和drive的区别，参见drive 2

right(ly)

1.right（权利）后面接不定式或of和动名词都可以。例如：You have a（或the）right to use（或of using）this room. 用不定式比较普通。

2.He is right in thinking so比He is right to think so普通。

3.比较下面四句：

It is right for you to do this. （你做这件事是对的。）

It is right of you to do this. （你做这件事是应该的。）

It is right that you should do this. （跟第一句相同）

You do right in doing（或to do）this. （跟第二句相同）

4.You are right是“你是对的”（不指道德），You are in the right有时是“你是对的”（不指道德），有时是“你是正直的”（指道德）。right的反义词是wrong，in the right的反义表达方式是in the wrong。

据我看来，说“对的”（不指道德）用right和用in the right也有一个区别：right只说“对的”，in the right通常含有“在对的（而不是错的）一方面的”的意思。如假定你的朋友某人说Shakespeare was born in England，你对他说You are right，通常不说You are in the right。但假使甲说Shakespeare was born in England，乙说Shakespeare was born in France，你对甲说You are right或You are in the right都可以。wrong和in the wrong也有这区别。

5.right可以用作副词，作rightly解，right通常用在动词的后面，rightly通常用在动词的前面。例如：

但在remember，act等词后面right和rightly都可以用，如If I remember right(ly), during the past few years it has very seldom happened that we didn't see each other for so long as a fortnight和You acted quite right(ly)。

6.right along，right here，right now和right there是美国英语，相当于英国英语all the way along，here and now，at this moment和just there。right away（立刻）原来也是美国英语，但现在在英国也很普通，相当于英国英语straight away。

7.put right和set right作“修理”，“治疗（人）”或“改正”解，put to rights和set to rights作“安排”解，不可说put to right或set to right，注意下面各句：

We should try to put（或set）the machine right.

I hope this medicine will put（或set）you right.

The essay contains some misprints, it should be put（或set）right.

He has a wrong opinion about this, he should be put（或set）right.

I wonder how we can put（或set）matters right（或to rights）.

She put（或set）her room to rights and went out.

8.参见left

rise(n)

1.rise up里的up是多余的，该删去。

2.the risen sun（已经升起的太阳）和The moon is risen里的risen是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

risk

1.risk前面用at。例如：You must do it at your own risk. 和You do it at the risk of being punished.

2.risk（名词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：There seemed to be no risk that the train would run off the rails that night.

3.risk（动词）后面接动名词，不接不定式，如I cannot risk leaving her alone里的leaving不可改作to leave。这句可能有两个不同的意思：“我不能冒任她独自留着的险（我必须设法避免任她独自留着）。”或“我不能贸然任她独自留着（我决不故意任她独自留着）。”I cannot risk losing my best friend和He cannot risk breaking his leg当然都只可能有一个意思。

river

1.the river（或River）…是英国英语，the... River是美国英语，如the river（或River）Thames（在英国）和the Hudson River（在美国）。注意：（1）不论在英国或美国都有the。（2）river在英国有时用小写字母开首，有时用大写字母开首，在美国必须用大写字母开首。即使不用river或River，河名前面也有the，如the Thames和the Hudson。

2.go up (the) river，come down (the) river等表达方式里的the可有可无。

Riviera

Riviera（欧洲风景区名）前面有the，通常用on，偶尔用in。

road

1.road指两个地方中间的“路”，是在城、镇、村等以外的，street指城、镇、村等以内的“街”。上海的许多...Road实际是street。如假定Henry住在Shandong Road（山东路），William住在Shanxi Road（山西路），说Henry and William live in different streets比说Henry and William live in different roads好些。

2.road用来指“铁路”是美国英语。

3.在...Road前面的有the或没有the，有下面三点该注意：

（1）假使那Road前面是人名，不用the，如Zhongshan Road。

（2）假使那Road前面是地名，但那路和那地方并不发生关系，也不用the，如上海的Nanjing Road（南京路）和南京不发生关系，所以前面没有the。

（3）假使那Road前面是地名而那路和那地方发生关系，那末用the或不用the都可以，如假定从上海到南京的公路叫Nanjing Road，那末前面可以有the，但没有the也可以。英国的Dover Road是通到Dover的，前面有the，Finchley Road是通到Finchley的，前面却通常没有the，习惯这样，没有理由。

4.by road是“走公路”，跟by rail（乘火车）相对。例如：Did you go by road or by rail? 和Send the goods by road, not by rail.

5.road当然是类名词，但可以说a stretch of road和ten miles of country road。

roast

可以说roast meat，却不可说well roast meat或The meat has been roast，该把roast改作roasted。

rob

They robbed the boy是“他们抢劫了这男孩”，不是“他们把这男孩抢去”。“他们把这男孩抢去”该说They abducted（或kidnapped，或stole）the boy。

robbery

robbery统指“抢劫”，a robbery是“一件抢劫案”，robberies是“多件抢劫案”。

rock

rock统指“石”，是物质名词。a rock在英国指“一块岩石”或“一块大石头”（如一百斤重的），不指“一块小石头”（如三两重的），但在美国也指“一块小石头”，rocks在英美的不同，相当于a rock的不同。

role

the role of...（…的角色）等表达方式后面所接的名词前面通常没有a或an。例如：He will appear in the role of mediator. 和He played the role of witness.

rolling

rolling country作“起伏的地区”解，主要是美国英语，相当于英国英语undulating country。

romance

romance统指“浪漫小说”，a romance是“一本浪漫小说”，romances是“多本浪漫小说”。in Spanish romance是“在（一切）西班牙浪漫小说里”。

room

1.复数形式rooms往往指“一人或一家所住的共有若干间的寓所”，说“到某人的rooms”是指到那寓所而并不指到那寓所的每一间。例如：I went to his rooms yesterday.

2.room用作动词作“寄宿”解，是美国用法。例如：I room with a family of six.

3.in the room里的in不可改作at。但说“在几号房间”往往用at，如at Room 315。

roomer

roomer（寄宿者）是美国英语。

rooming

rooming house（宿舍）是美国英语。

room(-)mate

room(-)mate（同室者、室友）是美国英语。

rooster

rooster（雄鸡）在美国比在英国用得多，在英国通常用cock。

round

1.参见around

2.round trip在英国指“绕圈或环行的旅行”，如从甲地到乙地、丙地、丁地，然后回到甲地。在美国指“来回的旅行”，如从甲地到乙地，然后回到甲地。美国的round trip ticket（来回票）相当于英国的return ticket。

row(-)boat

row(-)boat原来是美国英语，相当于英国英语rowing-boat，但现在在英国也很普通。

rowing-boat

参见row(-)boat

rubber

rubber统指“橡皮”，a rubber是“一块用来揩拭铅笔痕的橡皮”。

rule(r)

1.according to rule是“依照规则（不是随便）地”,according to the rule是“依照这条规则地”。

2.by rule直译作“依照规则地”，实际有“呆板地”或“机械地”的意思。例如：We cannot speak by rule. （我们不能呆板地说话。）

3.as a rule指经常的事，不指一次的事，如可以说As a rule he came twice a week，不可说As a rule he came at eight o'clock that morning。前一句里的As a rule可以改作Usually。后一句里的As a rule该改作As usual。

4.under French rule等表达方式里没有the。但What do you think of the French rule? 等表达方式里习惯有the。

5.说“尺”用rule和ruler都可以，用rule着重在量长短，用ruler着重在划线。

rumour

1.rumour指“大家传说而未能证实的话”，跟“造谣生事”的“谣”的意思不同。rumour统指这种话，a rumour指一句这种话，rumours指多句这种话。

2.可以说He is rumoured to be very clever，不可说They rumour him to be very clever。

run

A landlord's daughter run away from home with a farm labourer soon learnt to till the land里的run是不及物动词run的过去分词，用作形容词。

S

's

1.China's Premier，the Japan's foreign policy，Beijing's long and proud history，England's team for the football match等表达方式里的's在报纸里（尤其在标题里）很普通。

2.Charles's book，James's cap，Thomas's sister，Jones's sons，Dickens's works等比Charles' book，James' cap，Thomas' sister，Jones' sons，Dickens' works等普通。

3.比较下面五句：

The Pickwick Papers is one of Charles Dickens, the famous English novelist's works.

The Pickwick Papers is one of Charles Dickens's, the famous English novelist, works.

The Pickwick papers is one of Charles Dickens's, the famous English novelist's, works.

The Pickwick Papers is one of Charles Dickens's works, the famous English novelist.

The Pickwick Papers is one of the works of Charles Dickens, the famous English novelist.

第一句不错，但不很自然。第二句、第三句和第四句都不合理。第五句最好。

4.比较下面五种形式：

The Herald Tribune's editor

'The Herald Tribune' 's editor

'The Herald Tribune's' editor

the editor of The Herald Tribune

the editor of 'The Herald Tribune'

第一种形式、第四种形式和第五种形式都不错。第二种形式也不错，但很不好看。第三种形式很普通，但不合理。's不是报名，不该放在引号里。

5.the 1950's是20世纪50年代。

6.John's was a new cottage. ＝John's cottage was a new one.

sacrifice

1.说“为了…而牺牲…”在“为了”后面的那指东西的词的前面用to。例如：We have to sacrifice appearance to comfort. （我们不得不为了舒适而牺牲外观。）

2.sacrifice（动词）作“把…作祭品”解。例如：They sacrificed a lamb to God. 不作“祭（神或祖宗）”解，如不可说They sacrificed God。

safe

You are safe in believing what he says里的in believing不可改作to believe。

Sahara

Sahara（非洲大沙漠名）前面有the。Desert of Sahara前面也有the，但of后面没有the。

said

the said Swanson, the said house, the said arrangements等表达方式里的the said作“上述的”解，只用在法律和商业文件里，有时省去the。例如：The said Swanson used to live in Room No 184. 和Said house was sold on 2 June, 1949. 在一般文字里该避免这用法。

sail

1.sail往往用现在时态或现在进行时态指将来。例如We sail next Tuesday或We are sailing next Tuesday作We shall sail next Tuesday解。

2.a fleet of thirty sail，ten sail of ships等表达方式里的sail指“船只”，习惯上不用sails。

sail(-)boat

sail(-)boat（帆船）原来是美国英语，相当于英国英语的sailing-boat（或作sailing boat），但现在在英国也很普通。

sailer

sailer用作“水手”解现在很不普通，说“水手”该用sailor。但说“船”（指船的快慢或好坏）用sailer，不用sailor，good sailer是“航行性能好的船”，bad sailer是“航行性能不好的船”。

sailing

关于sailing boat，参见sailing-boat

sailing-boat（或sailing boat）

参见sail(-)boat

sailor

good sailor是“不晕船者”，bad sailor是“很易于晕船者”，并不指“好的水手”和“不好的水手”。注意good sailer和bad sailer的意思，参见sailer

sake

1.for the sake of在一般词典里注作“因为”，其实有“由于、为了、为了…的利益”等的意思，并不跟because of，on account of，owing to等完全相同。如可以说He goes to the seaside for the sake of his health，不可说He goes to the seaside for the sake of his illness，for the sake of his illness的意思是“因为生病”。可以说Mary taught for the sake of money，不可说Mary taught for the sake of poverty，for the sake of poverty的意思是“因为穷”。

2.for God's sake，for Jones's sake，for mercy's sake等表达方式里有's。假使那名词并不是专有名词，而且加上了's要多一个音节，习惯上便不加s或不加's，如for goodness' sake和for goodness sake，for conscience' sake和for conscience sake。有时即使并不会多一个音节也不加's，如for safety sake和for fashion sake。

3.for our sake含有“我们各人的目的不同”的意思，for our sakes含有“我们各人的目的相同”的意思。

sale

1.on sale和for sale都作“出卖的”解。put up for sale有时作“出卖”解，有时作“拍卖”解。

2.说货物的“销数”或“销路”通常用复数形式sales，前面有时有the，有时没有the。例如：The sales of this book maintain a yearly average of ten thousand copies. 和Sales of that type of article always drop off during the winter months.

saleslady

saleslady（女售货员）是美国英语，在英国只用saleswoman。

salesman

salesman在英国指“售货员”（或在柜台上，或在厂家和零售商之间），在美国也往往指“各地旅行的推销员”，往往叫做travelling salesman，相当于英国的commercial traveller，也作commercial或traveller。

salespeople

salespeople（售货员们）是美国英语。

saloon

1.billiard saloon（弹子房），dancing saloon（舞厅），hairdressing saloon（理发室）等都是英国英语，在美国不用saloon而用hall或parlor。

2.saloon用作“酒店”解是美国英语，相当于英国的public house。saloon的主人叫saloon-keeper，相当于英国的publican。但英国的public house里有所谓saloon bar，是上等的“雅座”。

saloon-keeper

参见saloon 2

salute

pay a salute to偶尔被借用作“向…致敬”解。例如：Above all, I should like to pay a salute to the Lexicographic Society for all it did to make this book possible.

same

1.the same和same在法律和商业文件里作“上述的事物”或“上述的人（们）”解。例如：We have examined the report and found (the) same correct. 和Our customers are for the most part college students, and we always try to satisfy (the) same. 在一般文字里该避免。

2.比较下面七句：

I live in the same house as he.

I live in the same house with him.

I live in the same house as he lives in.

I live in the same house that he lives.

I live in the same house that he lives in.

I live in the same house where he lives.

I live in the same house he lives in.

第一句里的as he＝as he lives in，那as是关系代词。第二句里的with him是状语短语，形容same，这句不及第一句普通。第三句便是第一句的完全式，也不及第一句普通。第四句里的that是关系副词，等于in which，这句不很自然。第五句里的that是关系代词，这句跟第三句结构相同。有人以为该用as，有人以为该用that，在事实上都有。第六句里用where，不关前面的same。假使把same省去了，仍旧可以用where。第七句里在he的前面省去as或that。第六句和第七句里的same最好删去。

3.下面各句里都用连接词that，不可改作as：

I live in the same house that he lives.

He prefers the short story to the novel on the same basis that he prefers the short poem to the long.

I shall post a letter to Mr Cook at the same time that I do this.

4.下面三句意思相同：

I live in the same house as that where he lives.

I live in the same house as the one where he lives.

I live in the house where he lives.

下面两句意思也相同：

Mr Peter Patterson is the same as the one you mention.

Mr Peter Patterson is the one you mention.

5.比较下面各句：

He is the same man (that) we met thirty years ago. （1.他就是我们在30年前遇到过的那个男子。2.我们在30年前遇到过他，现在他还是那个样子［没有改变］。）

He is the identical man (that) we met thirty years ago. （他就是我们在30年前遇到过的那个男子。）

He is the identical man we met thirty years ago, but is not the same man any longer. （他就是我们在30年前遇到过的那个男子，但不再是那个样子了。）

6.不可说as same as，该把第一个as改作the。

sanatarium

参见sanatorium

sanatorium

sanatorium（疗养院）是正确的拼法。sanitarium也可以用，主要用在美国。sanitorium和sanatarium都是错的。

sanatory

sanatory是“有益健康的”，sanitary是“（公共）卫生的”或“（保持）清洁的”，比较下面各种表达方式：

sanatory exercises（有益健康的运动），

sanatory factors in the climate（气候里的有益健康的因素），

sanitary regulations（卫生规则），sanitary chopsticks（卫生筷）

sanitarium

参见sanatorium

sanitary

参见sanatory

sanitorium

参见sanatorium

satisfaction

satisfaction后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He expressed satisfaction that I was going to visit him.

satisfactory

1.satisfactory是“令人满意的”，不是“满意的”，如a satisfactory teacher是“一个令人满意的教师”，便是“一个很好的教师”，并不是“一个（对于学生成绩等）满意的教师”。“满足的、满意的”该用satisfied。

2.公文里用bring to a satisfactory conclusion。例如：The whole complicated affair will be ultimately brought to a satisfactory conclusion. 通常改用settled就够了。

satisfy

1.satisfied后面有时接不定式。例如：I am satisfied to remain here.

2.关于a satisfied nod（一个满意的点头）等，参见much 3 (5) E

Saturday

参见Friday

sausage

sausage用作物质名词或类名词都可以。

save

1.save用作except或unless解都不通俗，saving更不通俗。

2.save（省去）往往带有双宾语。例如：That will save you much time and money.

saving

参见save 1

savings

savings偶尔被看作单数，如much savings，little savings，和a savings。

saw

下面三句意思不同：

Let's saw the tree. （让我们锯这棵树。）

Let's saw down the tree. （让我们锯下这棵树。）

Let's saw up the tree. （让我们把这棵树锯成几段。）

say

1.可以说She is said to sing very well，不可说They say her to sing very well。

下面四句意思不同：

She is said to sing very well. （［现在］据说她歌唱得很好。）

She is said to have sung very well. （［现在］据说她过去歌唱得很好。）

She was said to sing very well. （［过去］据说她歌唱得很好。）

She was said to have sung very well. （［过去］据说她在那时以前歌唱得很好。）

2.say单独用作“说话”解现在极不普通，不该用它，如不该说He did not say和He said, and went out。

3.What do you say to a game of chess? 和What say you to a game of chess? 作“你高兴玩棋么？”解，第二种形式并不嫌古旧。What do you say to coming out to tea with me? 里的coming是动名词，不可改作come。

4.says I是不正当的口语。原来属于历史性现在时，不用say而用says，那是因为这历史性现在时通常多用在第三人称。例如：'If you will go,' says I, 'I will go with you.'

5.英国人在口语里往往说I say。例如：I say, what a fine view it is! 美国人通常不说I say而只说say。例如：Say, what a fine view it is!

6.say to...（不定式）是美国英语，作“说该…”解，那不定式所表示的动作有时泛指一般人，有时专指某人。例如：The teacher says to study carefully. 和My teacher gave me a great deal of advice, he said to study carefully. 也可以说My teacher said for me to study carefully。

7.下面两句意思相同，但语法不同：

It is said in the papers that there will be a chrysanthemum show next week.

It says in the papers that there will be a chrysanthemum show next week.

第一句里的that引导的从句是It的同位语，第二句里的It是非人称动词says的主语，那that引导的从句是says的宾语。

8.下面各句都可以说：

It is warm, not to say hot.

Your idea is original, not to say ingenious.

He denied the charge emphatically, not to say indignantly.

In your own interests, not to say mine, you must not do that.

以上几句不可改作：

It is hot, not to say warm.

Your idea is ingenious, not to say original.

He denied the charge indignantly, not to say emphatically.

In my interests, not to say your own, you must not do that.

9.下面三句意思相同：

He said: 'Quality matters more than quantity.'

'Quality matters more than quantity,' he said.

'Quality matters more than quantity,' said he.

不可说：

Said he: 'Quality matters more than quantity.'

但假使把he改作名词，就可以说。例如：

Said Mr Jackson: 'Quality matters more than quantity.'

Said our teacher: 'Quality matters more than quantity.'

这种结构主要用在报纸里。

scandalize(d)

1.scandalize现在很少用作“诽谤”解。通常作“使（某人）感觉愤慨”解，是没有意志的。例如：He scandalized me with his strange views on morality. 和His strange views on morality scandalized me. 那He和His strange views on morality并不有意“使我感觉愤慨”，不过“我对于…感觉愤慨”罢了。

2.关于a scandalized expression（一个愤慨的表情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

scant(y)

scant远不及scanty普通。

scarce(ly)

1.scarce用作副词远不及scarcely普通。

2.Scarcely had I arrived before（或when）he came out to meet me 作“我刚刚到达他便出来迎接我”解。注意用had I，不用I had。英美人有时不用before或when而用than，现在不算正当。

scare(d)

1.scare用作动词作“使…忽然惊恐”解，用作名词作“忽然的惊恐”解。例如：He scared us by coming in quietly. 和We had a scare when we found him coming in quietly. 和The news gave me quite a scare. 在美国往往在可以用动词scare的场合用throw a scare into。例如：He threw a scare into us by coming in quietly.

2.I was scared of the dog不及I was scared by（或at）the dog正式，也不及I was frightened at the dog正式。

3.关于a scared cry（惊恐的喊声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

scene(ry)

scenery统指“风景”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式sceneries。如This hill is fine scenery里不可在fine前面加上a，These hills are fine scenery里的scenery不可改作sceneries。

scene指任何“景象”或“情景”，不一定是可爱或好看的。a scene和scenes并不作a piece of scenery和pieces of scenery解。例如：We found a beautiful scene on the hill. 和There were many scenes of distress in the slums.

schedule

1.train schedule（火车时刻表）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的timetable。

2.according to schedule，on schedule，to schedule，up to schedule和behind schedule都是美国英语。according to schedule是“按照预定计划地”。例如：The meeting was held according to schedule. on schedule是“按照预定时刻地”。例如：The train arrived on schedule. to schedule是“按照预定时刻地”。例如：The trains did not run to schedule in that storm. up to schedule是“达到预定计划的”。例如：Our progress is up to schedule. behind schedule是“落后于预定计划或时刻的（或地）”。例如：The train arrived behind schedule. 和We were then badly behind schedule in our work.

3.schedule（动词）作“（预先）规定”解是美国用法。例如：The door is scheduled to be closed at eleven o'clock. 和The trip is scheduled for May.

scholar

1.scholar用作“学生（pupil）”解不算正当，该避免。

2.scholar（学者）通常指“精通语言和文学者”，在英国尤其指“精通古希腊和罗马的语言和文学者”，往往跟man of science对比。

3.I am no scholar，I am not much of a scholar和I am a poor hand as a scholar都作“我不大识字”解，不作“我不是学者”解。I am not a scholar通常作“我不是学者”解，有时也作“我不大识字”解。

4.English scholar有时指“英国学者”，有时指“英语学者”。Greek scholar有时指“希腊学者”，有时指“希腊语学者”。English Greek scholar指“英国的希腊语学者”。John Milton was an Italian scholar是“John Milton是一个意大利语学者”。

5.a scholar of linguistics，a scholar in linguistics和a linguistics scholar都可以说。

scholarship

注意He won（或was awarded）a scholarship（奖学金）to Oxford里用to。

school

1.关于school和college的区别，参见college 1

2.关于private school和public school，参见private和public 2

3.go to school（注意没有a或the）有两个意思：“开始上学”和“到校上课”。例如：The boy will go to school in autumn. 和I go to school every morning.

leave school（注意没有a或the）也有两个意思：“停止入学”（就是“辍学”，不一定“毕业”）和“放学回家”。例如：He left school at fifteen. 和I leave school at four o'clock.

下面各句里的school或high school等前面也没有a或the，

The boy attended school for one year only.

She married before she finished school.

He has put his son through high school.

I was sent to boarding school at fifteen.

We go to night school to learn English.

4.after school（在放学以后），at school，from school，in school，to school和out of school各种表达方式里都没有a或the。at school和in school似乎没有区别，但在keep at school中习惯用at，不用in。

5.school用作“在学校里受教育”或“学校生活”解似乎是美国用法。例如：He did not like school. 参见college 4

6.teach school（当教师）是美国英语。例如：She is teaching school in Shanghai. 在英国通常说She is teaching at a school in Shanghai。

7.school age（入学年龄）前面没有the。

school(-)fellow

参见class(-)fellow

schoolman

schoolman用作“学校教师”或“学校行政人员”解是美国英语。

school(-)mate

参见school(-)fellow

science

1.science统指“科学”，尤其指“自然科学”（natural science），a science是“一种科学”（不一定自然科学），sciences是“各种科学”（不一定自然科学），the sciences是“各种自然科学”。

2.linguistic science（语言学），military science（军事学），medical science（医学），natural science（自然科学），political science（政治学），social science（社会科学）等表达方式前面没有the，但the natural sciences（各种自然科学），the political sciences（各门政治学）和the social sciences（各种社会科学）各种表达方式里有the，a natural science（一种自然科学），a political science（一门政治学）和a social science（一种社会科学）各种表达方式里有a。

The science of cooking（烹调学）和the art of cooking（烹调术）都有the，the culinary art（烹调术）也有the，但culinary science（烹调学）没有the。参见art 3

3.man of science是英国英语，有时也用science man，在美国通常用scientist。

scissors

1.a scissors＝a pair of scissors。

2.scissor-grinder比scissors-grinder普通。

scold

1.scold在一般词典里注作“骂”，实际是“大声的叱责”，既不是call names，也不是swear at。

2.scold him和scold at him意思相同。

score

score（二十）有两个复数形式，score和scores。它们的不同相当于dozen和dozens的不同，参见dozen

scorn

scorn（动词）后面接不定式或动名词都可以。例如：He scorned to bow（或bowing）down to the idol. 用不定式比用动名词普通。

Scot

参见Scotch(wo)man

Scotch

1.用作形容词在英格兰中部和南部和美国通常用Scotch，但在很正式的文字里用Scottish，在英格兰北部和苏格兰通常用Scottish，有时用Scots。用作名词（苏格兰方言）在英格兰和美国用Scotch，在苏格兰用Scots，Scottish极不普通。说“苏格兰民族”在英格兰和美国通常用the Scotch，在苏格兰通常用the Scots，有时用the Scottish。

2.Scotchman不可写作Scotch man，但every Scotch man and woman和Scotch men and women里的Scotch man和Scotch men不错。

Scotch(wo)man

1.在英格兰和美国通常用Scotchman和Scotchwoman，偶尔用Scot，在苏格兰通常用Scotsman和Scotswoman。注意不可作Scottishman和Scottishwoman。

2.Scotchman指男子，不指女子，指女子该用Scotchwoman，但Scotchmen往往统指“苏格兰人”。

Scotland

Scotland Yard（伦敦警察厅）前面没有the。

Scots

参见Scotch

Scots(wo)man

参见Scotch(wo)man

Scottish

参见Scotch

scripture

可以用Scripture或the Scriptures，不可用Scriptures或the Scripture。

scruple

1.He did not scruple to do it里的to do改作doing也可以，但不及用不定式普通。

2.下面五句意思相同。

He had no scruples about borrowing things without permission.

He made no scruple to borrow things without permission.

He made no scruple about borrowing things without permission.

He made no scruple of borrowing things without permission.

He had no scruple in borrowing things without permission.

sea

1.说“…海”该有the，如the Mediterranean Sea（地中海）和the Caspian Sea（里海）。

2.下面每句里用the seas：

They have gone over the seas back to England.

The story is told by an aged warrior of the seas.

3.at sea是“在海上”或“在海里”，往往含有“离海岸很远”的意思。例如：He spent years at sea. 和He was buried at sea. at the sea＝at sea。by sea是“由海路、乘海船”。例如：They came by sea. by the sea是“在海岸上”。例如：They live by~the sea. in the sea是“在海里”，不是“在海面上”。on the sea有时是“在海面的船上”，有时是“在海岸上”。

4.go to sea通常是“开始做水手”，有时是“开航”。go to the sea是“到海滨去（度假）”。go into the sea是“到海里去”。run off to sea是“逃去做水手”。例如：He ran off to sea when he was young. put out to sea是“开航”。例如：Next morning we put out to sea.

seal

seal the letter和seal the envelope都可以说。

search

1.下面每组里的三句意思不同：

注意下面两句里的searched for和searched out不可对调。

He searched for（不用out）the book, but could not find it.

He searched out（不用for）the book, and handed it to me.

search after作search for解，但语气重些，而且通常用于抽象名词。例如：He came to live in the country to search after health.

search for和search after都含有“努力搜寻”的意思。对于偶然被忘记放在哪儿的东西，通常用look for而不用search for或search after。例如：I am looking for my gloves, I must have left them in one of the drawers.

2.a search后面通常接for，偶尔接of。例如：She made a search for（偶尔用of）her missing ring. the search后面接of，for或after。例如：He is engaged in the search of（或for，或after）certain rare plants. in search of中用of。例如：She went about the garden in search of her lost ring.

seaside

seaside没有复数形式，注意at the seaside里用at，有the。

season

1.不该说spring season，summer season等，该把season删去。

2.说一年的四季该说the seasons。

seat(ed)

seat是及物动词，作“使…坐”解，seated＝sitting。例如：I tried to seat the boy on the bench. 和I found him seated（不用seating）on the bench.

second

1.关于second nature，参见nature 2

2.at second hand（间接地）中没有the。

second(-)hand

说“钟的秒针”该用second-hand，有连字号。说“用过的”或“间接的”该用secondhand没有连字号。有时用作副词。例如：I bought the typewriter secondhand. 和I got the information secondhand.

secret

1.Please keep it secret (from him) 和Please keep it a secret (from him) 都可以说，都作“请把这件事［对他］保守秘密”解。

2.比较下面两句：

He has told me about the matter in secret. （他秘密地告诉了我这件事。）

He says he is in the secret. （他说他知道这秘密［是局内人］。）

secretary

1.He is secretary to the Governor等句子里在secretary前面没有a，后面接to。

2.Secretary of State在英国指各部的大臣，如Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs（外交大臣）和Secretary of State for Home Affairs（内务大臣），在美国是“国务卿”。英国有好几个Secretary of State，美国只有一个。

英国的每个Secretary of State，可以简称做Secretary，如Foreign Secretary＝Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Home Secretary＝Secretary of State for Home Affairs。美国的Secretary of State没有简称。但美国的各部部长叫做Secretary。例如：Secretary of War（陆军部长）。

secure

1.secure有时带有双宾语。例如：His services secured him a reward at length.

2.secure用在以that引导的从句前面作“保证”解，是公文英语。例如：The Minister will secure that there shall be no further difficulty.

see

1.see的宾语后面的不定式没有to。例如：I often see him walk up the hill. 但假使把see改作被动语态，那不定式便该有to。例如：He is often seen to walk up the hill.

I often see him walk up the hill和I often see him walking up the hill意思相仿，用不定式比用分词语气重些。在有“故意看…”的意思的时候通常用不定式。例如：I should like to see you walk up the hill.

I saw him walk up the hill不论指“故意看见”或“偶然看见”都有“我看着他继续上山”的意思，I saw him walking up the hill有“他原来在上山，我偶然看见”的意思。

2.比较下面四句：

I saw him walk up the hill.

I saw him walking up the hill.

Now I saw that he walked up the hill every morning.

Now I saw him to be the man who walked up the hill every morning. 第一句和第二句（参见1）里的saw作“看见”解。第三句和第四句里的saw作“知悉”或“了解”解。注意第四句的不定式be前面有to。

3.see后面可以接宾语和表语。例如：

I hope to see you well again soon.

I was sorry to see him so much changed.

His friends were surprised to see him accused in a murder case.

4.see有时是“访问”，有时是“接见”。例如：I shall come to see you tomorrow morning. 和If you call tomorrow morning, I shall be glad to see you.

5.下面两句都作“我必须留心使他把这信写得不错”解：

I will see (that) he writes the letter correctly.

I will see to it that he writes the letter correctly.

注意两句里都用writes（陈述语气），不用write（虚拟语气）。英国人有用虚拟语气的，但极不普通。

6.下面四句都作“我希望你能设法解决这件事”解，第一句和第二句比第三句和第四句普通：

I hope you can see your way to settle the matter.

I hope you can see your way to settling the matter.

I hope you can see your way clear to settle the matter.

I hope you can see your way clear to settling the matter.

We cannot see our way (clear) to grant(ing) your request里的cannot see our way (clear) to...(ing)是公文里的客气话，比cannot...婉转。

7.He saw through it是“他看穿了它、不被它蒙蔽”。He saw it through是“他办完了它（并不半途而废）”。

8.I must see to getting the dinner ready里的see to作“注意做到”解，to是介词，getting不可改作get。

9.注意I saw him off for Beijing yesterday（我昨天送他动身到北京去）里用for。

10.see after和see into不及look after和look into普通。

seed

a seed是“一粒种子”，seeds是“多粒种子”。统说“种子”用seed和seeds都可以。例如：This plant drops its seed(s) everywhere.

seek

1.seek不及try通俗。

2.seek不及look for通俗。

3.用seek该注意勿犯双重被动的毛病，如不可说The situation has been sought to be improved。这句可以改作An attempt has been made to improve the situation。

4.下面三句意思相同，但第三句语气最重：

He came to us to seek advice.

He came to us to seek for advice.

He came to us to seek after advice.

在被动语态里通常用after。例如：Teachers like Mr Bryan are sought after. （像Bryan先生一般的教师是被人需求的。）

seem

1.下面四句意思不同：

She seems to be a musician. （她［现在］似乎是一个音乐家。）

She seemed to be a musician. （她［从前］似乎是一个音乐家。）

She seems to have been a musician. （她［现在看来］似乎曾经是一个音乐家。）

She seemed to have been a musician. （她［在过去的某时看来］似乎曾经［在那时的以前］是一个音乐家。）

2.it would seem或it should seem语气比it seems婉转。现在it would seem比it should seem普通。

3.seem后面不可接as，但可以接as if。

4.He seems not to like it和He does not seem to like it都可以说。

5.下面两句都是美国口语：

I can't seem to do it.

He couldn't seem to solve the problem.

通常该把这两句改作：

I seem (to be) unable to do it.

He seemed (to be) unable to do it.

seesaw

seesaw在用作游戏名的时候前面没有a或the。例如：The boys are playing at seesaw. 在指那游戏里的跷跷板的时候前面有a或the。例如：The boys are riding on a seesaw. 和There is a boy sitting at each end of the seesaw.

seize

seize on（或upon）似乎比seize语气重些，如They seized (up) on the opportunity比They seized the opportunity多含“急切”的意思。

seldom

1.注意Seldom have I met him in the street等句子里用have I，不用I have。

2.关于seldom if ever，参见ever 11

select

1.select作“选择出来”解，不作“从…选择”解，如可以说I want to select some novels for reading，不可说All these novels are for you to select，该在select后面加上from，among，from among或out of。

2.select比choose多含“慎重”的意思，作“精选”解。

selection

selection有时指“一件精选的东西”，有时指“一组精选的东西”，如一本共有三十篇的文选，可以叫做a book of thirty selections，也可以叫做a selection of thirty pieces。可以说The proverbs are an entrirely new selection.

self

his（或her等）own self是“他（或她等）本人”或“他（或她等）自身”，比himself，herself等表达方式气重些。例如：I have been telling the story of my own self. his（或her等）usual self是“他（或她等）的本来性格”。例如：Suddenly Mary left her friends without saying a word. Very unlike her usual self, I thought.

-self

1.下面第一句里的himself是强势代词，第二句里的himself是反身代词：

I am very happy, he said himself.

I am very happy, he told himself.

下面是一个笑话：

A: I had good sport there some time ago.

B: I think I shall go and shoot myself there next year.

shoot myself可能有两个意思：（l）“亲自去打猎”，myself是强势代词。（2）“抢杀我自己”，myself是反身代词。

2.在口语里He did it himself比He himself did it普通得多。

selfish

参见self-seeking

self-seeking

self-seeking语气比selfish轻些。例如：He is, I will not say selfish, but a little self-seeking.

self-study

self-study原来指“对于自身的研究”，现在也可以作“自学”解。例如：He has a keen mathematical mind and through self-study has passed the entrance examination at Oxford. 和This book is designed for self-study as well as for classroom use.

sell

1.下面每组里的第一句比第二句合乎习惯：

2.可以说The book sells about five thousand copies a year。

send

1.下面三句意思不同：

I shall send the book to him tomorrow. （我将在明天把这本书［托人捎或从邮局寄］给他［我自己并不去］。）

I shall take the book to him tomorrow. （我将在明天把这本书送到他那里［自己拿去］。）

I shall give the book to him tomorrow. （我将在明天把这本书赠给他［我自己也许去，也许不去］。）

不可说I called on him yesterday to send him a book或Please send this letter to the post on your way to school，但可以说Please have this letter sent to the post on your way to school。因为甲托乙把信投入邮局，甲做了send的工作，乙做了take的工作，也就是做了“使这信被sent”的工作。注意send并没有“赠（礼物）”的意思，当然Thank you for sending the flowers和Charlotte sends me all sorts of books是不错的，可是这里的sending和sends指“使…被送到”，并不作“赠”解，假使那东西是借来的、买来的或托人代寄的等，也尽可以用这个词。

2.下面每组里的两句意思不同：

不可说I called on him yesterday to send for him或I called on him yesterday to send for the book I had left with him。

3.I shall send for him to the office通常作“我将托人到事务所去叫他来”解，但也可以作“我将托人叫他到事务所去”解。I shall send to the office for him当然只可以作“我将托人到事务所去叫他来”解。I shall send for him from the office作“我将托人叫他从事务所来”解。

4.I shall send for it等句子里所被托而去的人，通常就是那取那东西的人，但并不一定，如为了丙那儿的一本书甲托乙到丙那里去，也许乙便是“拿”的人，也许乙只通知丙，那“拿”的人不是乙而是丙或丁。

5.I shall send for him to see you是“我将托人去叫他来看你”。

6.I hope to have the book sent in good time可能有三个意思：（1）“我希望这本书及时送出（给你）”。（2）“我希望这本书及时送出（给某人）”。（3）“我希望这本书及时送出（给我）。”

7.I（或We）send或I am（或We are）sending意思相同。例如：I send you a copy of the pamphlet.

8.send是一时的动作，所以不可说I have sent it to him for a week，该说I sent it to him a week ago或It is a week since I sent it to him。

senior

senior用作“大学四年级生”解是美国英语，有时也指中学的最高年级学生。在英国大学里的所谓senior man（偶尔叫senior）指一年级以上的学生。

sense

1.关于common sense，参见common 2和3

2.下面两句里的come to his senses意思不同：

She has been behaving very foolishly, I hope she'll soon come to her senses（恢复理智）.

She has been struck on the head by a rock and has lost consciousness, I hope she'll soon come to her senses（恢复知觉）.

sensibility

1.sensibility并不相当于sensible，并不等于sensibleness，却相当于sensitive，等于sensitiveness。“理智和情感”可以说sense and sensibility，“理智的和情感的”可以说sensible and sensitive。

2.sensibility是“敏感性”，sensibilities是“对于各方面的敏感性”。例如：His sensibility to human suffering, and his sensibilities in general often caused him unhappiness. 注意sensibility后面接to。

sensible

1.sensible man，sensible course等表达方式里的sensible 作“有智的”或“不愚的”解。

2.sensible of...是“知悉…的”或“非漠然不知…的”，sensitive to...是“易于感觉…的”或“对于…神经过敏的”。例如：I am sensible of your kindness. 和He is very sensible of his defects. He is sensitive to ridicule. 和He is morbidly sensitive to any unfavourable criticism of his book. sensible of现在不很普通。

sensitive

参见sensible 2

sensitiveness

1.sensitiveness后面接to。例如：His sensitiveness to public criticism helped him to correct his mistakes.

2.参见sensitivity

sensitivity

1.sensitivity后面接to，如the sensitivity of a radio to incoming waves和his sensitivity to the trends of the times。

2.在科学上sensitivity比sensitiveness普通，在一般文字里sensitiveness比sensitivity普通。

sensual

sensual是“肉体方面（而非精神或智力方面）的”或“耽于肉体之欲的”。sensuous是“感官方面的”。例如：His health failed as a result of his sensual excesses. 和Keats is a famous sensuous poet.

sensuous

参见sensual

sentiment

sentiment是“情感”，一般说来是好的，sentimentality是“过分的、假装的或漫无限制的情感”，是不好的。例如：These essays have plenty of sentiment, but no sentimentality. 但有时sentiment也被用作sentimentality解。例如：He was sorry he could not often see a flim entirely free from sentiment.

sentimental

1.a sentimental girl可能是“一个富于情感的女孩子”，也可能是“一个滥用情感的女孩子”。

2.I have sentimental reasons for using this old pen是“我用这枝旧笔有情感上的原因”。如因为这枝笔是父亲遗赠下来的，或者因为这枝笔是大灾难里抢救出来的。This pen is of sentimental value to me里的sentimental有相似的含意。

sentimentality

参见sentiment

September

参见April

sequence

in alphabetical sequence, in historical sequence等表达方式里没有a，an或the。

series

series单数和复数同一形式，如one series和five series。

seriously

Seriously, I wish you wouldn't do that again和Seriously, why can't you go? 等句子里的seriously是“正经地说（不是说笑话）”。

serpent

serpent（蛇）不及snake通俗，通常指体型较大的。

servant

Your obedient servant用作信函里的信尾客套语现在只用在公函里。

service

1.The typist has offered his services to us（这个打字员已经向我们自荐）和His services are entirely satisfactory（他的服务是完全令人满意的）等句子里必须用复数形式services。

2.下面两句意思相同：

We are devoted to the service of the people.

We are devoted to service to the people.

3.比较下面三句：

He took her into his service.

She thought she had a right to his service.

He offered his services to her.

第一句里的his service指“他的被人服务”，全句是“他雇她做他的保姆”。第二句里的his service和第三句里的his services都指“他的为人服务”。

4.比较下面各句：

He is in service. （他在做工友。）

He is in the service. （1.他在军队里服役。2.他在这部门工作。）

He is at service. （跟第一句相同，但比较不普通）

He is on service. （1.他是现役军人。2.他在某部门工作。）

5.civil service，diplomatic service，customs service等表达方式前面有时有the，有时没有the，比较下面每组里的各句：

仔细区别起来，the ... service指“…部门”，…service指“在…部门的工作”。governmental service和military service前面没有the.

session

session用来指“一天的上课时间”和“一年的上课时间”是美国用法，如a half-day session和a forty-week session。

set

1.set用作“放…（在那里）”解不及put通俗。

2.The sun has set和The moon is setting等句子里不可在set或setting后面加上down。

3.下面两句意思不同：

I have set him a task. （我已经给他一件工作。）

I have set him to a task. （我已经使他开始做一件工作。）

4.下面各句里的set的宾语后面都接现在分词：

That set me thinking. （那件事使我思索起来。）

The joke set all of us laughing. （这笑话使我们都大笑起来。）

Her absence set them wondering. （她的缺席使他们奇怪起来。）

The opening of the door set the bell ringing. （门一开使铃响起来。）

在这四句里的thinking，laughing，wondering和ringing前面加上to也可以，但不很普通。

下面各句里的set的宾语后面都接不定式：

He set his son to saw wood. （他叫他的儿子锯木头。）

She set her cat to catch mice. （她让她的猫捉老鼠。）

Who set you to pick the flowers? （谁叫你采这些花的？）

把这三句里的to saw，to catch和to pick改作to sawing，to catching和to picking也可以。用了动名词便把那动作看作一件工作，如He set his son to saw wood是“他叫他的儿子锯木头”。He set his son to sawing wood是“他叫他的儿子做锯木头的工作”。

set myself（或yourself等）to...（不定式）作“决意…”解。例如：He has set himself to read through the long novel.

5.set to work（开始工作）和set... to work（使…开始工作）两种表达方式里的work是名词，不是动词。后面都可以接不定式。例如：I have set to work to learn German. 和I have set her to work to learn German. 有时接分词。例如：I have set to work learning German. 和I have set her to work learning German.

6.I have set to learning German（我已经开始学习德语）里的to可以被当作介词（learning是动名词），也可以被当作副词（learning是现在分词）。

settle

下面四句意思相同：

He hopes to settle in the country.

He hopes to be settled in the country.

He hopes to settle down in the country.

He hopes to be settled down in the country.

He has now married and settled down和He is now married and settled down意思相同。

seventy

参见eighty

several

比较下面两句：

I bought several books this morning. （我在今天早上买了好几本书［不止一两本］。）

I bought some books this morning. （我在今天早上买了几本书［不多］。）

sex(ual)

1.the sex统指“女子们”，是戏谑词语，the sexes指“男子们和女子们”。例如：He never associated with the sex. 和He often talked about the equality between the sexes.

2.a person of the opposite sex里有the，two persons of (the) opposite sexes里可以有the，可以没有the，two persons of opposite sex里没有the。

3.sex（形容词）和sexual没有绝对的区别。除了在sex appeal（性感），sex antagonism（两性间的对立），sex war（两性间的冲突），sex urge（性欲）等少数名词里必须用sex以外，sex不及sexual普通。

下面各词前面用sex或sexual都普通：

act, attraction, cell, hygiene, instinct, life, organs, pervert

下面各词前面通常用sexual：

affinity, appetite, behaviour, commerce, copulation, desire, difference,

emotion, feeling, function, impotence, impulse, indulgence, intercourse,

interest, morality, perversion, process, relations, reproduction, selection

shade

shade相当于“荫”，是没有一定的轮廓的，shadow相当于“影”，是有一定的轮廓的。如一棵树的shadow成为shade，又如一条线在日光里也有shadow，但可以说没有shade。通常说under a shadow和in the shade。

shadow

参见shade

shake

握手是双方的，通常说shake hands，但可以说People came up to shake his hand。

shall

shall和will，should和would的种种用法很复杂。一般说来，should相当于shall，would相当于will。下面的一切规则都是根据英格兰的习惯。有两点该注意：（1）所说的错误也许在美国和苏格兰不被看作错误。（2）一切错误可以说都是在该用shall或should的场合用will或would，不是在该用will或would的场合用shall或should。

现在先讲简单句和主句：

（1）shall在第一人称的陈述句里表示将来。例如：I shall be twenty next Sunday. 和I shall be glad if you will call tomorrow afternoon. 用will而不用shall在英格兰通常被当作错误，但在美国和苏格兰很普通。比较下面两句：

I shall go tomorrow. （在英国是正常的英语，在美国往往被看作允诺或保证。）

I shall be twenty next Sunday. （在英国是正常的英语，在美国几乎不用。）

shall hope作“希望将…”解，不作“将希望…”解，“将来”的意思属于后面的不定式。例如：I shall hope to see him next week. ＝I hope to see him next week.

（2）shall在第一人称的陈述句里有时表示意向或允诺。例如：I shall tell you this evening. 和I shall never do it again. 用shall而不用will，含有“当然”的意思。

（3）shall在第一人称的疑问句里有时表示将来，有时问对方的意志。例如：Shall I be too old to work at eighty? （表示将来）和Shall I post the letter for you? （问对方的意志）这句可以改作Would you like me to post the letter for you? 或Do you want me to post the letter for you? 在爱尔兰和苏格兰往往说Will I post the letter for you?

（4）shall在第二人称和第三人称的陈述句里表示自己（指说话或作文者）的意向、命令、允诺、恫吓等。例如：

You（或He）shall never see her again. （意向）

You（或He）shall go at once. （命令）

You（或He）shall have a reward. （允诺）

You（或He）shall be punished. （恫吓）

第三句在口语里现在不普通。

比较下面各句：

You（或He）shall go at once. （表示自己的意向，语气最强）

You（或He）must go at once. （比较婉转）

You（或He）have to go at once. （比较婉转）

You（或He）have got to go at once. （比较婉转，口语）

You are（或He is）to go at once. （最婉转）

（5）shall在第二人称的疑问句里表示将来。例如：Shall you be away for long? 但用will也很普通。例如：Will you be away for long? 在美国几乎不用Shall you...? 在修辞疑问句里总用will，不用shall，如假使Will you be away for long? 含有“你当然不会离开好久”的意思，will不可改作shall。

（6）shall在第三人称的疑问句里问对方的意志：例如：Shall he be paid? （你以为该给他钱吗？）

（7）will在第一人称的陈述句里表示自己的意向、命令、允诺、恫吓等。例如：

I will work hard. （意向）

I will be obeyed. （命令）

I will help you as much as I can. （允诺）

I will punish you. （恫吓）

（8）will通常不用在第一人称的疑问句里。Will I? 或Will we? 往往有“我（们）当然要”或“我（们）当然不要”的含意。但Will I do? 有一个特别的意思：“（你以为做那件事）我行吗？”

（9）will在第二人称和第三人称的陈述句里表示将来。例如：You will be better tomorrow. 和It will be fine very soon.

（10）will在第二人称和第三人称的陈述句里有时表示自己（指说话或作文者）的命令。例如：You will send in your report on Thursday. 和All the members will send in their reports on Thursday. 用will比用shall婉转些，主要用在公文里。

（11）will在第三人称的陈述句里有时表示必然性（certainty）或不可避免性（inevitability）。例如：Whatever you may say, things of this kind will go on. 有时有“偏偏”的意思。例如：He will ask me all sorts of questions when I am busy writing. 这句里的will该重读。有时有“或然”（probable）的意思。例如：This will be the book you're looking for. 和It is about five, he will have gone back home. （现在大约5点钟，他大概已经回家去了。）

（12）will在第二人称的疑问句里问对方的意志，尤其用在请求句（request）里。例如：Will you tell me more about him? Will you help me? 和Help me, will you? （参见（5））Will you tell me more about him? 也可能是“你能多告诉我一些关于他的事吗？”也可能是“我请求你多告诉我一些关于他的事”。用在第一解，有人以为该用shall而不用will，或改用Are you going to...? 用在第二解，句尾的问号可以改作句号。

（13）will在第三人称的疑问句里表示将来。例如：Will they be here tomorrow?

（14）will有时表示习惯，通常用在第二人称和第三人称。例如：You（或He）will sit here for hours saying nothing. 这用法在口语里几乎没有。

（15）should是shall的过去式，但很少用来指过去，如I should never know。远不及I was never to know或I was not going to know普通，在文字里也逐渐少用，通常用现在陈述语气就可以表示习惯。

（16）should用在第一人称的条件陈述句里表示将来，那条件从句往往省去。例如：I should be glad to see you if you would call tomorrow morning. 和I should be glad to see you. 用would而不用should在英格兰通常被当作错误，但在美国和苏格兰很普通。

I should like（或I would like）里可以说并没有省去的条件从句，它不过是比I shall like婉转些的说法。同样地，I should think和I should say 比I think和I say婉转。

（17）should用在第二人称的条件疑问句里表示将来，那条件从句往往省去，如Should you like to see him if he should call on you this evening? 和Should you like to see him? 但事实上用would普通得多，如Would you like to see him if he should call on you this evening? 和Would you like to see him? 在修辞疑问句里总用would，不用should，如假使Would you like to see him? 含有“你当然不会喜欢见他”的意思，would不可改作should。

（18）should在任何人称表示义务或责任，如I（或You，或He）Should study hard和I（或You，或He）should not leave any of these questions unanswered。这样用法的should语气比ought to…轻些。

（19）should有时在疑问句里表示情感（emotion）。例如：Why should you call him a fool?

（20）would是will的过去式，但除了表示习惯、意志（volition）和或然性（probability）以外，很少用来指过去。

would用来指过去的习惯比will用来指现在的习惯普通得多。例如：I（或You，或He）would sit here for hours saying nothing. 但这用法在口语里几乎没有。

would表示意志往往有“偏偏”的意思。例如：I（或You，或He）would go out in spite of the snowstorm. （would该重读）would在否定句里表示过去的意志，例如：I（或You，或He）would not listen to her story. would表示或然性，可以用于任何人称，但事实上主要用在第三人称。

例如：

That would be in March 1932.

When that happened, I would be about twelve.

When that happened, you would be about fifteen.

有时指现在而不指过去。例如：This would be the book you're looking for.

（21）would在第一人称的条件陈述句里表示自己的意向、命令、允诺、恫吓等，条件从句往往省去。例如：

If I could, I would work hard. （意向）

I would be obeyed. （命令）

I would help you as much as I could. （允诺）

I would punish you if you should do it again. （恫吓）

在没有条件从句的场合，I would不过是比I will婉转些的说法。I would不及I should like普通。参见（16）

（22）would在第二人称和第三人称的条件陈述句里表示将来，条件从句往往省去，例如If you（或he）were a bird, you（或he）would be able to fly. 和You（或He）certainly would be glad to be able to fly.

it would seem和one would think不过是比it seems和one thinks婉转些的说法。

（23）would在第二人称的条件疑问句里问对方的意志，尤其用在请求句里，条件从句通常省去，语气比用will婉转，如Would you tell me more about him? 和Would you help me? 比Will you tell me more about him? 和Will you help me? 婉转。参见（12）

（24）would在第三人称的条件疑问句里表示将来，条件从句往往省去，如If he were here, would he be sorry to hear it? 和Would he be sorry to hear it?

（25）would有时表示愿望。例如：I would rather remain here. 和I would you were with us!

上面只讲简单句和主句，下面讲从句：

（26）shall和should表示加在那从句里的主语所指的人或物身上的责任。例如：

I demand that he shall（或should）return my book by 24 May.

My demand is that he shall（或should）return my book by 24 May.

I demanded that he should return my book by 24 May.

My demand was that he should return my book by 24 May.

这种以that引导的从句通常用在condition，demand，desire，insist，intend，intention，provide，provision，require等词的后面。

（27）shall用在条件从句或不定从句里现在很不普通，如现在不说if he shall come, when he shall come或whoever shall come，却说if he comes, when he comes和whoever comes。

用shall既然不普通，用will竟然是错误的，如不可说If it will be fine tomorrow, I shall go out，该把will be改作is，用will在条件从句或不定从句里只表示意志等，如If you will help me, I shall be grateful to you和I shall be grateful to whoever will help me。

（28）should用在条件从句或不定从句里表示疑惑，有“偶然”的含意。例如：

If it should be fine tomorrow, I shall go out.

If I should ever go to Europe, I should see such things.

Whoever should apply for further information will have to write to the secretary.

Whatever should happen to them would be considered something new.

第一句和第三句里的should比第二句和第四句里的should表示程度轻些的疑惑。注意第一句里用shall，第三句里用will，但第二句里用should，第四句里用would。

假使要表示意志，该用would而不用should。例如：If you would help me, I should be grateful to you. 和I should be grateful to whoever would help me.

If it should be fine, I shall go out里的should决不可改作would。If you should catch cold again, you would keep in bed for a few days more里的should也不可改作would。If you would keep in bed for a few days more, you would find it difficult to catch up里的would并不表示意志，If you would keep in bed for a few days more＝If (if you should catch cold again) you would keep in bed for a few days more。

（29）should（不是shall）有时表示情感。例如：

It is a pity that she should be so ill.

It is strange that you should know nothing about it.

It is only natural that we should be left behind.

It is odd that you should live alone in this cottage.

I wonder why some of you should keep laughing at me.

（30）should（不是shall）用在以lest或in case引导的从句里。例如：I have to remind him lest he should forget it. 和They took their umbrellas with them in case it should rain. 在以lest引导的从句里在美国通常不用should而用虚拟现在式。例如：... lest he forget it.

（31）在间接引语里，依照语法该用在直接引语里所用的shall或will，should或would，但在必要的时候该变换时态，把shall改作should，把will改作would。例如：

He says he shall be glad to see her. （直接引语：I shall be glad....）

He said he should be glad to see her. （直接引语：I shall be glad ....）

He thinks I will be glad to see her. （直接引语：He will be glad ....）

He thought I would be glad to see her. （直接引语：He will be glad ....）

不过在事实上第一句里用will普通些，第二句里用would普通些，第三句里在英国用shall普通些，第四句里在英国用should普通些。尤其在第三句和第四句里现在很少用will和would，因为will和would在第一人称里很像表示意志，但在美国几乎总是用will和would。

像下面各句里的shall和should，will和would当然是不可改动的：

I think I shall be glad to see her.

I thought I should be glad to see her.

I think you（或he）will be glad to see her.

I thought you（或he）would be glad to see her.

You think he will be glad to see her.

You thought he would be glad to see her.

He thinks you will be glad to see her.

He thought you would be glad to see her.

He thinks she will be glad to see you.

He thought she would be glad to see you.

I shall ask whether you（或he）will help me.

I asked whether you（或he）would help me.

You（或He）will ask whether I will help you（或him）.

You（或He）asked whether I would help you（或him）.

I shall tell you（或him）that you（或he）shall have a reward.

I told you（或him）that you（或he）should have a reward.

（32）It is necessary that he should come by six o'clock和I suggest that he should come by six o'clock等句子里用should，在美国通常不用should而用虚拟现在式。例如：...he come（不用comes）by six o'clock.

shame

1.shame有两个意思：“耻辱”的“耻”和“无耻”的“耻”。例如：He felt shame. （他感觉羞耻。）和He is quite without shame. （他是完全无耻的。）

2.It is a shame for a young man like you not to study hard（像你这样的年轻人不用功学习是一件可耻的事）等句子里的a从前往往省去，现在通常不省去。

shameful

1.shameful是“可耻的”，不是“感觉羞耻的”，说“感觉羞耻的”该用ashamed。如假定某人有了可耻的行为，因而感觉羞耻，可以说Jones is ashamed of his shameful conduct。参见ashamed

2.shameful是“可耻的”，shameless是“无耻的”，shameful conduct是“可耻的行为”，shameless conduct是“无耻的行为”。shameful里的shame和shameless里的shame意思不同，因而shameful和shameless意思相仿。参见shame 1

shameless

参见shameful 2

shan't

shan't（＝shall not）主要用在英国，在美国很少用。

shape

1.in bad shape，in better shape，in fair shape，in good shape，in such shape等表达方式里的shape作“情况”解，原来是美国用法，但现在也用在英国。

2.My desk is (of) the same shape as yours等句子里的of可有可无。

share

1.He shared the meal可能有两个意思：“他把这一餐的一部分分给别人吃。”或“他吃了这一餐的一部分（其他部分被别人吃）。”He shared the meal with her通常作“他把这一餐的一部分给她吃”解，有时作“他被分给这一餐的一部分”解。

2.He asked me to share (in) his meal里的in可有可无。He shared her joy和He shared her view里在shared后面没有in。

sheep

sheep单数和复数同一形式，如one sheep和twenty sheep。

shew

shew＝show，现在只用在英国，只用作动词，不用作名词。

shilling

关于说“几镑几先令”参见pound 2，说“几先令几便士”在先令数目的后面有and，如two shillings and sixpence。（shilling现已不用）

shine

1.shine用作动词作“擦（鞋）”解，用作名词作“擦鞋”解是美国用法。例如：She is shining his shoes. 和She is going to give his shoes a shine. 过去式和过去分词都是shined，不是shone。

2.Shine the flashlight on the grass（把手电筒照在草地上）里的shine是及物动词，它的过去式和过去分词有时是shone，有时是shined.

ship

1.ship通常被当作阴性。例如：The ship is now on her first voyage. 但在用关系代词代ship的时候却不当它为阴性，如The ship, which is a large one, is on her first voyage里用which而不用who。

2.ship（动词）在商界里往往用作“运输”解，不一定指“用船运输”。例如：They will soon ship the goods by rail. 这用法原来是美国用法，但现在英国也有人用。

3.ship（动词）有时带有双宾语。例如：We are today shipping you another machine.

4.on board ship（上船，在船上）和take ship（上船）两种表达方式里在ship前面没有the。

shipment

参见ship 2

shock(ed)

关于a shocked tone（震惊或愤慨的语调）等，参见much 3 (5) E

shoot

1.shoot him是“用枪把他打中（死或伤）”，shoot at him是用枪打他，未必打中他。

2.shoot to death（用枪打死）是美国英语，相当于英国英语shoot dead。

3.A fellow who speaks ill of his friends like that should be shot! 里的should be shot并不直解作“该被枪杀”，不过说“很可恶”罢了。

shop

1.shop在英国通常是“店”，在美国通常是“工场”，如shoe shop在英国通常是“鞋店”，在美国通常是“制鞋工场”。说“店”在美国通常用store。但说“理发店”、“木匠店”等英美都用shop，不过在英国在那指人的词的末尾有's，在美国却没有，如a barber's shop和a carpenter's shop是英国英语，a barber shop和a carpenter shop是美国英语。a barber's shop，a carpenter's shop等表达方式里的shop往往省去。例如：I met him at a barber's.

2.shop用作动词作“到店里去买东西”解，主要用在现在分词和动名词，如go shopping和some shopping to do。在美国往往用作“到商店去看看（未必买）”解。

3.shut up shop（shop前面没有the）有时指“暂时停业”，有时指“永久停业”。例如：He used to shut up shop at nine o'clock. 和He shut up shop at seventy. 在用作第二个解时有时指“退休”，并不真有“店”被“关”着。

shopman

shopman现在在英国通常指“店员”，不指“店主”，在美国通常指“工场里的工人”。

shore

1.on shore是“在岸上”或“到岸上”，in shore是“在近岸的水上”。这两种表达方式里没有the，bring to shore，come to shore等表达方式里也没有the。

2.the shores of the lake里习惯用复数形式shores。

short

1.Your attitude is little short of being ridiculous（你的态度是近于可笑的）里的being做of的宾语，being有时省去。

2.short用于head指前后的短，不指上下的短。

3.关于a short mile，a short hour，short years等，参见long 2和3

shortly

1.shortly不可用作a short time ago或for a short time解。

2.I shall answer him shortly可能有三个意思：（1）“我不久将回答他。”（2）“我将简略地回答他。”（3）“我将简略得无礼地回答他。”在有可能被人误解的时候该避免用shortly。

shot

shot（弹丸）有复数形式shots，但单数形式shot往往被用作集合名词，被当作单数或复数都有。例如：I do not know how shot is（或are）made. 即使在数字后面也往往用shot而不用shots。例如：Two shot(s) were found in the garden.

should

参见shall

shoulder

比较下面两句：

He looked over his shoulder. （他转过头来向后看。）

He looked over her shoulder. （他在她的后面向前看。）

shout

1.He shouted to me to come似乎比He shouted for me to come普通。

2.shout（动词）后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：One of the children shouted that he had caught five sparrows in as many minutes.

在shout(ed)，后面加上out也可以。

show

1.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

2.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

第二句和第三句比第一句正式。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He showed me the room. （他引领我看这间房子。）

He showed me into the room. （他带领我进入这间房子。）

4.下面两句意思不同：

He showed me the door. （他赶我出门。）

He showed me to the door. （他陪我到门口。）

He showed me out可能有这两个意思。

5.I'll show you how to do it等句子里的how不可省去。

shower

下面每组里的第一句是英国英语，第二句是美国英语：

shut

1.shut比close通俗。

2.The door swung shut和The window blew shut等句子里的shut是苏格兰和美国用法，在英格兰不用shut而用to（副词）。

3.关于shut up shop参见shop 3

shy

shy of在英国作“想要避免…的”或“不肯…的”解。例如：He is shy of big words. 和She is shy of speaking in public. 在美国往往用作“缺乏…的”或“在…方面不充足的”解。例如：The house is shy of a bathroom. 和The druggist was then shy of funds. 有时竟把of省去，把shy用作介词一样，但shy of funds里的of不可省去。

shy on也是美国英语，作“在…方面不充足的”解。例如：The druggist was then shy on funds.

sic

sic是拉丁词，用在括号里，表示它前面的词虽然好像不对却是原文，并非笔误或刊误。如假定你引用别人的一句The boy have just gone out，读者大约要以为那have是你所写错的，为避免这种疑惑起见你可以在have的后面用（sic），写作The boy have (sic) just gone out。又如假定你的祖父今年98岁了，你写My grandfather is ninety-eight当然不错，但因为98岁的人很少，你恐怕读者以为那ninety-eight是你写错的，你便可以写作My grandfather is ninety-eight (sic)。

sick(ly)

1.sick原来作“有病的”解，但下面几点该注意：

（1）在定语用法里不论在英格兰、苏格兰或美国都作“有病的”解，如a sick boy。

（2）在表语用法里在苏格兰和美国也作“有病的”解，但在英国现在通常作“呕吐的”或“将呕吐的”解，如I am sick和Do you feel sick? 但fall sick作“患病”解。

（3）在表语用法里在英格兰从前也通常作“有病的”解。

2.sicker和sickest都不用，more sick和most sick也不用，通常用worse和worst。

3.把sick用在身体某部分的名称的前面是美国用法，如sick kidneys，sick nerves和sick hair。

4.sick for是“渴望…的”，sick of是“对于…感觉厌倦的”。例如：Allen has got sick of city life, and is now sick for his home in the country.

5.在现代英语里在sick和病名的中间用with，不用of，如sick with fever和sick with influenza。

6.a sick child是“一个有病的孩子”，表示（暂时或经常）有病，a sickly chlid是“一个多病的孩子”，表示经常容易有病。a little sick child是“一个经常有病的小孩”，a sick little child是“一个暂时有病的小孩”。

side

1.side前面用at，by，in和on都有，下面几点该注意：

（1）说“在某人的旁边”通常用by或at。例如：A little girl was sitting by（或at）my side. 但the side of前通常用by，很少用at，如A little girl was sitting by the side of her brother里用by，很少用at。

（2）说“在街、路或河的旁边（指一边）”通常用by，很少用at，如An old man was standing by the side of the street里用by，很少用at。说“在街、路或河的两边”通常用at或on。例如：There are shops at（或on）both sides of the street. 说“在街、路或河的这边、那边或另一边”通常用on。例如：There is a barber's shop on this side of the street. He lives on the opposite side of the road. 和His house is on the other side of the river.

（3）说“在某物的一边或两边”通常用on或at。例如：There is no tree on（或at）this side of the cottage. There is a chair on（或at）each side of the table. The picture hangs on（或at）the right side of the clock. 和You may leave your books on（或at）both sides of the typewriter.

（4）说“在某地的某区”用in。例如：There are two schools in our side of the country.

（5）下面各句里都用on，不用at，by或in：

Who is on my side? （1.谁在我的一边？2.谁赞助我？3.谁替我争？）

There are faults on both sides. （双方都有缺点。）

You may see it on every side（或on all sides）. （你可以在每一边见到这个。）

He is on the right（或wrong）side of fifty. （他还不满［或已经过了］50岁。）

The grandfather on his mother's side is a Wallis. （他的外祖父是一个姓Wallis的人。）

2.on this side of（1.在…的这一边2.在…以前3.不满）里的of有时被省去。例如：There are no trees on this side the hills. She was interested in everything on this side the grave. （她对于今天的事物都发生兴趣。）有时省去on而不省去of。例如：She was interested in everything this side of the grave. 和Try to keep your letters this side of 500 words. （写信请至多不超过500个字。）this side of似乎不用作“在…的这一边”解。

3.He knows (on) which side his bread is buttered（他知道自己利益的所在）里的on可有可无。

4.take sides with和take the side of都作“赞助（某人）”或“袒护（某人）”解，注意第一种表达方式里没有the，用复数形式sides，用with，第二种表达方式里有the，用单数形式side，用of。

5.side在指问题的方面的时候后面习惯用to。例如：There are two sides to every question. （对于每一问题，总有两方面。）

side(-)walk

参见pavement

sight

1.at sight，at first sight，catch sight of，come in sight (of)，in sight (of)，lose sight of，on sight，within sight (of)等表达方式里都没有a 或the。at (the) sight of（一见了…以后）里可以有the，也可以没有the。

2.at sight和on sight都作“在某人或某物被见了以后立刻地”解。除了在payable at（或on）sight（见票后立即付款的）中以外，似乎通常用at sight。例如：

This is a draft payable at（或on）sight. （这是一张见票即付的汇票。）

He reads French at sight. （他一见了法语便能读［不必预备］。）

3.The land came in sight是“陆地被见到了”。We came in sight of land可能有两个意思：“我们见到陆地了。”或“我们被陆地上的人见到了。”

4.in sight是“被见到的”，但in sight of是“见到…的”，如Land is now in sight和We are now in sight of land。within sight相当于in sight，within sight of相当于in sight of，通常都用在譬喻里。例如：Peace was soon within sight. 和We were soon within sight of peace.

5.I have lost sight of him可能有两个意思：“我已经不见他了。”或“我不知道他的下落。”

6.The children were terrified by the sight of him（孩子们见了他害怕）里的the sight of him不可改作his sight。

sign

1.I have signed my name to the cheque和They will be requested to sign their names to the petition等句子里的to不可改作in或on。

2.I have signed the cheque和They will be requested to sign the petition等句子里的signed和sign后面不可加上in，on或to。

3.He signed to her to enter the room（他做手势叫她走进这房间）等句子里的to可以省去，但通常不省去。

4.signs后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：There were signs that the minister would resign.

signature

under his signature比over his signature普通。

silence

Silence! （别作声！）语气很重。教师在教室里通常不说Silence！而说Quiet，Please或please be quiet。

silent

Silence! 不可改作Silent! 参见silence

silk(en)

说“丝织的”现在通常用silk不用silken，如silk ribbon和silk stocking。

silver(y)

说“银质的”只可以用silver，不可用silvery，如silver cup和silver coin。

similar(ity)

similar后面接to，但similarity后面接to或with都可以。例如：This is similar to that. 和This bears a similarity to（或with）that.

simple

simple English，simple language，simple style等表达方式里的simple作“简易的”或“不浮华的”解。但简单句只指语法里所说的简单句，不管那文字是否simple。

simply

1.simply往往用作“竟然”或“简直”解。例如：The sight is simply irresistible. 和I simply cannot do without it.

2.He is simply careless可能有三个意思：（1）“他不过粗心罢了。”（2）“他简直是粗心了。”（3）“他因愚笨而粗心。”He spoke simply也可能有三个意思：（1）“他简单地说。”（2）“他愚笨地说。”（3）“他自然而诚恳地说。”有可能被人误解的时候，该避免用simply。

simulate

参见dissimulate

since

1.注意下面各句里都用完成时态：

He returned a year ago, and has since lived with us.

He has lived with us since his return.

He has lived with us since he returned.

He had returned a year before, and had since lived with us.

He had lived with us since his return.

He had lived with us since he (had) returned.

第一句和第四句里的since是副词，第二句和第五句里的since是介词，第三句和第六句里的since是连接词。第六句里用returned比用had returned普通。

下面各句里并不用完成时态：

He returned a year ago, and his health is much improved since.

He writes the best English since Dr Johnson.

Mr Lewis, living with us since he returned, is now a well-known author.

但虽然不用完成时态，却有完成时态的意味：第一句里的is much improved有is much improved because it has been much improved的意思，第二句里的writes the best English有writes the best (English) of the English that has ever been written的意思，第三句里的living有living as he has lived的意思。

It is若干时间since…比It has been若干时间since…普通得多，如通常说It is a year since his return和It is a year since he returned，很少说It has been a year since his return和It has been a year since he returned。

2.He has lived with us since he returned里的returned属于过去时态，当然不可改作returns。He has lived with us ever since he can remember里却用属于现在时态的can，但he can remember有the earliest time that he can remember的意思。

3.He has lived with us since he returned里的returned属于过去时态，不可改作has returned。在since所引导的从句里不用过去时态而用现在完成时态是英美人常有的错误。

比较下面三句：

I have lived in this house since I came to Shanghai.

I have lived in this house since I have been in Shanghai.

I have lived in this house while I have been in Shanghai.

第一句当然不错。第二句不及第一句合乎语法，但have been用在since引导的从句里很普通，比其他属于现在完成时态的动词普通得多，可以算不错。第三句当然不错，但不及第二句普通。

下面两句意思不同：

He has written to me frequently since I was ill. （自从我病愈以来，他屡次写信给我。）

He has written to me frequently since I have been ill. （自从我生病以来，他屡次写信给我。）

4.since（介词）的宾语该是一点时间（a point of time），不是一段时间（a period of time），如可以说I have lived here since January，不可说I have lived here since five months，该改作I have lived here for five months。

5.不可说“若干时间since...”，如不可说I have lived here five months since my return或I have lived here five months since I returned，该改作I have lived here since my return five months ago或I have lived here since I returned five months ago。

6.since往往用作ago。例如：I returned a year since.

比较下面三句：

It is a year since that I returned.

It was a year since that I returned.

It is a year since I returned.

第一句和第二句里的since都作ago解，第一句着重“到现在已有一年”的意思（参见ago 3），第三句里的since是连接词。

7.since（介词）往往把动名词做它的宾语。例如：I have had three letters from him since writing last. 和He has not done it again since being warned. 注意writing的动作是属于I的，being warned的情形是属于He的。不可说Three letters have come since writing last和It has not been done by him again since being warned。

8.since（连接词）往往用作“因为”解。例如：Since you do not understand, I will explain again. 和He did not come, since he was very busy.

Since you do not understand, therefore I will explain也可以说，但通常不用therefore。注意不可说Since you do not understand, so I will explain again。

9.Well, since you ask me, I never was in love with your sister, though I found that out only when I fell in love with you里的since you ask me并不真正表示原因，那主句所说的是客观事实，并不因为since you ask me。这种用法的since跟if 6里的if相仿。

10.since（因为）语气比较轻，所以不可说It is since you do not understand that I will explain again，该把since改作because。

11.long since（副词）作“久已”解，通常用在完成时态里，有时也可以用在过去时态里，如Bows and arrows have long since been out of use, All has long since vanished and become a memory和Their crews were long since asleep.

sincerely

写信给普通朋友，那信尾客套语通常是Yours sincerely或Sincerely yours，美国人往往用Yours most sincerely或只用Sincerely一个词。写信给关系一般的人，有时也用Yours sincerely或Sincerely yours。

sink

1.sink down里的down该删去。

2.关于sunk和sunken的不同，参见sunk(en)

sir

1.写信给陌生男子，用Sir、Dear Sir或My dear Sir做称呼。Sir最正式，通常用在公文里，Dear Sir最普通。

写信给两个或两个以上的陌生男子用Sirs或Dear Sirs都不及用Gentlemen普通，Sirs不及Dear Sirs普通。

2.sir通常有两种用法：称不相识的男子或称爵士。在称不相识的男子的时候单独用，不加在姓名上面，如Yes，sir。在称爵士的时候，用在名的前面，或名和姓的前面，或名的开首字母和姓的前面，不可用在姓的前面，如可以用Sir John，Sir John White和Sir J. White，不可用Sir White。所谓“爵士”，指knight和baronet两种，都是英国爵位的名称（knight并不世袭，baronet是世袭的），有时把这种名称写出，如Sir John White, Knight和Sir John White, Baronet。要是一个人并不是knight或baronet，决不可把Sir加在他的名、名和姓或名的开首字母和姓的前面。

3.Yes, sir等表达方式里的sir该用小写字母开首，不用大写字母开首。

sister

1.sister指“姐”或“妹”都可以。参见brother 1和elder

2.sister只指同父母、同父或同母的姐妹，不指堂姐妹。

3.the Johnson sisters比the sisters Johnson普通。

sister-in-law

1.sister-in-law用来指“妯娌”或“妻的哥哥或弟弟的妻”似乎很勉强。

2.sister-in-law不可用在信的称呼（salutation）里。

sit

1.sit down是一时的动作。例如：He sat down by the fire and soon went to sleep. 不可说He sat down by the fire for nearly three hours，该把down删去。

2.There were two birds sitting on the branch里的sitting是“停”，不是“坐”，实际是standing。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He sat reading all the morning. （他整个上午坐着阅读［不是坐着写字或画图］。）

He read sitting all the morning. （他整个上午坐着阅读［不是站着或躺着阅读］。）

下面两句里的teach sitting和cook sitting不可改作sit teaching和sit cooking：

He had to teach sitting because he had a sore foot.

She says she can't cook sitting.

参见stand 3和lie 2

4.下面两句都作“他将参加这次考试”解，似乎近几年来才有省去for的：

He is going to sit for the examination.

He is going to sit the examination.

sitting

Can you finish the work at a（或one）sitting? 等句子里用a似乎比用one普通些。

situate(d)

除了在房产经理人的广告里以外，现在只用situated，不用situate。

situation

situation（职位）通常指社会地位较低的的职业，如厨师和园丁等。a situation of（或as）cook等表达方式里在cook等词前面通常没有a。但out of a situation（失业的）里必须有a。

sixpence

sixpence用作“六便士银币”解可以用复数形式sixpences。例如：two sixpences

sixty

参见eighty

size

This is (of) just the right size和Please give me a piece (of) the same size等句子里的of往往被省去。

skill

a skill（一种技术）和skills（各种技术）主要用在美国。例如：Cooking is a useful skill. She is interested in the skills of singing and drawing. 和He may not have the skills to work in transport and industry.

skilled

1.skilled跟unskilled相反，一个人或skilled或unskilled，无所谓very skilled，most skilled或more skilled。skil(l)ful便可以被very，most，more等词修饰。

2.a skilled trade是“一个需要技能的职业”。

skil(l)ful

参见skilled

sky

1.sky跟skies似乎没有区别，如a cloudless sky和cloudless skies，a warmer sky（较暖的气候）和warmer skies。但skies不及sky通俗。

2.可以说an immense expanse of blue sky，the breach of sullen sky等。blue sky和sullen sky前面没有a。

3.sky指整个的天空，并不分成eastern，western等几个sky，但习惯上可以说The evening star was shining in the pale western sky等。

slang

slang统指俚语，并不指一个一个的俚语，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式slangs。如可以说This word is slang和All these phrases are slang，不可说This word is a slang和All these phrases are slangs.

但 a slang可以指“一种俚语”，slangs可以指“多种俚语”。例如：They have a slang of their own. 和I do not know a single expression of military and naval slangs.

slangism

slangism指一个一个的俚语，并不统指俚语。例如：Every sport has its interesting slangisms. 但这词不普通，通常用slang word，slang phrase或slang expression。

slangy

slang（形容词）是“slang的”，slangy是“有俚语性质的”，一个slangy phrase可以说是一个并不十足的slang phrase。

slant

slant用作“观点”或“倾向”解是美国英语。例如：Jack got a new slant on his native society.

slap

The madman slapped her face和The madman slapped her in the face都可以说。注意第二句里用in和the，不用on和her。

slash

slash在美国往往用作“减低（工资、赋税等）”或“缩短（文字等）”解。例如：Tom was afraid his wages were going to be considerably slashed. 和The editor asked the author to slash the article.

slay(er)

slay（杀）和slayer（杀者）在英国只用在文学或法律里，不用在一般文字里，但在美国很普通。

sleep

1.sleep（名词）统指睡眠，a sleep指“一段时间的睡眠”，但很少用sleeps来指“多段时间的睡眠”。如可以说Sleep is necessary to health和He had only a brief sleep last night，但很少说I have had only brief sleeps during the past few weeks。

2.go to sleep是“入睡”，不是“就寝”，说“就寝”该说go to bed。例如：I usually go to bed at nine o'clock and go to sleep ten minutes afterwards. 一个人有时并不“就寝”也会“入睡”。例如：The baby went to sleep in the nurse's arms.

3.sleep（动词）通常作“睡眠”解，如I sleep for eight hours和He sleeps from nine at night to five in the morning。有时用作“入睡”解。例如：It is time to sleep. 但说“入睡”通常说go to sleep或fall asleep，不说sleep，如通常不说I slept at half past ten last night或As he was very tired, he slept as soon as he sat down，该把slept改作went to sleep或fell asleep。fall asleep通常含有“不想入睡而入睡”的意思。

4.sleep late不是“（晚上）睡得迟”而是“（早上）醒得晚”（日上三竿才醒）。

sleeper

sleeper在英国是铁路上的“枕木”，相当于美国的tie，在美国是“卧车”，相当于英国的sleeping-car。

slim

slim用作“少的”或“微弱的”解现在只在美国流行，如slim evidence，a slim dinner和slim arguments。

slip

1.slip of the pen（笔误）和slip of the tongue（口误）两种表达方式里都必须有the。

2.slip单独用通常指“笔误”。例如：That wasn't really a mistake, it was only a slip.

slow(ly)

1.slow后面接不定式是“不愿…的”或“不大会得…的”。例如：He is not slow to defend himself. 和She is slow to take offence. slow后面接in和动名词是“…得太迟的”或“…得慢的”。例如：The guests are slow in arriving. 和The crowd is slow in breaking up.

2.slow用作副词不及slowly普通。但在着重“慢”或“细心”的意思的场合往往用slow而不用slowly，在口语里更多用slow。例如：

3.下面每组里的两句意思相同，但第一句比第二句普通：

slum

the slums指“贫民住的区域”，就是“贫民窟”，如children of the slums。

slumber

复数形式slumbers并不指“多次睡眠”。例如：She called his name, but his slumbers were too deep.

small

small是“小”，little往往含有“小得可爱”、“小得可怜”等意思。参见big

smallpox

smallpox前面现在通常不用the，用the是“老式”的。

smell

1.下面三句意思相同：

He used to smell a dish before he tasted it.

He used to smell at a dish before he tasted it.

He used to smell of a dish before he tasted it.

第三句似乎只用在美国。

2.The meat smells good和The flowers smell sweet等句子里该用形容词，不该用副词。It smells disgusting和It smells disgustingly都可以说。第一句里的smell作“发出…的气味”解，那disgusting是表语，第二句里的smell作“发出恶劣的气味”解，那disgustingly是副词。第一句等于It has a disgusting smell，第二句等于It stinks so as to disgust one。

smile

1.说“对（某人）微笑”在smile后面接at，on或upon都可以。例如：He smiled at（或on，或upon）me. 似乎用at最普通，说“对（某人）表示特别爱好”在smile后面接on或upon，不接at。例如：He rejoiced when his sweetheart smiled (up)on him. 和Fortune always smiled (up)on him. 说“对于…一笑置之”在smile后面接at。例如：She smiled at her baby's efforts to catch the butterfly.

2.smile可以作“（经常的）笑容”解。例如：She had such a sweet smile that everybody loved her.

3.be all smiles是“笑容满面很高兴”，有时含有“表示不再生气”的意思。例如：She was all smiles when I met her in the evening.

4.smile是类名词，不是抽象名词。参见laugh(ter)

smoke

smoke通常统指“烟”，不指“一缕烟”，“一缕烟”该说a cloud of smoke。a smoke指“一次吸烟”或“用来驱虫的一次熏烟”。例如：He is having a quiet smoke. 和They are making a smoke to drive away mosquitos. smokes指“烟雾”。例如：We saw many smokes curling from the valley.

snatch

snatch it是“攫取它”，snatch at it是“做攫取它的动作”（未必取着），如He snatched my umbrella and ran away和He snatched at my umbrella, but as I held it tightly, he could not got it。

so

1.so beautiful a garden比a so beautiful garden普通而自然，参见a，an 23。不可说so beautiful gardens和so good poetry，该把so改作such。通常不说my so beautiful garden，该改作my garden，which is so beautiful。

2.关于He is not so old as she和He is not as old as she。参见as 6

3.可以说I am busy, so I cannot go with you。不可说As I am busy, so I cannot go with you，参见as 8

4.关于Here is so big a stone as no man can lift和Here is so big a stone that no man can lift it，参见as 11

5.下面第一句里的so ... as to ...表示目的，第二句里的so ... as to …可以表示目的，也可以表示结果，第三句里的so ... as to...表示结果：

I will write so carefully as to make my meaning clear.

I always write so carefully as to make my meaning clear.

I never write so carelessly as not to make my meaning clear.

第一句可以改作I will write so carefully that I may make my meaning clear。第二句可以改作I always write so carefully that I may make my meaning clear（表示目的）或I alwasys write so carefully that I make my meaning clear（表示结果）。第三句可以改作I never write so carelessly that I do not make my meaning clear。

下面第一句里的so as to…表示目的，第二句里的so as to…可以表示目的，也可以表示结果，第三句里的so as to…表示结果。

He tried to shout so as to be heard all along the street.

He shouted so as to be heard all along the street.

He was afraid of making any noise so as to be heard by the baby.

第一句可以改作He tried to shout so that he might（或could）be heard all along the street。第二句可以改作He shouted so that he might be heard all along the street（表示目的）或He shouted so that he was heard all along the street（表示结果）。第三句可以改作He was afraid of making any noise so that he might（或could）be heard by the baby。

6.下面五句意思相仿：

He was so angry as not to be able to speak.

He was so angry that he could not speak.

He was angry, so he could not speak.

He was angry, and so he could not speak.

He could not speak, he was so angry.

下面几点该注意：

（1）第一句里的so angry as not to...可以改作angry enough not to ...，但不可说so angry enough as to...或angry enough as to...。

（2）第二句里的that有时省去。

（3）第三句里的so的前面有人以为该用分号而不用逗号，否则该加上and（成为第四句）。

（4）第四句里的and so的前面用逗号，不用分号。

（5）第五句在he的前面不该加上for，假使加上了for，该把so删去。

（6）第五句可以改作He could not speak，so angry he was或He could not speak，so angry was he。

7.He tried to shout so that he might（或could）be heard all along the street等句子里的so that表示目的。在美国往往只用so而不用that，前面有时有逗号，有时没有逗号。例如：He tried to shout (,) so he might be heard all along the street. 和Kindly sign it and return to me(,) so I can put through a voucher for the ¥600 we agreed on.

He shouted so that he was heard all along the street等句子里的so that表示结果。在美国也往往只用so而不用that。

8.注意下面第一句里用so is he，第二句里用so he is，第三句里用so does he，第四句里用so he does：

She is clever，and so is he.

She calls him clever, and so he is.

She works hard, and so does he.

She says he works hard, and so he does.

第一句和第三句里的he和she并不是同一个人，第二句和第四句里的he和him或he是同一个人。注意下面第一句里用so he is和so is his brother，第二句里用so he does和so does his brother：

She calls him clever, so he is, and so is his brother.

She says he works hard, so he does, and so does his brother.

9.Don't call me unkind, John, you know I am not so里的so是代替上文的unkind，实际这so是多余的，因为I am not等于I am not unkind。通常不用so。

If you are a member of the association, how long have you been so? 里的so代替上文的a member of the association。

10.注意在下面各句里都不可用so：

You're not comfortable, are you（不可说are you so）?

Oh, you are comfortable, are you（不可说are you so）?

A: I'm awfully comfortable.

B: Are you（不可说Are you so）?

A: Are you comfortable?

B: (Yes,) I am（不可说I am so）.

(No,) I am not（不可说I am not so）.

A: Do you believe it?

B: (Yes,) I do（不可说I do so）.

(No,) I don't（不可说I don't so）.

11.在口语里，在think，expect，believe，suppose，fancy，fear，hear，hope，imagine等词后面可以用so来代替上文所提及的名词、形容词或从句。例如：

A: Is he a cop?

B: I think so（＝he is a cop）.

12.关于do so，参见do 5和6

13.在过去分词前面，用so往往不及用so much或so well自然，如so (much) damaged，so (well) developed等。

14.关于So far from liking him, I wish I may never see him again等句，参见far 3

15.Bob did not so much as raise his head和Bob could not find so much as a piece of bread to eat等句子里的so much as作even解，不该在它的前面加上even。

16.关于ever so和never so，参见never 5

17.or so通常紧接在数字的后面，但有时也用在数字所修饰的词的后面。例如：There were fifteen or so people there. 和There were fifteen people or so there.

18.and so on，and so on语气比单用and so on重。

19.下面两句意思相同：

Give her a fairly detailed description of yourself so that she will not miss you in the crowds.

So that she will not miss you in the crowds, give her a fairly detailed description of yourself.

20.比较下面每组里的四句：

每组里的第一句、第二句和第三句都表示目的。第四句里有逗号，在early后面有一小顿，表示结果。

21.下面两句意思相同：

It is getting late, so that I must be going home.

It is getting late. So that I must be going home.

soap

soap统指“肥皂”，a soap是“一种肥皂”，soaps是“多种肥皂”，说“一块肥皂”和“多块肥皂”不可说a soap和soaps，该说a cake（或piece，或tablet）of soap和cakes（或pieces，或tablets）of soap。

sob(bing)

a sob是“一个呜咽的动作”或“一声呜咽”，a sobbing是“一阵呜咽”。

so-called

so-called跟what is called，what we call或what is known as不同。例如：

That so-called masterpiece is really an ordinary school composition.

（那个所谓杰作［实际不配叫做“杰作”］实际是一篇寻常的学校作文。）

What is called（或What we call，或What is known as）a school composition is a short essay on a given subject. （所谓学校作文是论述一个特定题目的一篇短文。）

比较下面两句：

He is a so-called humorist. （他是一个不配叫做幽默家的幽默家。）

He is what is called（或what we call，或what is known as）a humorist.

（他是一个人们所说的幽默家。）

在决不会引起误解的场合有人把so-called用作what is called等解。例如：A so-called rhetorical question is a question asked not to be answered but merely for effect. 但总不及用what is called等妥当。

socia(b)l(e)

1.sociable和social都有“社交的”的意思，但sociable着重在“喜欢社交”或“有社交的乐趣”的意思，如He is social是“他是社交的（并非不肯社交的）”。He is sociable是“他是喜欢社交的”。又如We had a social party是“我们有一个社交集会”。We had a sociable party是“我们有一个有社交乐趣的集会”。The social evening was a dull and unpleasant one是讲得通的，假使把social改作sociable便讲不通。

2.在英国有时把social用作名词，作“社交集会”解，在美国原来不用social而用sociable，现在渐渐多用social。

3.在social science（统指社会科学）前面没有the。the social sciences 是“各种社会科学”。a social science是“一种社会科学”。

socialist(ic)

参见-ist(ic)

society

1.统说“社会”在society前面没有the，注意下面每组里的两句意思不同：

下面各句里的society作“社交界”解，并不统指“社会”：

These accomplishments fit one for society.

She was introduced to society only a short time ago.

Such men as Mr Shipley always shine in society.

This is a busy week for society.

2.说“新社会”和“旧社会”，前面通常用the，如the new society和the old society。可以说a classless society，this matrilineal society，feudal societies等。

sofa

sofa是长的，可以坐三四个人。我们所说的“单人沙法”并不是sofa，是arm(-)chair。

soil

1.soil统指“土壤”，a soil是“一种土壤”，soils是“多种土壤”。

2.on German soil，on foreign soil等表达方式里用on，没有the。

soldier

great soldier(s)，fine soldier(s)，poor soldier(s)等表达方式里的soldier(s)指“军人”，不指“兵”。He will make a soldier和He is both a scholar and a soldier等句子里的soldier也指“军人”。

solicitor

solicitor用作“招揽者”解是美国用法。

solution

solution（解决）后面接of，或to，或for。例如：Here is the solution of（或to，或for）the problem. 和He then offered what he considered a temporary solution of（或to，或for）my problem.

some

1.注意下面第一句里用any而不用some，第二句里用any或some都可以：

I have not got any（不用some）butter.

If you have got any（或some）butter，will you please lend me a little?

注意下面每组里的第二句的含意：

注意下面每组里的各句意思不同：

关于I do not like any of them和I do not like some of them的区别，参见any 2

2.下面各种表达方式都可以说：

some books, some such books, some of the books, some of thesebooks, some of those books, some of his books

但不可说some of books或some of such books。

3.下面各句里的some作“很好的”、“很大的”等解，原来是美国用法，在英国多少有些口语性质。

I call that some picture.

We had some narrow escape.

That was some war.

This is some storm.

4.下面各句里的some作somewhat解，原来是美国用法，在英国是俚语。

She is some better today.

We must both work some and play some.

I hope they will help matters some.

The sea went down some during the night.

5.关于some day和one day的区别，参见day 7

6.关于some one和someone的区别，参见someone 1

7.关于some time，参见sometime(s) 1

8.some reason or other，some way or other，some man or other，some time or other等表达方式里的other改作another也可以，但不及用other普通。

9.some five hours是“五小时左右”，some five or six hours是“五小时或六小时左右”。

somebody

1.somebody不可写作some body。

2.somebody比someone通俗些，口语里多用somebody。

3.somebody属于单数形式。例如：Somebody has taken the cups away.

4.somebody有时指“有地位的人”或“重要的人”。例如：He thinks himself (a) somebody. 用作这个意思，有复数形式somebodies。例如：They think themselves somebodies, but they are really nobodies. 注意不可把somebodies用来指“若干人”或“某某若干人”。

someday

someday是副词，作some day解，不及some day普通，参见day 7

someone

1.someone作“某人”解。例如：Get a light, someone? 不作“某一个”解。说“某一个”该用some one。例如：Some one of his friends will help him. 和Choose some one of these pictures for your room. 把some one用作“某人”解也可以，但不很普通。

2.someone不可用作“若干人”或“某某若干人”解，下面两句意思不同：

Someone says so. （某人［只有一个人］这样说。）

Some say so. （若干人［有些人］这样说。）

3.参见somebody 2

4.用了someone，不可用one，one's等词指它，如不可说Someone has left one's handkerchief on the table，该把one's改作his或her。

something

1.something不可写作some thing。

2.没有复数形式somethings。some things是“几样东西”。例如：

There are some things I must pick up at the grocery.

3.something queer，something special等表达方式当然不可改作queer something，special something等，但前面加上了a便可以，如a queer something和a special something。a something（没有其他形容词）也有人用。例如：She carried a something wrapped up in paper. 但很少见。

some(-)time

参见sometime(s) 1

sometime(s)

1.说“若干时间”该用some time。例如：He went some time ago. 和She stayed here for some time. 说“在某一时刻地”或“若干时间地”也该用some time。例如：He went some time last week. 和She stayed here some time. 但也可以用sometime或some-time。在He was sometime professor of physics at the university和Dr Spencer, (the) sometime professor of physics at the university, will publish a new work before long等句子里的sometime作“从前地（的）”解，不可改作some-time或some time。说“有时地”该用sometimes。例如：He sometimes writes to me in French.

2.He is sometimes well, sometimes unwell和He is sometimes well and sometimes unwell都可以说。

somewhere

Is it somewhere I know? 里的somewhere作some place解，被当作名词看待。I hope the cat has had somewhere warm to sleep these cold nights里的warm修饰somewhere。

soon(er)

1.soon是“不久以后”，不是“立刻”，如不该说When she heard the knock, she opened the door soon。该把soon改作immediately，instantly或at once。

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

注意：（1）as soon as比no sooner...than普通。（2）as soon as引导的是从属分句，no sooner却用在主句里。（3）用了no sooner通常用过去完成时态。（4）第二组第二句里No sooner用在句首，所以用had I而不用I had。

3.as soon as所引导的从句里不可用进行时态，如不可说She opened the door as soon as I was knocking或I shall let you know as soon as he is arriving，该把was knocking改作knocked，把is arriving改作arrives。

4.no sooner...than几乎不用在现在时态或将来时态，如最好不说：

As a rule, she no sooner hears a knock than she opens the door.

She will no sooner hear a knock than she opens the door.

可以改作：

As a rule, she opens the door as soon as she hears a knock.

She will open the door as soon as she hears a knock.

我见过下面两句，都是含有“偏偏这样”的意思的：

No sooner do I get a good charwoman than she falls ill.

It's a most extraordinary thing, but no sooner do I begin to do well in anything, than something happens to throw me down and I have to start all over again.

5.下面两句里的am和are不可改作shall be和will be：

I will write again as soon as I am free.

Come and see us as soon as you are in this neighbourhood.

6.so soon as比as soon as语气重些，但很不普通。

7.注意下面各句的意思：

He would as soon kill himself as betray his country. （直译：1.他愿自杀，跟愿卖国一样。2.他不愿卖国，正如他的不愿自杀，他极不愿卖国。）

She could as soon fly through a mountain as drive a car. （直译：1.她能够穿山而飞，如能够驾驶汽车一样。2.她不会驾驶汽车，正如她不能穿山而飞。3.她决不会驾驶汽车。）

You might as soon expect help from a stone as from him. （直译：1.你可以希望一块石头帮助你，跟你可以希望他帮助你一样。2.你不可以希望他帮助你，正如你不可希望一块石头帮助你。3.你决不可希望他帮助你，他决不会帮助你。）

sophomore

sophomore（大学二年级学生）是美国英语，偶尔也指中学二年级学生。

sorrow

much sorrow（许多伤心事）和many sorrows都可以说。a sorrow是“一件伤心事”。但下面各句里的sorrow指“伤心”或“懊丧”，是抽象名词，前面不可加a，也不可改作复数形式：

They all felt sorrow for it.

He left the place with sorrow.

She showed sorrow for her misconduct.

sorrowful

sorrowful有三个意思：（1）“感觉伤心的”，如a sorrowful man。（2）“表示伤心的”，如a sorrowful song。（3）“使人伤心的”，如a sorrowful sight。

sorry

1.I am sorry后面往往接but。例如：I'm sorry, but I have an engagement for Sunday afternoon. 和I am sorry, but the matter quite slipped my memory. 某人（假定是David Jackson）为了某种原因不能出席，托人带来一个字条，字条里可以说David Jackson is sorry he couldn't come, but he had to attend to some urgent business。

2.不可说I am sorry, for I have not answered your letter。参见for 10

3.下面两句都不对：

Sorry to say, he failed in the examination.

The boy, sorry to say, fell into the brook.

该改作：

I am sorry to say that he failed in the examination.

I am sorry to say that the boy fell into the brook.

4.不可说it is sorry that...。

5.not sorry往往有“（暗中）感觉高兴”的意思。例如：She was not sorry when this uncomfortable visit came to an end.

sort

参见kind 2，3，4，5

S(o)udan

Sudan（非洲国名）或Soudan前面有the。

sound(ly)

1.sound统指“声音”，a sound是“一个声音”，sounds是“多个声音”。

2.The music sounds sweet和That story sounds false等句子里的sweet和false不可改作sweetly和falsely。

3.sound asleep（熟睡的）里习惯用sound，不用soundly。sleep sound(ly)里用sound或soundly都可以，在英格兰通常用soundly，在美国和苏格兰通常用sound。

4.out of sound of是“听不到”，within sound of是“听得到”，sound前面都没有the。例如：I wish my house were out of sound of street noises. 和His house is within sound of the waves breaking on the shore.

soup

通常说eat the soup，有时也说drink the soup。

source

1.说河流的“源”往往用复数形式sources，如the sources of the Rhine。

2.不该说original source，该把original删去。

south

参见east。south（形容词），southerly和southern的不同，相当于east（形容词），easterly和eastern的不同。

southerly

参见south

southern

参见south

space

注意The letter is typed in single space with double space between paragraphs里在single和double前面没有a或the，用space而不用复数形式spaces。

spaghetti

spaghetti（意大利式细面条）是物质名词，不指一根面条。

Spanish

the Spanish统指西班牙（Spain）人。说“一个西班牙人”和“多个西班牙人”不可用a Spanish或Spanish，该用a Spaniard和Spaniards。统指西班牙人用the Spaniards也可以。

spare

1.下面每组里的两句意思相同，但第二句不及第一句普通：

He said he could spare me only ten minutes可能有两个意思：“他说他只能够拨出十分钟给我。”或“他说他只能放我自由（不需我侍候）十分钟。”在only前面加上了for全句只可能有第二个意思。

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同，但第二句不及第一句普通。

但假使from后面接动名词，那from不可省去，如That will spare him from calling again里的from不可省去。

3.to spare作“余下的”解。例如：There is one yuan to spare. and to spare或enough and to spare作“很多的”解。例如：There is money (enough) and to spare in his pocket.

speak

1.下面各句里的say和said不可改作speak和spoke：

He used to say that he liked short stories.

He did not say how he had done it.

He refused to say where he lived.

I wonder what he said to you this morning.

'I shall be glad to see her' he said.

After a little time he said 'Quite so.'

第六句改作After a little time he spoke, saying 'Quite so.' 也可以。

2.下面三句里都有of或about：

When I last saw him, he spoke of（或about）his plans for the future.

In his last letter he spoke of（或about）his plans for the future.

His last letter spoke of（或about）his plans for the future.

speak of是“提到”，指口头的“提到”和在文字里的“提到”都可以。speak about也是“提到”，比speak of说得详细些。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He does not speak English. （他不会讲英语。）

He does not speak in English. （1.他不用英语说话。2.他不用英语演说。）

问某人“能讲某种语言吗？”通常说Do you speak...? 比较少说Can you speak...?

4.可以说He spoke words of wisdom和She spoke words of praise等。但不可说He spoke no word，该说He said nothing。

5.speak up和speak out都可能有两个意思：（1）“清楚和响亮地说”，如Speak up（或out）-We can't hear。（2）“大胆地说”，如Speak out（或up）-don't be afraid。在第一个意思里speak up比speak out普通，在第二个意思里speak out比speak up普通。

6.Am I speaking to Mr Collins? 直译作“我正在和Collins先生讲话吗？”，就是“你就是Collins先生吗？”与Have I the honour of speaking to Mr Collins? 意思相同。

7.(This is) John Clifford speaking用于打电话，直译作“（这是）John Clifford在讲话”，就是说“我是John Clifford”。

8.We must let him speak for himself（我们必须让他为自己说话）可能有四个含意：（1）“我们不该代他说话。”（2）“我们不该预料他说什么。”（3）“我们必须让他发表他个人的（与众不同的）意见。”（4）“（即使我们不让他谈起其他事）我们该让他谈起关于他自己的事。”

9.We're not on speaking terms是“我们现在互相不交谈（暂时不和好）。”有时也说We're not speaking。

special

1.参见(e)special(ly) 1和2

2.special delivery（快递）是美国英语，相当于英国英语的express delivery。

specialist

specialist后面接in，如a specialist in skin diseases, a specialist in international affairs和a specialist in geology。也可以说skin disease specialist，international affairs specialist和geology specialist。

speciality

参见specialty

specialize

1.下面两句意思略有不同：

He specializes chemistry. （他把化学专门用于某一目的。）

He specializes in chemistry. （他专门研究化学。）

2.specialized用作形容词，作“专科的”解，跟general相反，如a highly specialized reference library和a subject of specialized study。

specially

参见(e)special(ly) 1和2

specialty

specialty跟speciality没有绝对的区别。在英国speciality比specialty普通，在美国specialty比speciality普通，下面各句里在英国通常用speciality，在美国通常用specialty：

Nuclear physics is his special(i)ty.

Ink is our special(i)ty. （我们专造［或专售］墨水。）

Ink-making is our special(i)ty.

specie(s)

specie统指“硬币”，前面不可加a。也没有复数形式species。例如：He was paid in specie. species作“种类”解，单数和复数同式。

spectacles

说“戴眼镜的”在spectacles前面用in。例如：I met an old man in horn-rimmed spectacles. 和She sat knitting, in her spectacles. 参见eye(-)glasses

speech

1.参见address 6

2.speech有时用作“话儿”解。例如：He made a thoughtless speech. 和She does not like his polite speeches. 但中国学生似乎把这词用得太多，该用remark(s)，phrase(s)，words，what he said等调剂一下。

speed

with speed，with all speed，with great speed，with incredible speed等表达方式里用with，at full speed，at (a) high speed，at top speed，at low speed，at a reasonable speed，at (an) ordinary speed等表达方式里用at。He came (at) full speed里的at有时省去。

spell

1.B-o-o-k spells 'book'里的B-o-o-k应该当作单数，所以用spells而不用spell。

2.可以说'Book' is spelt b-o-o-k。

3.可以说a badly spelt letter（一封拼法不正确的信），但不可说He often spells his letters badly。

spend

1.不可说I shall not spend much of your time，该把spend改作take up。

2.下面每组里的三句意思相同，似乎用for最不普通：

3.He spends his evenings (in) reading fiction和He spent most of his life (in) travelling以及Instead of working hard at her lessons, Mary used to spend her time (in) building castles in the air等句子里的in可有可无。注意不可说He spends his evenings to read fiction等。

4.比较下面两句：

He spent half a year (in) writing a short play. （他花了半年时间写一个短剧。）

He spent half a year on writing a short play. （他把半年工夫花在写一个短剧上。）

第二句几乎等于It took him half a year to write a short play。

spin

spin可以带有双宾语。例如：Spin us a yarn. （讲一个故事给我们听。）

spine

spine是科学名词，相当于它的通俗名词是backbone。

spirit

注意下面第一句里用with，没有a，第二句里用in，有a：

He faced his critics with spirit（勇气、刚毅）.

He faced his critics in a friendly spirit（态度）.

spit

spit的过去式在英国通常是spat，在美国通常是spit。

spite

1.in spite of似乎比despite语气重些。

2.in spite of里的in偶尔省去。

splendid

可以说That is a splendid idea，但不可说I am sorry I haven't got a splendid idea, Have you got a splendid idea? If you have got a splendid idea, tell it me或I should like to have some splendid ideas to offer。参见most 4

spokes(wo)man

spokesman有时也指女子。例如：The trade union soon recognized her as a very good spokesman.

sponge

a sponge是“一块海绵”，sponges是“多块海绵”。sponge也可以用作物质名词。例如：It is made of sponge.

spoonful

参见-ful

sport

1.sport统指一切运动方式或户外消遣，如网球、拳术、钓鱼、打猎等。例如：I am keenly interested in sport. a sport是“一种运动方式或户外消遣”。例如：Fishing is a popular sport among the villagers. sports有时统指一切运动方式或户外消遣，有时是“多种运动方式或户外消遣”，有时是“运动会”。例如：

I am keenly interested in sports.

Fishing and tennis are his favourite sports.

The sports（运动会）will take place next Saturday.

sport(s) skirt，sport(s) shoe等表达方式里用sport或sports都可以。sports page（报纸的体育版），sports editor（报纸体育版的编辑），sports writer（体育记者），sports fan（运动迷），sports field，sports ground，sports meeting等表达方式里习惯用sports，不用sport，但有时用sporting。sports requisites（运动用具）是英国英语，在美国叫做sporting goods。

2.sport在英国有时用作sportsman解，在美国往往指“赌徒”或“放荡者”。在英国sport通常是“和蔼可亲、欢喜交友的人”。sportsman是光明正大、气度宽宏、胜不骄、败不馁的人，sporting man是“爱好运动的人”。

sporting

关于sporting page，sporting editor和sporting goods，参见sport 1。关于sporting man，参见sport 2

sports(wo)man

1.sportsman和sportswoman不指athlete。

2.sportsman也指女子。例如：She prides herself on being a sportsman.

3.参见sport 2

spot

spot（地点）前面用on。例如：I found him standing on this spot.

spring

1.参见autumn

2.He is sprung from（或of）a peasant family（他是农民家庭出身的）里的sprung是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

square

1.five square feet是“五平方英尺”，five feet square是“五英尺的平方”，就是“二十五平方英尺”。

2.Tiananmen Square（天安门广场），Belgrave Square，Russell Square，Grosvenor Square等前面没有the。但People's Square前面有the。

staff

1.staff指“全体的人员”，不指“一个人员”。如一个报社有一个staff，两个报社有两个staffs。有人说We want more staff（我们需要更多的人员），A few staff（若干人员）are working overtime等，有人以为这用法不正当。

2.He is on the editorial staff of the newspaper等表达方式里用on，不用in。

stair

1.说楼梯的“级”用stair（等于step）。例如：He was standing on the bottom stair. 和The child climbed up three stairs without help. 说“整个楼梯”用stair，stairs，flight of stairs或pair of stairs都可以。例如：

There is a winding stair between the third and fourth floors.

I met him on the stairs just now.

There is a flight（或pair）of stairs between the third and fourth floors.

下面几点该注意：

（1）用stair指楼梯的“级”主要用在英格兰，在美国和苏格兰通常用step而不用stair。

（2）用stair指“楼梯”主要用在苏格兰。

（3）flight of stairs和stairs在英格兰和美国都通用。

（4）pair of stairs现在不很普通。

2.below stairs通常指“在地下室”或“在仆人的住处”，并不统指“在楼下”。

staircase

staircase（楼梯）英美通用，stairway似乎只用在美国。

stairway

参见staircase

stamp

All these qualities stamp him as a perfect writer等句子里的as用的多，不用的少。

stand

1.比较下面各句：

I cannot stand waiting any longer.

I cannot stand to wait any longer.

I cannot stand being kept waiting any longer.

I cannot stand to be kept waiting any longer.

I cannot stand keeping waiting any longer.

I cannot stand weeping, I'll go out of the room if you don't stop so doing.

各句里的stand都作“忍受”解。第一句里的stand也可以当作“站”解，waiting当作现在分词，但那是另一个问题，参见3。第二句和第四句里在stand后面用不定式，是美国用法。第三句和第五句意思相同，当然第五句不及第三句自然，但第五句的不自然原因在于keeping waiting接连两个-ing，假使说I cannot stand keeping seated here any longer便很自然，其他如Roses can well stand uprooting and transplanting并不及Roses can well stand being uprooted and transplanted自然。第六句里的weeping指别人的“哭”。

2.We knew his intention of standing godfather to the boy里在godfather前面没有a。

3.下面两句意思不同：

He stood waiting. （他站着等待［不是站着谈话或观看］。）

He waited standing. （他站着等待［不是坐着或躺着等待］。）

下面两句里的type standing和wrote that long letter standing不可改作stand typing和stood writing that long letter：

As there was no chair in the room, he had to type（打字）standing.

She actually wrote that long letter standing.

参见sit 3和lie 2

standard

standard of living（或life）或living standard指“生活标准”，和cost of living（生活费用）不同。如假定某社会里在30年前大家只用油灯，现在都用电灯，那便提高了standard of living（或life）或living standard。又如假定某社会里现在物价比30年前提高了些，那便提高了cost of living。

standpoint

standpoint＝point of view。不可说standpoint of view。

start

1.start（动身）往往用现在时态或现在进行时态代将来时态，如I start tomorrow或I am starting tomorrow作I shall start tomorrow解。

2.I shall start for Shanghai tomorrow等句子里通常用for，很少用to。He started from the city yesterday等句子里用from，不用at。

3.start in和start out都作“开始”解（等于start），都是不及物动词，都有口语性质，都在美国比在英国普通。例如：He started（in或out）on the task at once. 和We'll start（in或out）by washing the floors.

4.下面五句意思相仿：

I shall soon start doing it.

I shall soon start to do it.

I shall soon start in to do it.

I shall soon start out to do it.

I shall soon start in doing it.

第一句比第二句正式。第三句有口语性质，在美国比在英国普通。第四句也有口语性质，也在美国比在英国普通，用在长久的事，不用在一时的事，如可以说I shall start out to study German next month，不可说I shall start out to prepare a lesson in German at eight o'clock。第五句是美国英语。

就语法讲，start doing里的start被当作不及物动词或及物动词，doing被当作现在分词或动名词，都可以。start to do里的start是不及物动词，start in里的in是副词，start in doing里的doing是现在分词。

5.He got started in business with his uncle's help和Somehow I got started collecting stamps里的got started属于被动语态。

6.at the start和from the start的区别，相当于at the beginning和from the beginning的区别，参见beginning 1

startle(d)

关于a startled glance（吃惊的一瞥）等，参见much 3 (5) E

state

1.在公文和商业文件里往往不用say而用state，在一般通信里该避免。例如：

The spokesman stated that the treaty would be signed on 15 June.

The student said（不用stated）that he had to go to a meeting in the afternoon.

2.可以说The negotiations are stated to have broken down，不可说They state the negotiations to have broken down。

3.作“国家”解时state往往用大写字母开首，如the foreign policy of the State。

4.我国春秋和战国时代的“国”是state。说“…国”该说the...State或the State of...，如the Lu（鲁）State和the State of Lu。“战国”通常译作the Warring States。

5.the United States of America是正式的名称，the United States是通用的名称，有时简称作the States。在语法上当作单数。例如：The (United) States (of America) is a republic of the old type. 但在被看作各州（state）独立的时候便当作复数，如The (United) States (of America) differ from one another in area里用differ，不用differs。美国本国的人民总是自称为Americans，他们时常称自己的国家为America，但是他们决不像有些国外的人们那样称它为North America或the United States of North America，而且他们也决不称自己为North Americans。别的国家里讲英语的人们，包括美国人在内，时常把the United States简称作the States，但美国国内的人民不用这简称。

6.可以说each of the United States，these United States，the Southwestern States of the United States和the Southwestern United States。

7.在美国State bank，State Law，State prison，State university等都指“州的…”，不指“国的…”。但State Department是“国务院”不是“州的部”。

8.关于Secretary of State，参见secretary 2

9.the States在澳大利亚指澳大利亚的各州。

stated(ly)

形容词stated（定期的）和副词statedly（定期地）现在在英国很少用，但在美国很普通。

states(wo)man

1.参见politician

2.statesman有时指女子。例如：Miss B. H. Drake aims at becoming a statesman.

station

1.火车站名前面现在没有the，如Victoria Station和Baker Street Station。

2.“电车站”和“公共汽车站”不用station而用stop。

stationery

stationery统指一切文具，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式stationeries。往往专指信笺。例如：stationery and envelopes和It is not good to write private letters on official stationery. 注意stationery和stationary不同。

statist

statist远不及statistician普通。

statistic

可以说a statistic（一个统计），every statistic（每个统计）等。

statistics

参见-ics

statue

注意There is a statue to Dr Sun Yat-sen in Nanjing里在statue后面接to。也可以说a Dr Sun Yat-sen statue。

stature

of great stature，of mean stature，of low stature等表达方式里没有a或the。

stay

1.Will you stay dinner here? （你肯留在这里用膳吗）和We shall stay the night in the cottage（我们将在这小屋里过夜）两句里的stay都合乎习惯。

2.He stayed to dinner（他留着等待用膳）和He would not stay to the wedding（他不肯留着等待婚礼）等句子里的to改用for也可以，也可以省去，参见1

3.stay at home比stay home正式。

4.stay put（停留着、不移动）原来是美国英语，put是过去分词。stay后面接其他过去分词似乎只用在美国。例如：The matter is now considered settled, but I am afraid it will not stay settled.

steal

He stole her a hen是“他偷了一只母鸡给她”。不是“他偷去她的一只母鸡”。

stenographer

stenographer（速记员）在英美通常指女子。

stenotypist

stenotypist指“（用表音符号速记法的）速记者”，就是“用stenotypy的速记者”。但有时也指任何速记员。

step

keep (in) step with中可以有in，可以没有in。例如：Your legs are longer than mine, I can't keep (in) step with you.

still

1.Is your father still here? 是“你的父亲还不曾离去吗？”Is your father here yet? 通常是“你的父亲已经到了吗？”

2.His brother is still taller和His brother is taller still意思相同。

stimulant

stimulant通常指有形的刺激物，如葯品和酒类。stimulus通常指无形的刺激物，如希望、好奇心和大志等。例如：The stimulus of patriotism kept him active.

stimulus

1.参见stimulant

2.stimulus后面接to。例如：Hope is a stimulus to hard work.

stipulate(d)

1.They stipulated (for) monthly payments, The contract stipulates (for) the use of Chinese materials等句子里的for似乎用的多，不用的少。但stipulated payments，stipulated materials等表达方式里习惯不在stipulated后面加上for。It is stipulated that…等句子里也没有for。

2.stipulate后面可以接以that引导的从句，那从句里用shall或should或属于虚拟现在式的动词。例如：

They stipulate that the work shall（或should）be completed by the end of June.

They stipulate that the work be（不用is）completely by the end of June.

They stipulated that the work should be completed by the end of June.

They stipulated that the work be（不用was）completed by the end of June.

stock

1.集合名词stock用作“股份”解原来是美国用法，相当于英国的shares。注意stock并不等于share，一个企业的全体shares是它的stock，两个企业才有两个stocks。说每一“股”该说share或share of stock。

2.take stock of是“观察”或“估量”。take stock in是“信任”或“看重”或“注意”。

3.She is of (a) Protestant stock和By birth he was a New Englander, though not of (a) Mayflower stock等句子里的a用的少，不用的多。

4.下面两句里的out of stock意思不同：

When I ordered a copy of the book, the bookseller said it happened to be out of stock（不在存货中，缺货）.

When I ordered a copy of the book, the bookseller said he happened to be out of stock（没有存货）.

stock(-)holder

stock(-)holder（股东）原来是美国英语，相当于英国的shareholder。

stock(-)jobber

stock(-)jobber在英国指“证券经纪人”，跟stock(-)broker（股票经纪人）不同，在美国指“股票投机商”，往往含有轻视的意思。英国的stock(-)jobber在stock(-)broker中间做中间人，并不直接代客买卖。

stock-jobbing

stock(-)jobbing作“证劵买卖、证劵投机”解，参见stock(-)jobber

stomach

1.参见belly

2.I advise you not to think on an empty stomach是“我劝你不要饿着肚子思考”。注意用on。

3.stomach（忍耐）后面接动名词。例如：He could not stomach working for the landlord night and day.

stone

1.stone统指“石”，是物质名词，a stone是“一块石头”，stones是“多块石头”。

2.下面四句都作“他住得离邮局很近”解：

He lives a stone's throw from the post-office.

He lives within a stone's throw of the post-office.

He lives not a stone's throw from the post-office.

He lives within not a stone's throw of the post-office.

下面几点该注意：

（1）把throw改作cast也可以，但不很普通。

（2）a stone's throw直译作“一块石头所投得到的距离”解，就是“很短的距离”。

（3）这语的前面加上了not作“不满一块石头所投得到的距离”解，也是“很短的距离”的意思，但不很普通。

（4）a stone's throw里的's偶尔被省去。

（5）It is not exactly a stone's throw from here直译作“这个离开这里并不正是一块石头所投得到距离”，实际说“这个离开这里很远”。

stony

stony现在用作“多石的”解，不用作“用石做成的”解，如可以说stony ground，不可说stony jar，该把stony改作stone。stone path是“石铺的小路”，stony path是“石块满地（行走不便）的小路”。

stoop

1.比较下面三句：

Tom is too proud to stoop to please anyone.

An honest person never stoops to lying.

Tom was so weak as to stoop to lying to please his mother. to please anyone表示目的，to lying里的lying是to的宾语，to please his mother表示目的。

2.a lean stooping man（一个弯腰曲背的瘦男子）主要是英国英语，a lean stooped man主要是美国英语。

stop

1.stop后面接不定式作“停下来而…”解，就是“停止了其他动作而从事于…”，stop是不及物动词。stop后面接动名词作“停止…”解，stop是及物动词。如He stopped to consider it是“他停下来而考虑它”。He stopped considering it是“他停止考虑它。”参见cease

2.下面三句意思相同，但第三句不算正当：

We cannot stop him from coming.

We cannot stop his coming.

We cannot stop him coming.

3.Where are you stopping? He stopped with a friend last night等句子里的stopping和stopped多少有些口语性质，在文字里该改作staying和stayed。

4.stop off（中途下车）或stop over是美国英语，相当于英国英语break his（或your等）journey。stop by（访问）或stop in也是美国英语。

store

1.store用作“店”解是美国英语，相当于英国的shop，如at the store，book(-)store和drug(-)store是美国英语，相当于英国英语at the shop，book(-)shop和chemist's shop。

2.stores用作“百货商店”或“货栈”解是英国英语，不是美国英语。这词是复数形式，但有时当作单数。例如：I bought it at a large stores the other day. 和Our goods are kept in a stores. the stores有时指“这个百货商店”，有时指“一般百货商店”。在指“一般百货商店”的场合往往作the stores。

3.department store（百货商店）原来是美国英语，但现在在英国也通行。

stor(e)y

1.说房子的“层”用storey或story都可以，在英国两种形式都用，在美国只用story。storey的复数形式是storeys，story的复数形式是stories。说“几层的”用…storeyed或...storied，...storey或...story都可以，如a three-storeyed house和a three-storied house，a three-storey house和a three-story house。

2.关于stor(e)y和floor的不同，参见floor 2

3.story（故事、小说）通常是类名词，不是抽象名词，但在统指“传说”和指“（故事的）情节”的时候是抽象名词。例如：Arthur is a name famous in story. 和This novel has very little story.

4.story在美国新闻界往往用来指一则一则的“新闻”。例如：The newspaper contains a story about the launching of the world's third artificial earth satellite（人造地球卫星）on 15 May, 1958.

5.novel（［长篇］小说）当然也是story，但往往把story用得好像只指比较短篇的小说或故事，所以可以说novels and stories。

straight(ly)

straight是形容词，也是副词，straightly很少见。

strange

The place is strange to him是“这地方在他看来是不熟悉的”。He is strange to the place是“他对于这地方是不熟悉的”。He is strange in the place是“他在这地方感觉不自然”。

stranger

1.He is a stranger to me是“我不认识他”。不是“他不认识我”。

2.stranger偶尔用作形容词，如a stranger woman（一个陌生的女子）。a strange woman可能有两个意思：“一个陌生的女子”或“一个奇怪的女子”。

straw

straw统指谷类的秸秆，是物质名词，a straw是“一根谷类的秸秆”，straws是“多根谷类的秸秆”。

street

1.... Street前面通常没有the，如Fleet Street和Wall Street。即使Seventy-first Street等前面也没有the。但High Street（大街）前面往往有the。

2.the man in the street（平常人［非专家］）英美通用，the man on the street只用在美国。

3.参见road 1和on 3

strength

strength作“浓度”解，有时被用作类名词。例如：We have alcohol（或tobacco）of different strengths.

stress

1.stress（动词）和lay stress on通常作“强调”或“说…的重要”解。例如：In his speech he stresses（或lays stress on）honesty as an important virtue. 偶尔作“注重”解，如不可说He stresses（或lays stress on）honesty, though he never speaks of it。

2.stress有时把以that引导的从句做宾语。例如：He stresses that we should always be honest.

strike

1.A struck B是“A打B一下”。A struck at B是“A做出打B的动作（未必打着B）”。

2.The idea strikes me as (being) original里的being可有可无。

3.on strike（罢工）是英美通用的，但在美国往往说on a strike。

stripe

stripe用作“性格”或“特性”解是美国英语。例如：All of them are of the same political stripe.

struggle

1.struggle通常是类名词，如不可说He made much struggle to get a good education，该把much struggle改作many struggles。但往往被用作抽象名词，如power struggle和a period of struggle。This novel is concerned with (the) power struggle里的the可有可无。

2.He had a long struggle (in) getting the work done里的in可有可无。

stub

stub用来指票据等的“存根”，是美国英语，相当于英国的counterfoil。

student

1.student是“研究者”，不一定是在校的学生。说Professor Crawford is a student of English literature并不含有“Crawford教授学问不足，只是一个学生罢了”的意思。

The book is both for the student and for the general reader和These books are for both layman and student里的student指“研究者”，不指“学生”。

2.student在英国只指大学生和专科学校的学生，在美国也指中学生，但不指小学生。

3.He is a student at Oxford里用at，不用of。

study

1.可以说the study of Chinese，the study of law等，也可以说studies in Chinese，studies in law等，也可以说Chinese studies，legal studies等，但很少说Chinese study，legal study等。Chinese studies比the study of Chinese范围广，包括中国文学。

下面两句意思相同：

He is engaged in the study of English.

He is engaged in studies in English.

注意第一句里有the，第二句里没有the。

下面各句里都用studies，不可用study：

He is continuing his studies.

I hope nothing will ever interrupt her studies.

My studies leave me little time for correspondence.

Do you still pursue medical studies?

2.study有时指“研究的成果”，后面接of或in，如This article is a penetrating study of the D. J. Simpson case和The book is a study in Chinese culture。

style

1.下面各种表达方式都可以说：

a new style of desk

a new style of desks（比较少见）

some new styles of desk

some new styles of desks

2.曾见过下面两句：What I propose is to dispense with a style. Let us have style instead of having a style. （“我的提议便是不要一种［特殊的］风格。我们该有风格，但不该有某种［特殊的］风格。”）

subject

1.关于subject和citizen的区别，参见citizen 1

2.subject指“题材”，并不指“表示那题材的文字”（title），如这本词典的subject是英语的惯用法，便是English usage，它的title是A Dictionary of English Usage。

submit

The natives will not submit to living under military rule里的to是介词，living是动名词。但submit后面偶尔接不定式。

subscribe

说“订阅（报纸或杂志）”在subscribe后面接to或for都可以。例如：I am going to subscribe to（或for）the magazine. 似乎在英国多用to，在美国多用for。说“预订（尚未出版的书）”（就是“预约”）在subscribe后面只接for，不接to。例如：I am going to subscribe for the dictionary.

subscription

subscription后面接to。例如：I shall send 100 yuan in subscription to the magazine（或dictionary）.

subsequent

The chairman will be pleased to discuss the matter with you subsequent to lunch等句子里的subsequent to作“在…以后”解，是公文英语。

substantial(ly)

substantial（大量的）和substantially（大体上地）都是公文英语。

substitute

1.substitute用作不及物动词作“做代替者”解，是美国用法。例如：As Mr Sinclair was ill, Mr Cook substituted as our teacher of chemistry.

2.下面四句意思相同：

We have to substitute tea for coffee.

We have to substitute coffee by tea.

We have to substitute coffee with tea.

Tea has to substitute coffee.

第一句是正当的，其他三句都不算正当。substitute的正确意思是“把…用作代替者”，不是“把某人或某物代替（某人或某物）”或“代替（某人或某物）”。下面每组里的三句都不该说：

第一组该改作He omitted of and substituted for (for it)，第二组该改作For was substituted for of.

substitution

说“以茶代咖啡”该说the substitution of tea for coffee，不该说the substitution of coffee by（或with） tea。参见substitute 2

subtract

关于subtract和deduct的不同，参见deduct 2

suburb

注意in the suburbs里用in，用the，用复数形式suburbs。但a suburb也可以说。

suburban

suburban直译作“郊区的”或“近郊的”。在英国往往含有“庸俗”、“见识不广”等的意思。例如：Her habits and outlook on life were essentially suburban, and although the great author fascinated her, there was no intellectual sympathy between them. 在美国往往含有“兼有城市和乡村的特点”的意思。例如：Her habits and outlook on life were essentially suburban, and had many friends both in town and in the country.

subway

subway在英国指“地道”，如从街道的一边通到另一边，或从火车站的一个月台通到另一个月台。在美国指“地铁”。说“地道”在美国用underpass。

succeed

1.succeed后面接in和动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I hope he will succeed in solving the problem，不可说I hope he will succeed to solve the problem。

succeed ...ing不一定指有意做的事，也不一定指好的事。例如：

He tried to win us over to his side, but succeeded in helping us to see through his trick.

She somehow succeeded in giving him the impression that he was in her way（妨碍她）.

2.说“继续”用succeed或succeed to都可以。例如：

Summer succeeds (to) spring.

Mrs Gibbon has succeeded (to) Miss Newman as our teacher of music.

在被动语态里习惯不用to，如Miss Newman has been succeeded by Mrs Gibbon as our teacher of music里没有to。

说承继（财产、职位等）在现代英语里用succeed to，不用succeed。例如：Who will succeed to his property upon his death? 和Upon the death of Dr Carlyle, Mr Nelson succeeded to the editorship. 可以说Mr Nelson succeeded Dr Carlyle to the editorship。

success

success统指“成功”，是抽象名词，a success是“一件成功的事”或“一个成功的人”，successes是“多件成功的事”或“多个成功的人”。

such

1.可以说no such thing，no such book等，不可说no such a thing，no such a book等。

2.可以说all such books，most such books，some such books，many such books和(a) few such books，不可说all of such books，most of such books，some of such books，many of such books和(a) few of such books。

3.such as作“例如…”解，不作“就是…”解，如可以说He knows six languages, such as Chinese and English，不可说He knows six languages, such as Chinese, Russian, English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese。该把such as改作namely，后面加上逗号。

4.用了such as最好不用etc.，如最好不说He knows six languages, such as Chinese, Russian, etc.。

5.such as后面不可接状语短语，如不可说You can do it in more than one way, such as by the use of soda，该把such删去，或把by删去。

6.such languages as Chinese and English和languages such as Chinese and English都可以说。such beauty as hers和beauty such as hers都可以说。such a language as Chinese，such languages as Chinese和languages such as Chinese都可以说。

7.such kind of book，such sort of man等不及this（或that）kind of book，this（或that）sort of man等普通。

8.用了such不可用关系代词which，who或that，也不可用关系副词where，如不可说：

Do not talk about such things which（或that）you do not understand.

（把such删去或改作those或any，或把which或that改作as）

Do not associate with such young men who（或that）do not work hard. （把such改作those或any，或把who或that改作as）

Do not go to such places where there is no fresh air. （把such改作those或any）

9.such a big dog和so big a dog都可以说。仔细区别起来，such a big dog是“这样的一只大狗”（跟别样的大狗不同），so big a dog是“这样大的一只狗”（着重在狗的“大”）。但such a big dog通常用作so big a dog解。用了复数形式，只可以说such big dogs，不可说so big dogs。dogs so big也可以说，但不很自然。

10.不可说such a man like John，该说sush a man as John或a man like John。

11.可以说He could not speak, such was his anger。这句里such的用法跟so 6里第五句He could not speak, he was so angry里的so的用法相仿。

12.another such和such another都可以说。

13.There was such a rain that we could not drive里的that不可改作as。There was such a rain as we could not drive in里的as不可改作that。第二句不及第一句自然。

14.beef，pork，and such里的such不算正当，可以改作the like。

such(-)like

beef，pork，and such(-)like里的such(-)like是代词，beef，pork，and such(-)like eatables里的such(-)like是形容词，都不算正当，可以改作the like（代词）和such（形容词）。

Sudan

参见S(o)udan

sudden

of a sudden和on a sudden都不及all of a sudden普通。on the sudden极不普通。

suffer

suffer是“受（苦）”，“受（痛）”，“受（损失）”等的“受”，它的宾语是distress，pain，loss，grief，insult，defeat，punishment，wrong，hardship，torture，drudgery，injustice，persecution，discouragement，disappointment等词。suffer from是“受…的苦”，它的宾语没有一定。说“患某病”该在病名前面用suffer from。例如：She is suffering from a headache.

sufferer

sufferer from influenza，sufferer from poverty等表达方式里通常用from，偶尔用by。

suffering

suffering和sufferings都可以用，偶尔用a suffering。例如：That was a suffering common to orphans.

sufficient

sufficient有时用作名词。例如：I have had sufficient. 和Sufficient of it has been received. 但不算正当，可以改作enough。

sugar

关于sugar cane，参见sugar-cane

sugar-cane

sugar-cane（或sugar cane）是类名词，也是物质名词，如a plantation of sugar-cane(s)和sugar made from sugar-cane(s)。

suggest

1.suggest后面接动名词，不接不定式，如可以说I suggest asking her advice，不可说I suggest to ask her advice。也不可说I suggest for him to ask her advice，该改作I suggest that he should ask her advice 或I suggest that he ask（不用asks）her advice。

2.suggest（建议）后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用should或属于虚拟现在式的动词。例如：

He suggests that the regulations should be revised.

He suggests that the regulations be（不用are）revised.

He suggested that the regulations should be revised.

He suggested that the regulations be（不用were）revised.

suggestion

suggestion（建议）后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用should或属于虚拟现在式的动词。例如：

His suggestion is that the regulations should be revised.

His suggestion is that the regulations be（不用are）revised.

His suggestion was that the regulations should be revised.

His suggestion was that the regulations be（不用were）revised.

suggestive

可以说suggestive comments，suggestive style，a suggestive list of topics of composition等。但最好不说a suggestive story，a suggestive play，a suggestive picture等，因为suggestive用于这类词往往作“挑动色情的，含有猥亵意味的”解。

suicide

commit suicide是“自杀成功”，所以不可说She committed suicide twice，该把committed改作attempted。

suit(ed)

1.a suit of clothes是“一套衣服”，尤其指外套、背心和裤子。不可说a suit of clothing。

2.下面五句意思相同：

He is not suited to be a teacher.

He is not suited for a teacher.

He is not suited to the teaching profession.

He is not suited for（或to）a post of teacher.

He is not suited for teaching.

summer

1.参见autumn

2.可以说a fine summer day，也可以说a fine summer's day。

3.说“夏令时刻几点几分”在summer time前面没有介词，如at 7:25a.m. summer time里在summer time前面没有介词。

summer(-)time

说“夏季”用summer-time或summertime都可以。例如：We go swimming in the summer(-)time. 说“夏令时刻”必须用summer time。参见daylight

summon(s)

1.summons是单数形式，不是复数形式，它的复数形式是summonses。例如：He received a summons to appear in court. 和He has received several summonses in the past few months.

2.summon是动词，不可用作名词。summons也可以用作动词，但只用作“以传票送达（某人）解”，例如：The officer will summons several persons to appear. 和We were summonsed yesterday.

summon不及send for通俗。summon用作summons解也可以。

sun

sun有时被用作物质名词。例如：There is not much sun today. 和We don't get much sun in the room.

sunbeam

sunbeam不是物质名词，并不统指日光，a sunbeam是“一道日光”。sunbeams是“多道日光”。

Sunday

参见Friday

sundown

sundown（日落）在美国比在英国用得多，在英国通常用sunset。

sunk(en)

在该用过去分词的时候英国现在只用sunk，不用sunken，如The ship has sunk和The ship was sunk两句里的sunk在英国不可改作sunken。在美国偶尔用sunken。在该用定语形容词的时候sunk相当于及物动词，sunken相当于不及物动词，如a sunk ship是“一只已经被沉没的船”，a sunken ship是“一只已经沉没的船”。sunken eyes是“陷得深深的眼睛”。

sunlight

sunlight着重在日光那东西。例如：The room is full of sunlight. 和There is too much sunlight here. sunshine着重在日光的“明朗”或“暖和”。例如：We haven't had much sunshine this week. sunshine可以借用指“晴天”或“愉快”，sunlight却不可。

sunshine

参见sunlight

sun(-)up

sun(-)up在美国比在英国多用，在英国通常用sunrise。

superior(ity)

superior和superiority后面都接to，如A is superior to B和A's superiority to B。

superscription

superscription在英国通常只指信的上端的人名和地址，在美国通常也指信封上的人名和地址，英国人说in the superscription and on the envelope，在美国人看来讲不通。

superstition

1.superstition统指“迷信”，a superstition是“一个迷信”，superstitions是“多个迷信”。

2.superstition后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：Some people have the superstition that if you are speaking of your good fortune, you must touch wood so as to prevent it from changing.

supper

1.supper有时指“晚餐那件事”，有时指“晚餐吃的东西”，不论作哪一个解，都有时是类名词，有时不是。例如：

After a hearty supper we went out together.

After supper we went out together.

We had a cold supper together.

We did not eat much supper.

2.晚上吃的dinner不可叫做supper，参见dinner 1

supplement

supplement（补编）后面接to。例如：A supplement to this dictionary may be published five years from now. 和A year of foreign travel was then considered a good supplement to a college education.

supply

1.supply不可有双宾语，如不可说He supplies them food and clothing，该在them后面加上with。He supplies food and clothing to them也可以说。

2.household supplies和medical supplies等表达方式里习惯用复数形式supplies。

suppose

1.下面每组里的三句意思相同，第一句最普通：

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

Suppose属于祈使语气，supposing是现在分词。有人以为用suppose比用supposing好。注意第一组的两句里都用is absent，不用will be absent。

3.比较下面每组里的两句：

每句都表示建议，每组里的第二句比第一句婉转。

4.Suppose you come to my house tomorrow morning, and I will show you all my books里的suppose表示建议。

supposing

参见suppose 2

sure(ly)

1.下面两句意思不同：

He is sure to live to ninety. （他一定会活到90岁。）

He is sure of living to ninety. （他自信可以活到90岁。）

下面各句里的不定式不可改作of和动名词：

It is sure to be fine this afternoon.

This plan is sure to succeed.

Such a book is sure to prove popular.

Be sure to tell me the particulars.

也有人用be sure and ...而不用be sure to ...。例如：Be sure and remember what I told you. 和If you are ever in my part of the country, be sure and look me up.

2.I am not sure (about) where he lives等句子里的about用的少，不用的多。

3.关于sure和certain的不同，参见certain 3

4.关于sure（副词）和surely，有下面两点该注意：

（1）sure除了在as sure as和sure enough两种表达方式里以外，现在在英国可说是不用的。但在美国在口语里很普遍。例如：

It sure was a cold night.

A: Do you think she is French?

B: Sure!

在英国这两句里不用sure而用certainly。

（2）下面各句里的surely在英国作“谅必”或“当然”解，但在美国作“一定”解。在英国说“一定”用certainly或undoubtedly：

You surely do not know him.

It is surely the first time that these two men have met.

You surely don't wish to be so cruel, do you?

You can do something to help him, surely.

Surely something can be done to help him.

Surely you're not going alone.

Surely this weather can't last much longer.

Surely it will clear up before long.

5.make sure后面可以接以that引导的从句，那that往往省去。例如：They looked up and down the road to make sure (that) they were alone.

6.for sure＝for certain，作“毫无疑问地”解。例如：I can't say I know it for sure.

surprise(d)

1.surprised后面接不定式或at和动名词都可以。例如：I was surprised to see him. 和I was surprised at seeing him.

2.I am surprised at you是“你的态度使我吃惊”或“你做出这种行为，我感到惊讶”。是说对方的态度或行为的不好。

3.surprise（名词）和surprised后面都可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He expressed surprise that she should be so ill. 和He was surprised that she should be so ill.

4.I shouldn't be surprised if the weather didn't change照字面解是“假使天气不变，我也不会感到惊奇”。但在习惯上这句等于I shouldn't be surprised if the weather changed，这当然是不合理的。

5.关于a surprised tone（一个惊奇的语调）等，参见much 3 (5) E

surrender

surrender有时有双宾语。例如：Each of them surrendered us his gun.

surround

A wall surrounds the garden entirely和The house was surrounded by water on all sides等句子里的entirely和on all sides是多余的，该删去。但英美人往往多用这些词。

surrounding(s)

说“环境”只可用复数形式surroundings，不可用单数形式surrounding。

suspect

1.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

2.suspect用在presence，plot，danger等词前面作“疑有…”解，用在motive，truth，authenticity等词的前面作“疑…不可靠”解。

3.suspect的宾语后面有时有表语。例如：She suspected him crazy. 和The edge of the razor is suspected dull.

4.I suspect that their letters (may) have miscarried里的may可有可无。

suspenders

suspenders在英国指吊袜带，在美国指吊裤带，相当于英国的braces，如a pair of suspenders，crossback style（一副吊背式吊裤带）和Y-shaped suspenders（Y形式的吊裤带）。

suspicious

suspicious（怀疑的）后面接of。例如：She seems suspicious of us all. 和He grew suspicious of a trick.

sustain

sustain用在injury，loss，leak，bruise，defeat等词的前面作“遭受”解，不及用suffer，receive或get普通。

swear

1.比较下面两句：

He swore to send in his report within three days.

He swore to having sent in his report already.

第一句里的swore作“严正地允诺”解，后面接不定式，第二句里的swore to作“发誓而说”或“严正地说”解，后面接动名词。

2.下面每组里的各句意思相同：

sweat

参见perspiration和perspire

sweet(s)

1.说“糖果”通常用复数形式sweets，参见candy

2.可以说a sweet（一块糖果）和five sweets（五块糖果）。many sweets和much sweets都可以说。

3.sweet milk是“新鲜牛奶”，sweetened milk是“加糖的牛奶”。

sweetmeat(s)

说“糖果”通常用复数形式sweetmeats。现在sweetmeats不及sweets普通，在口语里不用sweetmeats而用sweets。

swell

通常说a swollen river，不说a swelled river。

swim(ming)-suit

通常用swimming-suit，在广告和时装刊物里往往用swim-suit。

swine

swine单数和复数同一形式。现在主要用在转义里，极少用作直解。

syllabi(fi)cation

syllabification比syllabication普通。

sympathize

sympathize是不及物动词，后面接with，with后面接指人的词或指感觉的词都可以。例如：I sympathize with him in his love of country life. 和I sympathize with his love of country life.

sympathy

1.sympathy用作“同情”解后面通常接with，偶尔接for，with或for后面接指人的词或指感觉的词都可以。例如：I have every sympathy with（或for）him in his love of country life. 和I have every sympathy with（或for）his love of country life. 用作“哀怜”解后面接for比接with普通，如my sympathy for him on the death of his father和my sympathy for his misfortune比my sympathy with him on the death of his father和my sympathy with his misfortune普通。

2.不可说a sympathy或two sympathies，但可以说I have every sympathy with you，也可以用复数形式sympathies。例如：

She has ready sympathies.

This appeals to my sympathies.

My sympathies are with him.

He has my sympathies。

His political sympathies are clearly shown in his writings.

system

下面各句里的system是抽象名词，前面不可加上a：

System is necessary to success in any undertaking.

This work shows system.

He lacks system in his work.

There seems to be little system in this arrangement.

T

table

at table是习语，作“在进餐的时候”解。例如：She never talks at table. The daughter served at table. 和My neighbour at table was an artist. “在桌旁”该说at a table或at the table。例如：He used to sit at a table for hours reading a long novel. 和I found her writing at the table.

下面各句里在table前面没有the，也指进餐：

They sat down to table together.

The guests rose from table upon my entering.

She sent her little son away from table when a dish was brought that she thought he must not touch because of his weak digestion.

As he was telling a story over table, he frightened all by beating it from time to time.

tactic

可以说a tactic（一个战术），every tactic（每个战术）等。例如：They believed it to be a good diversionary tactic. （他们相信它是一种好的牵制战术。）和But this tactic of theirs would never work.

tag

tag day是美国英语，相当于英国英语flag-day。参见flag

tag-day

tag-day跟tag day相同。参见tag

take

1.不可把take用作“拿来”或“取来”解，下面两句都不对：

Please take your pen with you when you come tomorrow. （该把take改作bring）

I have to go back to take my pen. （该把take改作get）

2.下面两句里的take作“买”解：

I will take this pen.

I will take as many eggs as you can supply.

有下面两点该注意：

（1）take用在指房屋的词的前面通常作“租赁”解，不作“买”解。例如：They have taken the cottage for the winter.

（2）说“买”并不都可以用take，如不可说I went into the shop to take a pen，该把take改作buy。注意I will take this pen里的take着重在“得”的意思。

3.take in用作“参观”或“观看”解是美国英语。例如：He has taken in several points of interest during the last week. 和I hope to take in a movie the next time I am in town.

4.I have just taken lunch. Would you like to take a drink? 等不及I have just had lunch. Would you like to have a drink? 等普通。

5.take over作“接收”、“接管”或“接任”解，可以单独用。例如：When will the new manager take over?

6.May I take it that you will sign the document? 和I take it that they will come early里的take作“料想”解，it是它的宾语，以that引导的从句是it的同位语，it不可省去，但that有时省去。有时把I take it用作插入成分。例如：He is studying English, and, I take it, is making steady progress in it.

7.“伴（女子）入席”在英国说take ... in to dinner，在美国说take...out to dinner。

8.下面四句里的take(n) to或took to是习语，作“开始（而成为习惯）”解：

He has taken to this good habit.

How has he taken to drink?

Soon he took to getting up before six.

The boy took to blinking his eyes, placing his hand on his heart, and speaking in a voice pulsating with emotion.

这里的to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以第三句里的rising不可改作rise，第四句里的blinking，placing和speaking不可改作blink，place和speak。第二句里的drink是名词，不是动词，但改作drinking也可以。

9.下面三句意思相同：

It took him three years to write the book.

He took three years to write the book.

The book took him three years to write.

talent

1.talent统指“才能”，a talent是“一种才能”，talents是“多种才能”，都指智力而不指体力。例如：

He has talent, but no genius.

He has a talent for languages.

His talents are really astonishing.

2.talent往往指“有才能的人们”。例如：They are the best talent in the country. a talent指“一个有才能的人”，talents指“多个有才能的人”，都不很普通。

talk

1.talk统指“谈话”、“空谈”或“传言”，a talk是“一次谈话”或“一次非正式的演说或演讲”，talks是“多次谈话”、“多次非正式的演说或演讲”或“多次郑重的会谈”。例如：

He is fond of good talk.

He is all talk（空谈）.

There is talk（传言）of the staging of many new plays.

We had a pleasant talk together.

She gave a talk on cooking on the wireless.

We had several pleasant talks together.

She gave a series of talks on cooking on the wireless.

We have had several talks（会谈）together about the establishment of continuation schools.

再比较下面三种表达方式，第一种表达方式跟第二种表达方式意思相同，第三种表达方式不同：

a five-minute talk

a five minutes' talk

five minutes' talk

2.He talks nothing but Chinese和I talk three languages besides Chinese等句子里可以用talk。但Do you speak Chinese? （你能讲汉语吗？）等句子里习惯用speak，不用talk。

3.talk business，talk politics，talk philosophy，talk literature，talk books，talk novels等表达方式里的talk作“谈论”解，是及物动词，注意business，politics，philosophy等词都做成一个整个的题材。下面各句都不可说：

Tom often talks his cat to me.

Whenever they meet, they talk their school-days.

What did she talk to you this morning?

I had nothing to talk to him.

在每句里的talks或talk后面该加上about或of。talk about是“谈论”，talk of是“谈及”。但第三句里用talk to you about比用talk about to you自然。

注意下面第一句里的about可有可无，第二句里必须有about：

Bob is a dog-lover, he often talks (about) dogs for hours.

Bob is a dog-lover, he often talks about his dogs for hours.

4.比较下面四句：

I wish I had someone to talk to. （但愿我有某人可以向他谈话。）

I wish I had someone to talk with. （但愿我有某人可以跟他交谈。）

I wish I had someone to talk to me. （但愿我有某人向我谈话。）

I wish I had someone to talk with me. （但愿有某人跟我交谈。）

就语法讲这四句都不错，但习惯上只用第一句。

talkie(s)

a talkie是“一部有声电影”，the talkies统指“有声电影”或指“有声电影业”。

tall

参见high(ly) 1

tap

1.tap（龙头）在英国很普通，在美国很不普通，在美国通常用faucet。

2.taps是美国军队、学校等里的用语，作“熄灯号”解，虽然是复数形式，却被当作单数。例如：After taps is blown, the young campers have to turn out their lights and go to sleep.

tape

关于red tape，参见red

tardiness

参见tardy

tardy

tardy现在在英国不普通，偶然用，通常作“慢的”解而不作“过时的”解。但在美国很普通，而且作“过时的”解。例如：He is often tardy in his payments. 和She was an hour tardy for supper last evening. tardiness也是这样，如下面两句都是美国英语：

Please excuse my tardiness in answering your letter.

Her tardiness at supper last evening was due to a headache. （tardiness at supper在英国人看来也许作“晚餐吃得慢”解）

tariff

tariff用来指“旅馆或餐馆的价目表”是英国英语。

task

task不是抽象名词，a task是“一件工作”，tasks是“多件工作”。

taste

1.This milk tastes sour等句子里的sour是表语，不可改作副词sourly等。

2.比较下面三种表达方式：

a taste for poetry（对于诗的爱好）

a taste in poetry（对于诗的鉴别力）

a taste of poetry（对于诗的浅尝）

tasteful

参见tasty

tasty

1.tasty是“美味的”，tasteful是“高雅的”或“上品的”。把tasty用作tasteful解或把tasteful用作tasty解现在都不算正当。

2.tasty不及savoury普通。

tax

1.tax统指“税”，a tax是“一项税”，taxes是“多项税”。

2.tax后面接on或upon，如a tax (up)on tobacco。

tea

1.tea统指“茶”，a tea是“一种茶”，teas是“多种茶”。

2.“红茶”是black tea。

3.tea统指“茶点”，a tea是“一次茶点”、“一客茶点”或“一客茶”，teas是“多次茶点”、“多客茶点”或“多客茶”。例如：

I should like to have some cake for tea.

We had a tea together.

I should like to have a good tea.

There were dances and teas.

Teas provided.

Two teas and two coffees, please.

4.She insisted on my eating some tea里的eating some tea是“吃些茶点”。

5.关于a cup of tea，参见glass 2

teach

1.下面各句都可以说：

He teaches Chinese. He teaches foreigners.

He teaches foreigners Chinese.

He teaches Chinese to foreigners.

2.在teach后面所接的不定式的前面有时用how，有时不用how。例如：

His father taught him (how) to swim.

His brother taught him how to catch butterflies.

3.I'll teach you to cheek me! 是“我要给你吃苦头，使你不敢再对我无礼！”I wish someone would teach him to drive as he did是“我但愿有人给他吃苦头，使他不敢再像以前那样鲁莽地开车”。

4.注意The book he is teaching from is a new grammar里用from。

5.关于teach school，参见school 6

teacher

1.说“某校的教员”在校名的前面该用in或at，不用of。例如：My brother used to be a teacher of mathematics in（或at）Shanghai Middle School.

2.通常说teacher of English，teacher of mathematics等，但也有人说English teacher，mathematics teacher等。English teacher读作［ˈɪŋɡlɪʃˈtiːtʃə］是“英国教师”，读作［ˈɪŋɡlɪʃˌtiːtʃə］是“英语教师”。

teaching

说“教诲”用单数形式teaching或复数形式teachings都可以，如the teaching(s) of Marx。

tea(-)cup

We had a chat together over the tea(-)cups里的the不可省去。

tea(-)kettle

tea(-)kettle是煮水（预备泡茶的）壶，tea(-)pot是（泡）茶（的）壶，两个单词不可相混。

team

team（队、组）前面用on。例如：Are you on that team? 和He is by far the best player on the team.

tear

1.tear是“泪滴”，不是“泪水”，不是物质名词，a tear是“一滴泪”，tears是“多滴泪”。如不可说much tear和eyes full of tear，该说many tears和eyes full of tears.

2.可以说Tears came to her eyes和Tears came into her eyes。Tears came from her eyes和Tears came out of her eyes都不合习惯。感觉悲伤而眼中有泪，用came to或came into表示“涌入（眼里）”的意思，came from或came out of表示“从（眼里）流出”的意思，在理论上也通（在汉语里说“流泪”和“泪下”），可是不合英语习惯。但Tears poured from her eyes和She came running with tears falling from her eyes是可以说的。也可以说Tears formed in her eyes and rolled down her cheeks。

3.Tears came to her eyes等句子里往往不用Tears而用The tears.

tear(-)drop

tear(-)drop跟tear意思相同，但远不及tear普通。tear 2所举的例句的Tears不可改作Tear(-)drops。

technique

technique统指“技术”，a technique是“一种技术”，techniques是“多种技术”，如a score of other techniques和language teaching techniques。

tedious

tedious是“使人厌烦的、冗长乏味的”，不是“感觉乏味的”，如可以说I found the story tedious，不可说I felt tedious on reading the story。

teen

1.teens是“从13岁到19岁的年龄”，就是“少年时代”。例如：He began to write poetry before his teens. 和I was then in my early teens.

2.teen age（从13岁到19岁的年龄）和teen years都是美国英语。

3.有时teen等于teen-age或teen-ager。

teen-age(r)

teen-age是“从13岁到19岁的”，teen-ager是“从13岁到19岁的人”，都是美国英语。

telegraph

下面每组里的两句意思相同：

telegrapher

在美国，telegrapher比telegraphist普通，而在英国则telegraphist比telegrapher普通。

telegraphist

参见telegrapher

telephone

下面每组里的两句意思相同：

比较下面两句：

I shall telephone (to) him to come.

I shall telephone (to) him to ask him to come.

2.下面三句意思相同：

He told me so on the telephone.

He told me so over the telephone.

He told me so by telephone.

第一句里用on，有the，第二句里用over，也有the，第三句里用by，没有the。

3.telephone（动词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He telephoned that he could not come.

television

“他昨天晚上出现在电视里”该说He appeared on television last night。I saw the play on television和We watched the football match on television等句子里也用on。

tell

1.在下面一句里tell把直接引语做宾语：

He often tells me: 'I shall devote myself to serving the people.' 这种用法不很普通，最好把tells改作says to。

2.在下面一句里tell没有间接宾语，而把以that引导的从句做宾语：

He often tells that he is going to achieve success.

这种用法不很普通，最好把tells改作says，或在tells后面加上间接宾语，如me，her或his friends。

但下面一句里的tell that...很自然，tell作“了解”或“明白”解：

His manner is quite normal again now, and no-one could tell that only a few minutes ago he was shaken by such a great emotion.

3.下面每句里的tell或told都有双宾语（注意斜体字）：

Please tell me the address of your school.

She did not care to tell me her age.

I did not tell him anything about you.

He did not tell me his business.

She asked him to tell her the date of his wedding.

You had better tell me everything.

They told us their experiences in certain foreign countries.

You must tell me the fact.

I am afraid he has told you a falsehood.

She refused to tell me her feelings about the incident.

He said he could tell me my fortune.

I will tell you all the information I have got.

He is not known ever to have told us a lie.

She told us her name at the beginning of her story.

They promised to tell us any news they might have.

He told me nothing about his adventure.

You must tell us the number of your room.

I wish you would tell me your opinion.

She told me a secret some time ago.

He said he wanted to tell me something.

He used to tell his children a story every evening.

After dinner she told us a long tale.

In his letter he told her his thoughts of the matter.

Could you tell me the time?

She told me all her troubles.

He has told us all the truth.

I will tell you my views on the question when I write next.

Will you kindly tell me the way?

但下面每句里的tell或told都没有双宾语：

She asked him to tell her about his wedding. （比较She asked him to tell her the date of his wedding）

They told us of certain foreign countries. （比较They told us their experiences in certain foreign countries）

She refused to tell me about the incident. （比较She refused to tell me her feelings about the incident）

In his letter he told her of several matters. （比较In his letter he told her his thoughts of the matter）

4.下面各句都不合习惯：

He has nothing to tell to her.

I have something to tell to you.

What did he tell to you?

该把每句里的to删去，或把tell改作say。

5.下面两句里的you在英国不可省去，在美国似乎往往省去：

I cannot tell you how glad I am.

I cannot tell you how sorry I am.

在英国cannot tell（后面没有you）只作“不能了解”或“不懂”解。例如：I cannot tell how this machine works. 和I cannot tell what is the matter with him.

6.Tell him to read the story是“叫他读这故事”。Tell him how to read the story是“告诉他怎样读这故事”。

7.Tell him from me that I want him是“告诉他我说我要他（来）”。

8.A story tells of the bravery of a little girl是“有一个故事讲到一个女孩子的勇敢”。A story is told of the bravery of a little girl是“有人讲关于一个女孩子的勇敢的一个故事”。

temper(ament)

1.关于temper和temperament的不同，有下面三点该注意：

（1）temper指暂时或永久的性情都可以，temperament只指永久的，不指暂时的，如可以说He is of a placid temper和He is of a placid temperament，但I found him in a sweet temper this morning和She broke the vase in one of her black tempers里的temper和tempers不可改作temperament和temperaments。

（2）temper不及temperament的偏重在“体质”方面。

（3）用作抽象名词，temper指“恼怒”，temperament指“烈情”，含有“容易激动”和“喜怒无常”的意思。例如：He is showing temper. 和He has temperament.

2.He is of (an) uncertain temper和She is of (a) fervid temperament 等句子里的an或a可有可无。

3.注意He lost his temper with me（他对我发脾气）里用with。

4.They lost their temper(s) with me里用temper或tempers都可以。

temperature

1.说“量体温”习惯用take。例如：The doctor took her temperature.

2.You have a temperature是“你的体温超过了正常”。

temple

注意There's a temple to Confucius there里temple后面接to。

temptation

1.temptation统指“诱惑”，是抽象名词。例如：There's not much temptation to go out for a walk in this weather. a temptation 是“某一诱惑”，temptations是“各种诱惑”。

2.temptation后面通常接不定式，偶尔接of和动名词。例如：I cannot resist the temptation to look（偶尔用of looking）at the picture.

ten

可以说hundreds（几百），thousands（几千）和tens of thousands （几万），但不可用tens指“几十”。说“几十”通常用dozens：如dozens of people。但tens可以用来指“每组十个的若干组”。例如：We shall arrange the eggs in tens.

tendency

tendency后面接to或towards和名词，或接不定式。例如：She used to have a tendency to（或towards）pessimism. 和She used to have a tendency to look at the worst aspect of things.

tender

1.tender（提供、献给）有时有双宾语。例如：I wish to tender him my thanks for his kindness.

2.tender在英国通常把services，resignation，thanks，apologies等词做宾语，通常用在正式文字里，而且现在有些老式了。下面各句里的tender（ed）都有些美国英语味：

He was tendered a public banquet.

The university tendered the degree of Ph D to the scholar.

Dr Paul A. Brown has been tendered a professorship recently.

I wonder how you tendered her such an injury.

3.legal tender（法定货币）前面不可加a，也没有复数形式legal tenders。

tenement

tenement现在通常指大城市里贫民住的破旧公寓大厦，一般设备简陋，一家几口都挤在一两间小房间里。也作tenement-house或tenement house。有时也指这种房子里的一间或一套房间。

tenement-house

参见tenement

term

1.说“条件”或“价格”必须用复数形式terms。例如：His terms are 'no cure no pay'. （他的条件是“病不好，不要钱。”）和His terms for private lessons are 100 yuan an hour. （他的私人教授价格是每小时一百元。）第一句里只有一个条件，第二句里只有一个价格，但都必须用复数形式terms。

2.说“依照…条件”在terms前面用on或upon。例如：He refused to work (up)on our terms.

3.term（学期）前面往往没有the。例如：Term is over. Term was drawing to a close. 和We began term on Tuesday last.

4.in terms of用得很多，作“顾及”，“关于”或“就…而论”解。例如：

We must plan our work in terms of the new situation and its needs.

He was asked to state his position in terms of politics and morality.

In terms of literary criticism I can say nothing about the novel.

They agree with us in principle but differ with us in terms of certain measures to be taken.

5.This might be termed a monstrosity等句子里不该在termed后面加上as。

terminal

terminal用作“铁路、航线等的终点（或起点）”解是美国英语，相当于英国的terminus。

terrible

terrible是“可怕的、令人敬畏的”，不是“感觉害怕的”，如可以说The sight is terrible，不可说The sight makes me terrible。这句的正确意思是“这景象使人感觉害怕”。不是“这景象使他人觉得我可怕”。

terrify

1.terrify的过去分词terrified用作形容词后面通常接of，有时可以接以lest引导的从句。例如：

He was terrified of being burnt to death in his sleep.

He was terrified lest he (should) be killed in the air raid.

2.关于a terrified cry（恐惧的呼声）等，参见much 3(5)E

territory

in Chinese territory, in foreign territory等表达方式里通常用in，很少用on，没有the。

test

test不是抽象名词，put to the（或a）test里的the或a不可省去，to ban bomb tests里的tests不可改作test。

testify

testify to是“证明”，to是介词，不是不定式的符号，所以The stranger testified to having been present at the time of the accident里的having不可改作have。

text

1.text用作text(-)book解是美国英语。

2.the text(s) of the poems里用text或texts都可以。

text(-)book

text(-)book后面接of，on或in都可以，如a text(-)book of（或on，或in）English composition。

than

1.下面每组里的第一句合乎语法，第二句不合语法。

在口语里第二句比第一句普通，但在文字里通常用第一句。不过在than whom中习惯用whom，不用who，如Mr Francis Davis, than whom I do not think any Englishman in China writes better, is sixty-five years old里的whom不可改作who。

2.He is older than she. ＝He is older than she is. You write much better than I. ＝You write much better than I do. is和do可有可无，假使没有，意思也很明白。但下面的第一句意思不明白，可能有第二句和第三句两个不同的意思：

John likes Henry more than Peter.

John likes Henry more than Peter does.

John likes Henry more than he does Peter.

第二句里的Peter does等于Peter does Henry等于Peter likes Henry。

Peter, than whom John likes Henry more, is a good boy可能有两个意思：“彼得，约翰喜欢亨利过于喜欢他，是一个好男孩。”或“彼得，约翰喜欢亨利过于他喜欢亨利，是一个好男孩。”因为than后面只可以接whom，不可接who（参见1），所以这句可能有第二个意思。当然下面两句都只有一个意思：

Peter, whom John likes less than he does Henry, is a good boy.

Peter, who likes Henry less than John does, is a good boy.

3.下面两句意思不同：

John likes Henry more than does Peter.

John likes Henry more than he does Peter.

第一句里的does Peter等于Peter does。在这样简单的句子里用does Peter远不及用Peter does普通。假使does的主语长些，用does...似乎比用...does普通，如John likes Henry better than does anybody else who has known him for less than a year比John likes Henry better than anybody else who has known him for less than a year does普通。下面每组里的第一句似乎比第二句普通：

但这两组里的句子还是把is和has省去的好，省去了句子简洁些，意思也很明白。

4.I like you more than he. ＝I like you more than he does. 意思很明白。I like you more than him. ＝I like you more than I do him. 意思也很明白。没有受过良好教育的英美人有时把I like you more than him用作I like you more than he解，我们该避免。这种错误跟1里所说的He is older than her和You write much better than me两句里的错误相同，但那二句的意思并不含糊。2里的Peter, than whom John likes Henry more, is a good boy可能有两个意思，原因跟这里所说的相同。

5.下面两句都可以说：

I know of no better artist than he.

I know of no better artist than him.

第一句里的he等于he is，第二句里him跟artist处于同一格，似乎第二句比第一句普通。

6.下面四句都不可说：

I am more and more interested in it than ever.

He will learn to speak English better and better than before.

The people became less and less superstitious than in the beginning of the last century.

More and more nations in Africa have become united than fifty years ago.

more and more自成为一种比较，就是“昨天比前天多，今天比昨天多，明天比今天多”的意思，better and better和less and less也是这样。用了and，便含有than的意思，所以than ever，than before，than in the beginning of the last century和than fifty years ago里的than便没有着落了。要使那than有着落，必须把more and more interested改作more and more more interested，把better and better改作more and more better，把less and less改作more and more less（参见more 7），More and more people改作More and more more people，但这些都不自然，只须把and more，and better，and less和and more删去好了，或者把than...删去也好了。

当然，依照上面所说的三种改法得到的结果有三个意思。例如：

I am more and more more interested in it than ever. （我对于这个逐渐比以往更加注意了。）

I am more interested in it than ever. （我对于这个比以往注意了。）

I am more and more interested in it. （我对于这个逐渐注意了。）

第二句和第三句都普通，第一句很不普通。但在必须表示第一句所表示的意思的场合似乎不能避免more and more more。

7.下面第一句和第二句都可以说，第三句不可说：

John is a better man than Henry.

John is the better man of the two.

John is the better man than Henry.

the ...than是错误的。John is a better man of the two也不对。

8.7里所举的第二句里的the是冠词，the... than是错误的。I am none the better than you里的the是副词，the ... than也是错误的。

9.下面两句都不可说：

The brim of my hat is wider than yours. （该在than的后面加上that of）

I like stories written in the first person better than the third person.（该在than的后面加上those written in）

10.下面两句里的than都不算正当（参见hardly 2和scarcely 2）：

I had hardly entered the room than he left it.

Scarcely had I arrived than he came out to meet me.

11.下面各句里的than后面直接接动词，可说是那动词的主语：

I wish I could write English with more freedom than is at present possible.

You seem to take a keener interest in the subject than has ever been shown before.

He played the piano much better than could have been expected.

We were kept waiting longer than was absolutely necessary.

The town offers better cultural advantages than has been generally supposed.

When he resumed reading he thought he had got further on than was actually the case.

That morning we drank more tea than had been our custom.

She found the house much more luxuriously furnished than suited her purpose.

12.下面每句里的is或was可有可无：

We must not have more furniture in our rooms than (is) required for convenience.

They came earlier than (was) expected.

13.在do nothing else than，do less than，sooner than和rather than后面的不定式没有to。例如：

I could do nothing else than wait.

I could hardly do less than wait.

I had sooner starve than surrender. （我宁愿饿死，不愿投降。）

I stayed rather than go.

下面每句里的than后面的to可有可无：

I cannot do better than (to) quote Shakespeare.

You might do worse than (to) do as he does. （你依照他做，并不算坏。）

I expect to fail no less than (to) succeed.

下面每句里的than后面的to也有人省去，但通常不省去：

I know better than to believe him. （我不至于会相信他。）

He is wiser than to waste much time over such trifles.

She has a better opinion of you than to suspect you of anything.

You have a greater command of English than to make such mistakes.

14.We went no further than Nanjing里的than用作介词。

thank

1.不论在口语或文字里，Thank you现在比I thank you普通得多。I thank you在很郑重的时候才用。Thank you very much跟Thank you相仿。Thank you so much和Thank you ever so much也跟Thank you相仿。Thanks比Thank you随便些。Many thanks跟Thank you相仿。A thousand thanks似乎不很自然。Much thanks是古语，现在很不普通。Thanks much似乎不很自然。Thanks very much 跟Thank you very much相仿。就语法讲，Thanks much和Thanks very much都是不妥的，因为把名词thanks跟动词混用了，但都有人用。Thanks a lot，Thanks lots，Thanks awfully和Thanks immensely也有人用。

再注意下面各句里thanks的用法：

For her help in compiling my research files, thanks to Miss Ruth Watson.

My warmest thanks are due to Mr Henry Brown.

Finally, sincere thanks are given to all those who have helped me.

To the following ladies and gentlemen, my heartfelt thanks.

2.下面四句都可以说：

Thank you for lending me the book.

I thank you for lending me the book.

Thanks for lending me the book.

Many thanks for lending me the book.

注意lending的前面没有your。

3.可以说：

I have to thank you for your help.

I have to thank you for your kindness in lending me the book.

Thanks are due to him for his help.

Thanks are due to him for his kindness in lending me the book.

不可说：

I have to thank your help.

I have to thank your kindness in lending me the book.

Thanks are due to his help.

Thanks are due to his kindness in lending me the book.

但可以说Thanks to your help，I passed the test（幸亏有你帮助，我测验及格了）。也可以说Thanks to your disturbance, I have got confused（多谢你的扰乱，我弄得头昏了）。

4.thanks（名词）是复数形式，如可以说many thanks和these thanks。但He got very little thanks for what he had done里的little却不可改作few。

5.thank是及物动词，不可没有宾语，所以不可说I have nothing to thank for，该改作I have nothing to thank anybody for。也不可说I have nothing to thank。参见3

6.thanking you in advance和thanking you in anticipation都是询问信和请求信里的陈套语，该避免。与其用Thanking you in advance（或anticipation）for your help, I am ...，不如用：I shall thank you for your help或I shall be grateful for your help。

7.thank指口头或文字上的表示谢意，不指心里的感谢，是一时的动作，不是持续的状态，不可说I thank him和I have always thanked you for what you did for me ten years ago，该把thank改作am grateful to，把thanked改作been grateful to。

8.可以说I thank you for lending me the book，不可说I thank you that you have lent me the book。但可以说I thank God that I am safe at home。

9.下面两句意思大不相同：

We've got to thank Harry for it. （我们必须为了这件事向哈利表示谢意。）

We've got Harry to thank for it. （这件事被哈利弄糟了。［我们必须叫他负责。］）

thankful(ness)

在口头或文字上表示感谢，通常用thank（动词），thanks（名词），grateful，gratitude，indebted，obliged等词，不用thankful或thankfulness。thankful和thankfulness通常不指对于人的感谢，却指对于客观形势的感谢。例如：

I am thankful (that) I did catch the train.

He was thankful to know that his father was safe.

She was thankful for her little girl's quick recovery.

All his troubles, I am thankful to say, are now over.

At last he found himself with thankfulness in a village where they could not find him.

thanking

参见thank 6

thanks

参见thank 1，2，3和4

thanksgiving

Thanksgiving Day（美国的感恩节［11月的最后一个星期四］，目的在于向上帝表示一年来所受的天恩）的前面没有the。有时把Thanksgiving用来指Thanksgiving Day，前面也没有the。

that

1.注意下面每组里的第一句里用that，第二句里用this：

每组第一句里的that改作this也可以，但第二句里的This决不可改作That。

2.可以说The study of idiom is as important as that of grammar，但不可说This is a point of idiom rather than that of grammar，该把that删去或改作one。第一句里的that代表the study。第二句里的that代表a point，但照习惯that只可代表the ...，不可代表a ...，所以第二句不对。下面第一组里的两句不错，第二组里的两句不对：

3.注意and that在下面三句里的习惯用法：

She came at midnight, and that alone. (and that＝and she came at midnight)

He studied music for many years, and that under a well-known musician. (and that＝and he studied music for many years)

The boy has lost a book, and that the one he bought only the other day. (and that＝and he has lost)

各句里的and that都加重后面的语气。

4.that happy three weeks（那快乐的三星期长的一段时间），that five years（那五年长的一段时间）等表达方式里可以用that，因为把three weeks，five years等当作一段时期（如three weeks指“三星期长的一段时间”，并不指“三个分开的星期”）。但不用that而用those也很普通。参见this 1

5.下面三种表达方式都可以说，意思相仿：

the man mentioned

the man who is mentioned

that man who is mentioned

第三种表达方式语气最重。that man mentioned也有人用，但不算正当，下面各种表达方式也不算正当：

that person named

that boy following us

that book at the top of the list

that theory now in question

参见those 4

但有下面两点该注意：

（1）上面我所说不算正当的各种表达方式里的that是形容词，不是代词。that mentioned，that at the top of the list等表达方式里的that是代词，不是形容词，各种表达方式都可以说。

（2）that book known as the Bible，that little girl with brown hair等表达方式里的that是形容词，但因为它含有“就是你所知道的那个”的意思，所以不算不正当。

6.下面两句里的第一个that现在远不及从前普通，该改作such a或so great a：

He was wounded to that degree that he was rushed to hospital.

She has that patience that she never complains.

7.so... that和so... as不可混用，such... that和such ... as也不可混用，参见as 11

8.下面各句都是强势式，但两组的结构不同，参见it 5，6和7

9.that用作关系代词有下面几点该注意：

（1）现在可以说只用在限定从句里，不用在非限定从句里，如This is the pen that I bought yesterday里用that，但I have bought a pen, which I shall show you when you call里用which。下面两句里的that都不自然，最好改作which：

We were looking at the moon, that was rising slowly.

They are having a good time together in the park, that is now far less crowded than an hour ago.

注意下面每组里的两句意思不同，每组的第一句里没有逗号，第二句里有逗号：

（2）that的前面不可用介词，如不可说This is the joke at that they laughed，该改作下面的任何一句：

This is the joke at which they laughed.

This is the joke that they laughed at.

This is the joke which they laughed at.

This is the joke they laughed at.

第一句最正式，最不普通，第四句最不正式。

（3）that that ...（…的东西）远不及that which普通。但注意下面两句里的that that...里的第二个that的先行项不是第一个that而是It。参见8

It is that that I need。

It is only that that keeps him busy.

（4）those who ...（…的人们）里用who比用that普通得多。all who...（…的一切人）里的who不可改作that。all that...是“…的一切东西”，不是“…的一切人”。he who...现在不及one who...普通，he that ...更不普通。下面各句都是谚语，不该摹仿它们：

He that promises too much means nothing.

He that respects not is not respected.

He lives long that lives well.

He cannot speak well that cannot hold his tongue.

He who commences many things finishes but few.

He who does not rise early never does a good day's work.

（5）8里所举的It is help that I need和It is I that need help两句里都用that，第一句里的that可以改作which，第二句里的that可以改作who，但都不及用that普通。

（6）在属于最高级的词的后面用that比用which普通。例如：This is the best specimen that we have got.

（7）在only后面用that比用which普通。例如：This is the only specimen that we have got.

（8）在no后面用that比用which普通。例如：No specimen that we have got is satisfactory.

（9）在all后面用that比用which普通。例如：Please bring me all the specimens that you have gathered. 和This is all that I know about the matter.

（10）在any后面用that比用which普通。例如：Any specimen that you may get will do. 和I have not got any that is satisfactory.

（11）在名词little和名词much后面用that比用which普通。例如：His letters contain little that is interesting but much that is dull.

（12）that用于指定的一人或多人不及who普通。例如：The man who called this morning is a professor. 和The ladies who are in the next room are his sisters. 两句里用who而不用that。但在下面各句里用that比用who普通：

He is the best artist that has ever visited this town.

He is the only artist that has ever visited this town.

No artist that I know of has ever visited this town.

Anybody that knows anything knows this.

Who that knows anything does not know this?

Which of us that knows anything does not know this?

It is I that need help.

在fool that I was（像我这样的呆子）和Mrs Brown，Miss Johnson that was（Brown夫人，从前是Johnson小姐）两种表达方式里的that不可改作who。

（13）在（12）里所说的fool that I was里的fool前不可加上a或the，这语可能有两个意思。例如：

Fool that I was, I believed every word he said. （我是这样的一个呆子，竟然相信他所说的每句话。）

Fool that I was, I did not believe every word he said. （我虽然是一个呆子，我并不曾相信他所说的每句话。）

（14）用在宾格里的关系代词that往往被省去。例如：This is the book (that) I spoke of. 在口语里和若干谚语里，用在主格里的关系代词that也往往被省去。例如：

It's not everybody (that) can do that.

That was her shadow (that) passed the window.

There's nothing (that) stops you from going to bed if you want to.

It is the weather (that) makes me feel as I do.

It's an ill wind (that) blows nobody good. （谚语：1.对于任何人都吹不到好处的才是坏风。2.不论任何坏事，总有人得益。3.有弊必有利。）

（15）下面两句里的that也是关系代词：

He has never done it(,) that I know.

She never said anything of the kind to him(,) that I remember.

（16）下面两句语法不对：

At the end of the passage there is a door that you may open and find someone waiting for you. （可以改作At the end of the passage there is a door that you may open to find someone waiting for you。）

I am sending you a book that you will probably find interesting and profit by the advice it offers. （可以改作I am sending you a book that you will probably find interesting and whose advice you will profit by。）

10.以连接词that引导的从句是名词从句或状语从句，决不是形容词从句。例如：

That he is honest is certain. （名词从句，是全句的主语）

I hear that he is honest. （名词从句，是动词hear的宾语）

It is a fact that he is honest. （名词从句，是It的同位语）

I am sure that he is honest. （状语从句，修饰形容词sure）

He is so honest that he never suspects anybody. （状语从句，修饰副词so）

不论那从句是名词从句或状语从句，必须是陈述的，决不可是疑问的、祈使的或感叹的，如下面各句都不对：

I have to tell you that if I try, shall I have a chance to succeed? （该改作I have to ask you this: If I try, shall I have a chance to succeed? 或I have to ask you whether I shall have a chance to succeed if I try.）

I have to tell you that if you fail, try again. （该改作I have to tell you that if you fail, you should try again.）

I have to tell you that if you succeed, how happy I shall be! （该改作I have to tell you how happy I shall be if you succeed. 或I have to tell you that if you succeed, I shall be very happy.）

Things happen so rapidly that who can say what may happen next week? （该改作Things happen so rapidly that no-one can say what may happen next week. 或Things happen rapidly, who can say what may happen next week.）

11.间接疑问句前面不可用连接词that，如下面各句里的that都该删去：

He asked me that what was the matter.

She did not know that how he did it.

Please tell me that where he is going.

I wonder that whether you know her or not.

12.在较长的名词从句里往往有多余的连接词that，如下面各句里斜体的that是多余的，该删去：

It should be borne in mind that while different persons have different opinions, and that therefore they may not be able to agree upon a definite course of action, the problem is so important that it should not remain unsolved for any length of time.

It is quite doubtful whether if he had arrived at the station five minutes earlier, or if the train had started five minutes later, that he would have caught the train.

I suggest that while these questions are being discussed and the conditions are being investigated, that the work should be carried on as usual.

You may rest assured that if you read any book carefully through, looking up all the difficult words and phrases and allusions in dictionaries and other reference books, dwelling upon passages of particular interest to you, and jotting down everything that you think you may have use for some day, that you will soon acquire an ability to write expressive English.

13.在定义的开首不该用连接词that，如不该说Homesickness is that one longs for one's home。

14.下面每组里的四句意思相仿，注意用may和might：

下面几点该注意：

（1）第一组的第一句和第二句里的may在口语里往往改用can。

（2）第二组的第二句里的might可以改用should，在口语里往往改用could。

（3）第二组第三句里的might可以改用should。

15.下面各句里的以连接词that引导的从句表示结果：

What has happened that you should weep?

What have I done that you should be angry with me?

Where has he been that he should look so tired?

How have they been treated by their brother that they should speak ill of him?

Who am I that I should advise a man of your experience?

Am I a fool that you should tell me to share my bed with your dog?

I wonder how you have fed the baby that he should be hungry so soon.

He demanded to know what he had done that his wife should have asked him such queer questions.

注意：各句都是疑问句或有疑问从句。这种句子里通常有should。

16.下面各句里的that是关系副词，作when解：

By the time that you are dressed breakfast will be ready.

The next time that I met him was in Shanghai.

The year that he was born was 1924.

They left the day that we arrived.

The moment that he saw me he ran away.

Now that we have found it, we may take a rest.

这样用法的that往往被省去。the moment后面的that用的少，不用的多。

17.下面各句里的that是关系副词：

He shouted with the greatest strength that he could. (that＝with which)

They parted in the same cordial fashion that they met. (that＝in which)

He likes sea stories for the very reason that she dislikes them. (that＝for which)

注意每句里的that所代表的...which里的介词就是那先行项前面的介词。下面两句都不对：

She was surprised at the great strength that he shouted.

I watched with interest the cordial fashion that they met and parted. 第一句里的strength前面的介词是at，但that该代表with which，不该代表at which，所以不对，该把that改作with which。第二句里的fashion前面并没有介词，所以that不对，该把that改作in which。第一句假使改作She was amused with the great strength that he shouted也不对，因为那with是跟着amused而来的，和that所代表的with which里的with不同。

18.连接词that往往被省去。例如：

It is certain (that) he is honest.

I am sure (that) he is honest.

I think (that) he is honest.

He is so honest (that) he never suspects anybody.

It is a pity (that) you cannot come.

It was a good thing (that) he reached home before dark.

It occurred to me (that) you might not have heard of her death.

I take it (that) you are going to the party this evening.

关于连接词that的省略，下面几点该注意：

（1）在口语里比在文字里省去得多，往往同一句子，把连接词that省去了便有些口语性质。

（2）在用作主语的从句的开首的that不可省去，如That he is honest is certain里的That不可省去。

（3）在用作名词的同位语的从句的开首的that通常不省去，如The fact that he is honest is known to all his friends里的that通常不省去。

（4）14里所举的每组里的第一、第三和第四句里的that不可省去。第二句里的that在英国不省去，但在美国往往省去。参见so 7

（5）15里所举的各句里的that不可省去。

（6）关于动词后面的连接词that的省略或不省略，英国人H. W. Fowler所著的A Dictionary of Modern English Usage第633页有三张表：（a）通常不省去，（b）通常省去，（c）有时省去，有时不省去，依据上下文语气而定。

(a) agree, assert, assume, aver, calculate, conceive, hold, learn, maintain, reckon, state, suggest

(b) believe, presume, suppose, think

(c) be told, confess, consider, declare, grant, hear, know, perceive, propose, say, see, understand

（7）假使省去了that意思不明白，就不该省去，如He said yesterday he had seen her可能作He said yesterday that he had seen her解，也可能作He said that yesterday he had seen her解，用了that意思就明白。

（8）即使在第一个从句里省去了that，在平行的（以and，or，nor或but引导的）从句里不省去。例如：

He said he would come, and that he would bring his son.

She did not believe she had ever read any of the young author's works or that she had ever heard of him.

She did not believe she had ever read any of the young author's works, nor that she had ever heard of him.

I think I'll have another try, but that I must have your advice beforehand.

the

1.the通常用作冠词，有时用作副词。以下从2到29讲的是冠词，从30到34讲的是副词。

2.哪里该用the，哪里不该用the，变化很多，一切该从习惯，不是几条规则所能包括的。在这本词典里讲到不少，如at night，at nights和by night三种表达方式里没有the，但in the night里有the（参见night 3）。往往用the和不用the意思不同，如in front of和in the front of（参见front 1），keep house和keep the house（参见house 1），out of question 和out of the question（参见question 1）。

3.the有时有“的确那一个而不是其他”、“那唯一的”、“那最著名的”、“那最典型的”或“那最理想的”的意思。例如：

That is the book I was looking for. （那正是我刚才正在找的那本书。）

That is the word to be used here. （那是这里该用的唯一的词。）

He is the poet of the day. （他是现代最著名的诗人。）

Mary was the landlady. （玛丽是最典型的女房东。）

This is the drink for hot weather. （这个是热天最理想的饮料。）

在这种用法里，the该特别重读，手写该加上一横线在下面，印刷用斜体。the的重读，一向作［ðiː］，但因为the在不重读的时候通常作［ðə］，近几年来也有人在重读的时候读作［ðə］，如把the book读作［ˈðəˈbʊk］。

有时重读的the跟重读的a相对。例如：The lecture deals with the novel, not a novel. （这演讲论述长篇小说这文学类型，并不论述某一本长篇小说。）

4.the通常不用在人名、地名或其他专有名词的前面，但有例外：

（1）the用在姓的复数形式的前面，指“…家的人们”，如the Browns。the Browns也许指Brown家全体的人们，也许指Brown家的弟兄们、姐妹们、夫妇们、父子们、母女们，总之指Brown家的两人或两人以上。有一个不合理而合乎习惯的用法该注意：如把the John Browns用来指Brown夫妇和他们的子女，事实上只有John Brown自己叫John Brown，他的妻和子女并不叫John Brown。the Stuarts指英国Stuart王朝。the Ptolemies指埃及Ptolemy王朝。说“唐朝”、“宋朝”等英美人也往往用the T'angs， the Sungs等，实际是不合理的。

（2）Messrs Brown和the Messrs Brown都可以说。注意Brown作单数形式。

（3）the Mrs Browns里的the不可省去。注意Browns作复数形式。

（4）the Miss Browns和the Misses Brown里的the不可省去。参见miss 7

（5）the Brown children，the Brown brothers，the Brown sisters，the brothers Brown，the sisters Brown等表达方式里的the不可省去。

（6）Chairman Mao，Premier Zhou，King George，Queen Elizabeth，General Lee，Professor Clarke等前面没有the，但下面各种表达方式里习惯有the：

the Archduke Ferdinand，the Tsar Peter，the Emperor Napoleon，the Empress Wu（武则天）

Chairman Mao，Premier Zhou，King George，Queen Elizabeth，General Lee，Professor Clarke等都很普通。但下面各种表达方式都是美国报纸用语：

Author Jack London, Poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Critic J. Moore, Translator L. S. Greene, Lawyer P. Harrison, Farmer Wilson, Carpenter Maxwell

（7）用Reverend或Rev. 称牧师时前面可以用the或The，也可以不用，参见reverend

（8）下面各种表达方式里都没有the：

dear John, poor John, little John, dear little John, poor little John, young John, old John, beautiful Jane Brown, Immortal Shakespeare, honest James, Heroic Stalingrad, Ancient China, Elizabethan England, Feudal Europe

但the wise Solomon（聪明的所罗门［圣经人名］），the ambitious Caesar （有野心的恺撒［古罗马皇帝］）等表达方式里习惯有the，因为那形容词是表示那个人的特性的。相似的有the restless Byron，the dreamy Alice，the frightened Harry，the disappointed Edward等。the younger Pitt和the elder Pitt（都是英国政治家，都叫William Pitt，前者是子，后者是父）等表达方式里也习惯有the。参见young 2

（9）the用在姓的前面有时指有那个姓的最著名的人，例如假定某地有许多姓Brown的人，那最著名的是John Herbert Brown，the Brown便指John Herbert Brown。这样用法的the和3里所讲的the相同，该特别重读，手写该在下面加上一横线，印刷用斜体。

（10）在苏格兰和爱尔兰the用在族长的姓的前面，如the Mackintosh和the Macgillcuddy。

（11）the用在人名或地名前面有时指跟那个人或那地方相像的人或地方。例如：

Lu Xun（鲁迅）has been called the Gorky of China.

Which city in England do you think may be called the Shanghai of the West?

（12）the用在人名或地名前面有时指某时的某人或某地，有时指有那个名字的某一个个别的人或物。例如：

When he came back, he was no longer the Brown we had known twenty years before, nor did he find Tsinan the Tsinan he had then known.

The semi-feudal, semi-colonial China we used to live in is now a thing of the past.

The William Moore I know is a doctor.

The Cambridge, where Harvard University is, is so named in honour of the English university town.

（13）复数形式的地名前面有the。例如：

the Alps（山脉）

the Rockies（山脉）

the Cotswolds（苏格兰的小山脉）

the Ural Mountains

the Berkshire Hills

the East Indies（群岛）

the British Isles

the Philippine Islands

the Highlands（苏格兰的山区）

the Lowlands（苏格兰的平原区）

the Midlands（英格兰的中区［各郡］）

the Potteries（英格兰的瓷业区）

the Netherlands（国）

the United States (of America)（国）

the Americas（南北美洲［的各国］）

the Carolinas（美国的North Carolina和South Carolina两州）

the Dakotas（美国的North Dakota和South Dakota两州）

山脉名即使没有Mountains，Hills或...s，前面也有the，如the Altai和the Tianshan（天山）。

（14）河名、海名和洋名的前面有the。例如：

the Thames, the river Thames, the River Thames或the Thames River (参见river), the Yangtze River, the Huanghe, the Volga, the Rhine, the Ganges, the Baltic (Sea), the Caspian (Sea), the Pacific (Ocean), the Atlantic (Ocean)

但英国的地名Stratford-on-Avon，Stoke-on-Trent等里的Avon，Trent等虽然也是河名，却没有the。

（15）关于湖名前面有the或没有the，参见lake

（16）关于山名...Hill前面有the或没有the，参见hill 3

（17）关于路名...Road前面有the或没有the，参见road 3

（18）Argentine，Crimea，Hague，Punjab，Riviera，Sahara，S(o)udan，Transvaal，Tyrol和Ukraine各词的前面习惯有the，参见各词条。Hague前面通常用The，很少用the。

（19）East End（伦敦的东区），West End（伦敦的西区），East Side（纽约的东区），West Side（纽约的西区），English Channel, Persian Gulf各种表达方式前面有the。

但下面各种表达方式的前面没有the：

Buckingham Palace（白金汉宫）

London Bridge

Scotland Yard（伦敦警察厅）

Westminster Abbey（威斯敏斯特教堂）

Province of Jiangsu等表达方式前面有the，但Jiangsu Province等表达方式的前面没有the。

（20）船名前面可以有the（或The），也可以没有。在海军界往往不用the（或The），但在一般的文字里通常有the（或The）。用了the（或The）往往可以避免误解，如Queen Mary has just started里的Queen Mary也许指人，也许指船，但The Queen Mary has just started里的The Queen Mary一定指船，不指人。

（21） the Park Hotel, the Bedford（旅馆名），the Spreadeagle Inn, the George（客栈名），the Holborn（餐馆名），the Grand Theatre和the Shaftesbury（戏院名）各种表达方式里习惯有the。假使没有了the，Bedford，Holborn和Shaftesbury是地名，George是人名。

（22）书名、报纸名和杂志名的开首往往有The，如The Concise Oxford Dictionary, The Times和The Humorist。在不以The开首的书名、报纸名或杂志名前面也往往加上the。但假使原来以A开首，便不可有the，如A Dictionary of English Usage，决不可说the A Dictionary of English Usage。假使原来以人名开首或全名是人名，也不可有the，如不可说the Gulliver's Travels和the David Copperfield。但可以说The Dictionary of English Usage on the table is the new edition和The Gulliver's Travels I have borrowed from the library is a cheap reprint。

Bible前面有the。Scriptures前面有the，但Scripture前面没有the。

The Vicar of Wakefield里有The，但Oliver Goldsmith's (The) Vicar of Wakefield里的The可有可无。比较下面两句：

I advise you to consult The Oxford Companion to English Literature on the shelf.

I advise you to consult the Oxford Companion to English Literature on the shelf.

第二句里的the Oxford Companion to English Literature可能有三个意思：（a）书名里原来没有The或A。（b）书名的第一词原来是The。（c）书名的第一词原来是A。

（23）注意下面三句里的the：

A new Jack Lindsay and a new James Aldridge have just appeared, I have bought the Aldridge only. （［现代英国作家］Jack Lindsay的一本新著作和［现代澳洲作家］James Aldridge的一本新著作刚刚出版，我只买了Aldridge的那本新著作。）

He wants to sell the Turner. （他要出卖这张［英国19世纪画家Joseph Mallord William］Turner所作的画。）

She is sitting in the Ford. （她正坐在这辆Ford牌的汽车里。）

（24）文学作品或艺术作品的名称开首没有The的有时前面也加上the，表示它是著名的，如the Paradise Lost（英国诗人John Milton的长诗）和the Mona Lisa（意大利画家Leonardo da Vinci的名画“蒙娜·丽莎”）。

（25）United States (of America), United Kingdom和United Nations各种表达方式前面必须有the，但它们的简写形式（U.S.(A.), U.K.和U.N.）前面有时没有the。

5.注意下面各句里的English前面的有the或没有the：

Does he understand English?

Does he understand the English?

Is he making a study of the English language?

Does he study English literature?

Is this translated from the English?

This French word is derived from the English.

Can he translate from English into Chinese?

What is the English for "电木"?

He likes the story, but does not like the English.

第一句里的English统指英语，前面没有the。第二句里的the English指“英国民族”。第三句里用language，前面有the（参见language）。第四句里用literature，前面没有the（参见literature 1）。第五句里的English是from的宾语，有English original或English of the author的意思，前面有the。第六句里的English有English origin的意思。第七句里因为Chinese前面没有the，所以English前面也没有the。但加上the也可以。第八句里的English有English word或English expression的意思，前面有the。第九句里的English有English of the story的意思，前面有the。

6.比较下面各语：

Byron the poet（1.那著名的诗人拜伦［不是别人］2.就诗人而论的拜伦［不是就人而论或就革命者而论的拜伦］）

Byron, the poet（拜伦，那著名的诗人）

Byron, a poet（拜伦，一个诗人）

Byron, poet（跟Byron, a poet意思相同，人名词典等参考资料里往往没有a）

the poet Byron（诗人拜伦［不是其他诗人，也不是其他拜伦］）

7.下面每组里的三句意思相同（the..., a...和...s都统指...）：

第一组里的第一句最不普通，第三句最普通。第二组里的第二句不很自然。

注意不说The dogs are faithful animals和This dictionary will prove of great value to the Chinese students of English。下面两句都有the...s，注意指“某个民族”或“某种人”：

The Germans are an intersting people.

He says he keeps away from the lawyers and the doctors.

一般人统指狗说the dog或dogs而不说the dogs，统指蔷薇花说the rose或roses而不说the roses，动物学家说the dogs，植物学家说the roses。但该注意动物学家所说的the dogs指“狗科”的一切动物，植物学家所说的the roses指“蔷薇科”的一切植物，都是学术上的说法。统指一般的狗，动物学家也说the dog或dogs，统指一般的蔷薇花，植物学家也说the rose或roses。例如：

The dog is a faithful animal.

Dogs are faithful animals.

The rose is a beautiful flower.

Roses are beautiful flowers.

8.注意下面第一组里有the，第二组里没有the：

下面有两点该注意：

（1）第一组里的名词是乐器名，第二组里的名词是运动项目名。

（2）第一组里的the不可改作a，也不可把the...改作...s。

9.下面每组里的两句意思相同，

每组里的第一句不及第二句普通。the的这种用法主要流行在英国。

10.下面两句都作“这本书一千一千地售出”解：

This book sells by the thousand.

This book sells by thousands.

第二句不及第一句普通。

下面三句里的by the...不可改作by...s：

They sell it by the catty. （他们把这东西论斤出售。）

He works by the day. （他按日工作。）

The boat is hired by the hour. （这船按小时出租。）

11.下面三种表达方式意思不同：

on Monday（1.在最近过去的星期一　2.在以后的第一个星期一　3.在每星期一）

on the Monday（1.在那个［或已过，或未来的］星期一 2.在每星期一）

on Mondays（在每星期一）

12.the用在指人的词的前面有时指那种人的特性。例如：

The poet in me was then born. （我便在那个时候生出了诗人的性格。）

There is still much of the schoolboy in him. （他仍旧有学童的性格。）

也可以说the poet in us，不说the poets in us。

the用在指物的词的前面有时指跟那东西有关的事物。例如：

Peter is too fond of the bottle. （彼得太喜欢喝酒。）

He went on the stage at thirty. （他在30岁开始登台演戏。）

13.病名前面有时有the，有时没有，有下面两点该注意：

（1）gout，measles，smallpox，toothache等词的前面现在没有the比有the普通。

（2）creeps（肉麻感），dumps（忧郁病），horrors（惊恐病）等词都有俚语性质，前面习惯有the。

14.关于the twenties，the eighties等表达方式，参见eighty。the 1950's是20世纪50年代。

15.下面每组里的三种表达方式意思相同，注意第一种表达方式里有the，第二种表达方式和第三种表达方式里没有the，第三种表达方式最不普通：

16.the用在形容词或分词前面指：

（1）…的人们。例如：

the poor and the rich（穷人和富人）

The sick are here cared for. （病人在这里被看护着。）

The wounded and the dying were rushed to hospital. （受伤的人和垂死的人被急送到医院去。）

（2）…的一个人。例如：

The deceased (死者) was a great friend of mine.

The accused (被告) was soon acquitted.

（3）…的一切。例如：

Many readers loved the sensational. （许多读者爱好骇人听闻的一切事情。）

He has no eye for the beautiful. （他没有审美的眼光。）

（4）…的一件事。例如：

The unexpected always happens. （1.意料不到的事情常会发生。2.天有不测风云。）

The inevitable was not long in coming. （不可避免的事不久就发生了。）

可以说the leisured rich（有闲的富人），the hungry poor（饥饿的穷人），the aged poor（年老的穷人），all the bereaved poor of the district（那地方的失去了亲人的穷人）等。

17.两个或两个以上的名词在连用的时候往往省去the，如下面每组里最后一句里的斜体的名词前面没有the：

下面各句里的斜体的名词的前面也没有the：

The relations between parent and child are excellent.

Information about it is eagerly sought alike by friend and foe.

Rider and horse fell.

The article deals with the contact between East and West.

That is a sonata for violin and piano.

I often make mistakes on a typewriter that I never make with pen or tongue.

Please pass me pencil and paper.

The horizon is the apparent meeting place of earth and sky.

Doctor, nurse, and patient have become the best of friends.

References must be made to chapter, section, paragraph, page, and line.

from beginning to end, from head to foot, from top to bottom, from cellar to attic, live from hand to mouth (勉强生活着), keep body and soul together (勉强生活着), cannot make head or tail of (不了解)等表达方式里也没有the。这种the的省略也是同一性质的。

18.在亲密些的文字和口语里，往往在father，mother，uncle，nurse，cook等词前面省去the。例如：

Father is coming home tomorrow.

We are spending a pleasant holiday with mother.

Uncle has written us a very charming letter.

When the children were playing in the park, nurse talked to a friend.

Where is cook off to?

19.在重要职位名称的前面往往省去the。例如：

He held the post of (the) headmaster for fifteen years.

He is (the) manager of a bank.

She is (the) editor of a magazine for women.

John, (the) king of England, signed Magna Charta in 1215.

20.在呼唤语前面没有the。例如：

Shall I fetch the book, professor?

My eyesight is still weak, doctor.

21.在“膳食，一餐（meal）”的名称前面通常没有the。例如：

Breakfast is ready.

He has asked her to lunch.

They left the house after dinner.

She came too late for tea.

22.在下面各句里习惯用the而不用物主代词。例如：

The stone strunk him in the eye.

He touched me on the shoulder.

He caught me by the arm.

She patted the baby on the head.

注意He touched us on the shoulder里不用shoulders, She patted the babies on the head里不用heads。

23.属于最高级的词前面和序数词前面通常有the，如the youngest boy in the class和the second chapter。但有下面几种例外：

（1）在最高级的意味削弱的时候，如with best wishes和with kindest regards。

（2）在用在谓语里的属于最高级的副词的前面。例如：

The story I like best is a long novel.

She says she works best early in the morning and worst late at night.

What most pleased him (或What pleased him most) was the familiar style of the book.

（3）在most作“大多数（的）”解的时候。例如：

Most children like these stories.

Most exercise is beneficial.

Most of the children like these stories.

Most of the exercise is beneficial.

第三句和第四句里的Most of...在美国有时作The most of...，参见most 6

（4）在most作“很（very）”解的时候。例如：

It is most kind of you to say so.

Her letter is most interesting.

（5）在把属于最高级的形容词用在表示情感（emotion）的时候，比较下面每组里的各句：

每组里的第四句表示情感，但最不普通。

（6）在表语形容词的前面。例如：

The river is deepest at this point.

It is coldest at midnight.

但必须说This is the deepest part of the river和We have the coldest weather at midnight。

24.有许多习语是一个介词后面接着一个名词，那个名词的前面没有the。例如：

at hand, at home, in bed, in question, on foot, on purpose

有许多习语是一个及物动词后面接着一个名词，或一个不及物动词后面接着一个介词和一个名词，或一个及物动词后面接着一个名词和一个介词，那个名词的前面没有the。例如：

catch fire, follow suit, go to school, lose sight of

25.比较下面每组里的两句：

26.在报纸、杂志和书的标题里往往省去the，在广告和商业文件里也往往省去the。例如：

(The) Geneva Conference Opens on 17 July（标题）

(The) U. S. President in (the) West（标题）

Write for (the) free booklet. （广告）

Apply to (the) above address. （广告）

Use (the) coupon today! （广告或商业文件）

Copies of (the) catalogue will be sent shortly. （商业文件）

27.在电报、熟人之间的通信和日记里往往省去the。例如：

(I shall) Arrive (at the) office (on) Monday. （电报）

Father said (the) football match was a great success. （通信）

Perfect weather. (I) Spent (the) whole morning preparing (the) report on (the) Elements of English Phonetics. (The) Cat sat watching (the) goldfish, reminded me of Thomas Gray's poem. （日记）

28.在注解和定义里往往省去the。例如：

See (the) next word. （注解）

Circle: a space enclosed by a curved line every point of which is (the) same distance from (the) centre. （定义）

29.下面两种表达方式意思相同：

the nineteenth and the twentieth century

the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

the nineteenth and the twentieth centuries也有人说，但不好，因为这好像说一共有两个或两个以上的19世纪和20世纪。

比较下面每组里的两句：

Father and son disagree和Father and son agree也可以说，参见17

比较下面两种表达方式：

the black and the white cat（两只猫，一黑一白）

the black and white cat（一只黑白猫）

the black and white cats可能有四个意思：（1）两只猫，一黑一白。（2）两只黑白猫。（3）两只以上的猫，有黑有白。（4）两只以上的黑白猫。为避免误解起见，该改作：

the black and the white cat (1), the two black-and-white cats (2),

the black and the white cats (3), the black-and-white cats (4)

其中（4）也可以作“两只猫，一黑一白”解。

30.the往往在属于比较级的形容词或副词前面用作指示副词，作“为了那个”或“到那个程度地”解。例如：

Now that he has taken a long rest, he looks the better.

If you start now, you will be back the sooner.

I am the more interested in his work because he is my cousin.

As the hour approached, she grew the more nervous.

none the better, none the less等表达方式里的the就是这个指示副词（参见none 7）。nevertheless里的the也是（参见nevertheless）。

不要以为用在属于比较级的形容词或副词前面的the一定是副词，如下面两句里的the是冠词，不是副词：

I do not know which of his parents is the more interested in his work.

I do not know which of his parents is the more keenly interested in his work.

31.属于比较级的形容词或副词前面用了副词the，后面不可有than。假使那the不是副词而是冠词，后面也不可有than。参见than 7和8

32.so much the better和so much the worse两种表达方式很普通。严格地说，so much better（或worse）和the better（或worse）意思相同，so much the...有重复的毛病，但事实上so much the better（或worse）很普通。

33.在30里说过，指示副词the作“为了那个”或“到那个程度地”解。决不可在没有这种意思的时候随意用它，如下面两句里的the该删去：

That is surely a very important question, but we are the more interested in an entirely different one.

We must not expect any help from him, he is the more likely to interfere with our work.

34.从30到33所讲的the是指示副词，下面三句里的斜体the是关系副词，作“到某个程度地”解：

The sooner the better. （愈早愈好。）

The more learned a man is, the more modest he is (或is he). （一个人学问越好，越是谦虚。）

The more he tried to sleep, the more he could not. （他越想要睡着，越睡不着。）

She sang the worse, the more she practised. （她练习得越多，唱得越不好。）

下面几点该注意：

（1）一般说来，句子里有了关系副词the，必须也有指示副词the，下面两句不算正当：

The darkness increased the farther we advanced into the woods.

Men are only too willing to enjoy the amusement afforded by the buffoon, but they will treat him with increased contempt the more he serves them.—Hilaire Belloc

第一句可以改作It was the darker the farther we advanced into the woods。第二句可以改作Men are...with the more contempt the more he serves them。

（2）通常关系副词the在前，指示副词the在后。如第一、第二和第三句，偶尔指示副词the在前，关系副词the在后，如第四句。

（3）关系副词the用在从句的开首，不可用在从句的主语的后面，如不可说He tried the more to sleep, the more he could not或She sang the worse, she practised the more。

（4）the...the...通常用在短句里，往往是省略句，如第一句The sooner the better。

（5）第二句里用he is或is he都可以。同样地，下面每组里的两句都可以说：

（6）比较下面四句：

The more time you devote to your studies, the better.

The more the time you devote to your studies, the better.

The more the time that (或which) you devote to your studies, the better.

The more time that (或which) you devote to your studies, the better.

第一句最好。第二句等于The more the time that (或which) you devote to your studies is, the better。虽然不错，但不很自然。第三句等于第二句，也不很自然。第四句是错误的，该把that（或which）去掉，成为第一句。

theatre

1.theatre有时指“戏院、剧场”，有时指“电影院”。

2.go to the theatre里的the不可省去。

3.比较下面各句：

He turned his attention to the theatre and wrote many successful plays.

She specializes in the Elizabethan theatre.

He coached the young man in (the) theatre (演戏) and developed his power of improvisation.

I am afraid this play is not (没有the) good theatre. （恐怕这个剧本不宜于上演。）

their(s)

参见they

them

参见they

theme

theme指学生的“作文”，现在在英国很不普通，但在美国很普通。例如：The student has not yet handed in his theme.

then

1.注意下面每组里的第一句里没有then，第二句里有then：

每组的第一句里不可加上then，第二句里的then可有可无，有了语气重些。then含有“然后”或“当然”等意思。

2.把then用在句子的开首往往不好，如下面两个then都不好：

It is getting late. Then we ought to go to bed. （该改作As it is getting late, we ought to go to bed。）

He went out. Then his wife shut the door. （可以改作When he had gone out, his wife shut the door。）

3.下面两句在口语里都普通，在文字里有人以为该在then前面加上and：

She slept for a while, then took a walk.

He put on his cap, then started out into the night.

4.then and there和there and then都可以说。例如：I decided to do it then and there (或there and then).

thenceforth

thenceforth比thenceforward普通。参见henceforth 2

thenceforward(s)

thenceforward不及thenceforth普通。thenceforwards现在不用。

theoretic(al)

theoretical比theoretic普通。相当于这两种形式的副词都是theoretically。

theory

theory统指“学说（或理论）”，a theory是“一种学说（或理论）”，theories是“多种学说（或理论）”。

there

1.下面各句里的斜体部分都该删去。

When shall you go to there?

I found him at there.

We could not get into there.

He left his luggage on there.

下面各句里的斜体部分都用得不错：

When shall you go from there?

I walked up to there.

We live near there.

He passed by there.

注意：There are three chairs in there里的in是副词，不是介词。

2.There is a pen on the table和There are several boys in the room比A pen is on the table和Several boys are in the room普通得多。但尽可以说The pen is on the table和Several of the boys are in the room。

3.There are five trees behind the house里的主语是trees，所以该用are，不可用is。There are a well and a tree behind the house里的主语是a well and a tree，所以也该用are，但也有人用is，即使There is a well and two trees behind the house也有人说。下面两句都可以说：

There is a well behind the house and also a tree.

There are a well behind the house and also a tree.

There is five trees behind the house当然是错误的，但在口语里如下几句很普通：

There's many feeling the same way.

There's worse things than that.

There's no sweets left.

There's two of them.

4.There is a pen on the table里的is并不是不定式或动名词。注意下面第一句和第二句里用不定式to be，第三句和第四句里用动名词being：

Would you like there to be a picture on the wall?

I do not want there to be any misunderstanding between us.

I never dreamt of there being a picture on the wall.

I was wrong about there being some misunderstanding between us.

5.There is a boy at the door (who) wants to see you和There's nothing (that) stops you from seeing him if you want to等句子里的who和that在口语里往往省去。

6.James was the only man there was to see it和I hope this dictionary will prove of more use than any of its kind there has ever been里在there前面习惯没有关系代词。假使在第一句里加上了who或that，在第二句里加上了which或that，都不自然。

7.下面每组里的第一句和第二句是对的，第三句是错的：

8.下面两句当然不错：

There was a boy who showed me in.

There were a number of people who came to see the circus.

但都嫌累赘，可以改作：

A boy showed me in.

A number of people came to see the circus.

9.下面每句里的两个there的作用不同：

There is a garden there.

There there is a garden.

There, there is a garden.

There is always the garden there to weed.

10.注意下面各句里用was there，has there been等，不用There was，there has been等：

Not a soul was there to show us the way.

Never has there been a more perfect silence.

Seldom has there been less water in the brook.

Hardly ever have there been children under fifteen who could write such good verse.

Scarcely ever have there been fires in this neighbourhood.

By no means can there be any quarrelling between him and his brother.

Under no circumstances should there be any slackening in our work.

Nowhere else can there be lakes like these.

I have never met him, nor is there any chance of my meeting him in the future.

Only by our joint efforts can there be any hope of success.

11.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

12.There he goes! There goes the bell! 等句子里的goes不可改作is going。

thereafter

thereafter作after that，after it，after them等解，thereat作at that，at it，at them等解，therefor，therefrom等词也是这样。这些词使文体有“正式”或“古雅”的韵味，在一般文字里该避免。

thereat

参见thereafter

thereby

1.thereby似乎比thereafter，thereat等词普通。例如：Thank you for your advice, I hope to profit thereby.

2.参见thus 1

3.half a dozen or thereby（半打左右）等是苏格兰语，在英美用thereabouts或so，不用thereby。

therefor

1.参见thereafter

2.不可把therefor代表therefore。注意下面一句里的therefore和therefor: He decided not to buy the furniture and therefore was not prepared to pay therefor.

therefore

1.therefore前没有and时，前面用分号，如He was busy, and therefore could not come里用逗号，但He was busy, therefore he could not come里最好用分号。

2.在口语里很少用therefore，通常用that's why。

therefrom

参见thereafter

therein

参见thereafter

thereinto

参见thereafter

thereof

参见thereafter

thereon

参见thereafter

thereto

参见thereafter

thereupon

关于thereupon用作upon that等解，参见thereafter。有时用作“因而”或“立刻”解。例如：He got deeply interested in her work, thereupon he wrote to her about it. 和He heard her voice, thereupon he opened the door.

therewith

参见thereafter

these

1.关于these days和in these days，参见day 6

2.关于these kind(s)和these sort(s)，参见kind 3

3.these ones很不普通，参见one 4

they

1.不可用they，them，their等指anybody，everybody等词，参见anybody 3，everybody 3，nobody 2和one 7 (2)

2.参见company 2和party 1。用army，cabinet，committee，crowd，family，fleet，government，ministry，navy，public等词都该注意避免同样的错误。

3.they有时指“一般人”或“某人”。例如：They say she is a poet. 和They tell all sorts of stories about his eccentric ways. 有谚语说：They say so, is half a lie. （传闻多失实。）

下面两句里的they的用法不算正当：

I went into a shop where they sold toys. （最好把they sold toys改作toys were sold）

When I made inquiries at the counter, they told me that they knew

nothing about it. （最好把they told me that they knew nothing about it改作I was told that I could learn nothing about it there）

4.they who...（那…的人们）和they that...远不及those who...或people who...普通。谚语里往往用。例如：

They laugh best that (或who) laugh last. （事尚未定，且慢得意。）

They must hunger in frost that will not work in heat. （少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。）

thing(s)

1.things在用作“情形”解的时候前面不可有the，下面各句里在things前面都不可加the：

How are things?

I hope things will improve soon.

Then things grew worse.

Things seem to be going well.

He asked me how things looked.

Things are mending.

Things at the worst will mend. （即使最不好的情形，也会渐渐改善。）

Things are the other way about. （情形恰恰相反。）

Then things began to shape themselves more definitely. （当时形势开始变得更明朗了。）

From them I learnt how things had gone at the hotel.

Things are taking a turn for the better. （情形正在好转。）

2.things后面加上形容词作“…的一切事物”解。例如：I am not interested in things musical. She knows nothing about things French. 和When one beholds such beauty, one forgets all things earthly.

think

1.下面每组里的第一句比第二句普通：

注意不可没有of而有as，如不可说：

I think it as a shame.

This used to be thought as impossible.

2.下面四句意思相同：

I think it a shame.

I think it to be a shame.

I think it is a shame.

I think that it is a shame.

第三句和第四句比第一句和第二句通俗。

3.I do not think (that) it's going to rain today比I think (that) it's not going to rain today普通。

4.think后面接不定式作“想要…”，“以为将…”或“记着而做…”解。例如：

He did not think to deceive us. （他不曾想要欺骗我们。）

He did not think to meet us. （他不曾以为将遇到我们。）

He did not think to ask us about you. （他不曾记着而向我们问起你。）

有人以为这种用法不算正当。

5.下面每组里的两句都可以说，注意think和know不可对调：

6.下面每句里的how都该改作what：

How do you think?

How do you think of it?

He told me how he thought about it.

7.下面三句意思相同：

When she was alone, she thought the matter out.

When she was alone, she thought the matter over.

When she was alone, she thought over the matter.

下面几点该注意：

（1）第二句里的over是副词，第三句里的over是介词。think things out和think things over都可以说，但似乎不说think over things。

（2）think out着重在“彻底”，think over着重在“仔细”。

（3）think out a plan是“作出一个计划”，think a plan over或think over a plan是“再三考虑一个计划”。

8.下面两句都作“你想一想，（便可以知道）你的情况并不像你所说的那样坏”解：

When you come to think of it, things are not so bad with you as you say.

Come to think of it, things are not so bad with you as you say.

9.下面两句里的for可有可无，有人以为最好不用。

His plan may prove better than you think (for).

The weather has turned out as fine as we thought (for).

注意think for只用在比较级的后面。

10.think up作“想出”解，主要是美国英语。例如：Can you think up a reply? 和I must try to think up something to say.

11.下面各句里的think用作名词，是口语用法：

You had better have another think.

An occasional think might do you much good.

My think is that you've consulted the wrong man.

thirst

thirst（动词）作“口渴”解现在不用，如不说I thirst而说I am thirsty。

thirty

参见eighty

this

1.this three weeks（最近过去的三星期），this five years（最近过去的五年）等表达方式里可以用this，因为把three weeks和five years等当作一段时期，如three weeks指“三星期长的一段时间”，并不指“三个分开的星期”。但不用this而用these也很普通。参见that 4

2.this在信函或电报里往往用作this letter或this e-mail解。例如：When this reaches you, I shall have left China. 有许多信的第一句是This is to inform (或announce, certify等)...

3.this Wednesday，this week Wednesday，this coming Wednesday和this next Wednesday都指“本星期的星期三”，但都不是很好的英语，说next Wednesday或on Wednesday next就行了。on Wednesday this week也可以说，但不很自然。同样地，this June，this year June，this coming June和this next June都指“今年6月”，但都不是很好的英语，说next June或in June next就行了。in June this year也可以说，但不很自然。

4.this last Wednesday，this last Thursday等跟不用this相同，但语气略重。this past week，this past month，this past year等跟the past week，the past month，the past year等相同，但语气略重。this next week，this next month，this next year等跟不用this相同，但不是很好的英语。

5.下面第一句里的this指（打电话的）“本人”，第二句里的this指那被介绍的人，第三句里的this指对方：

This is Drake (speaking).

Professor Young, this is Mr King, a friend of mine from Tianjin.

Is this Miss Ball?

6.可以说this the twenty-first century和this our century。

7.this far，this long，this old，this late等表达方式里的this用作thus或so解，主要是美国口语。

8.关于this和that的区别，参见that 1

下面两句意思相同而语气略有不同：

He sat and thought: what could he do on a night like this?

He sat and thought: what could he do on a night like that?

第一句比第二句生动，用this表示那个人在想What can I do on a night like this?

9.关于this day和to this day，参见day 8和9

10.关于this day week等，参见day 10

thither

参见hither 1

those

1.关于those days和in those days，参见day 6

2.关于those kind(s)和those sort(s)，参见kind 3

3.those ones很不普通，参见one 4

4.下面五种表达方式意思相仿：

those mentioned

those who are mentioned

the persons mentioned

the persons who are mentioned

those persons who are mentioned

第五种表达方式语气最重。those persons mentioned也有人用，但不算正当。下面各种表达方式也不算正当：

those people named

those boys following us

those books in the list

those qualities essential to success

该把those改作the。参见that 5

though

1.关于though和although的不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）though可以用作副词，作“但是”解。但although不可，如He said he would come, he didn't, though里的though不可改作although。

（2）as though中的though不可改作although。参见as 18

（3）although比though正式而语气重，不及though通俗。

（4）although所引导的从句，通常指事实而不指设想，如下面第一句里用though，第二句里用although：

He would not be unhappy though he should have to live alone. （他即使不得不独自居住也不会不快乐。）

He was not unhappy although he had to live alone. （他虽然不得不独自居住，却并不不快乐。）

下面两句里的though不可改作although：

Let's not defer the trip though it rain (不用rains) tomorrow.

Though everybody desert (不用deserts) you, I will not.

2.下面三句意思相仿：

Though he lives alone, he is happy.

Though he lives alone, yet he is happy.

He lives alone, but he is happy.

注意不可说Though he lives alone, but he is happy。though..., but...是错误的。though..., nevertheless...和though..., still...都可以用，但都不及though..., yet...普通。

3.可以说Though alone，he is happy和Though annoyed，I consented。alone前面省去he is, annoyed前面省去I was。注意下面两句都不可说：

Though loving him, I cannot help him.

Though disliking the work, he had to do it.

though loving和though disliking都不可说，因为though I was loving和though he was disliking都不可说。该把loving改作I love，把disliking改作he disliked。

4.比较下面每组里的两句：

每组里的第二句比第一句语气重，注意第二句里的child或masterpiece前面没有a。

thought

1.thought统指“思想”，a thought是“一个思想”，thoughts是“多个思想”。

2.可以说He is deep in thought，也可以说He is in deep thought。

3.下面三句意思相同：

He has thoughts of going to Germany.

He has some thoughts of going to Germany.

He has a thought of going to Germany.

thousand

参见hundred和a, an 20 (5)

thrash

说“打（人）”用thrash，说“打（谷物）”通常用thresh。

thread

thread统指“线”，a thread是“一根线”，threads是“多根线”。

threat

1.threat是类名词，如We disregarded all his threats里的threats不可改作threat。

2.threat后面可以接不定式。例如：The tenants disregarded their landlord's threat to expel them.

3.注意下面第一句里用of，第二句里用to：

There was then a continual threat of war.

There was then a continual threat to peace.

threaten

1.threaten的宾语后面有时接以that引导的从句。例如：The landlord threatened his tenants that he would expel them unless they paid him within a week.

2.说“威胁（某人）使他做什么事”不可在threaten后面接指人的词和不定式，如不可说They threatened him to tell them everything。可以在him后面加上to force him。

3.threaten后面接不定式比接动名词普通，如He threatened to leave us比He threatened leaving us普通。

thresh

参见thrash

thrice

thrice在英国远不及three times普通，在美国比较常用，也不及three times普通。但在英美都通常说twice or thrice，不说twice or three times。

thrifty

thrifty用作“（植物）茂盛的”解现在只用在美国。

thrill

下面每组里的第一句比第二句普通：

下面第一句不及第二句普通：

He thrilled at the prospect.

He was thrilled at the prospect.

下面两句似乎同样普通：

She thrilled to learn that her suggestion had been accepted.

She was thrilled to learn that her suggestion had been accepted.

throat

throat有时指喉的内部，有时指喉的外部。例如：

He is suffering from an inflamed throat. （内部）

She is wearing a brooch at the throat. （外部）

through

1.through用作“完了的”解和through with用作“关于…完了的”解都是美国用法。例如：

Are you through?

Are you through with that job?

I am nearly through with the book.

I am anxious to get through with the examination.

get through with the examination是美国英语，作“考试完毕”解，get through the examination（没有with）英美通用，作“考试及格”解。

2.I am through with asking questions（我已经把要问的问题问完了）和I am through with smoking（我已经戒烟了）里的through是形容词。第一句里的with有时省去，with省去了through仍旧是形容词，asking却成了现在分词.

3.He was on tour throughout the country (from) April through July of this year里的 (from) April through July作“从4月一直到7月底”解，The book gives the titles of all English dictionaries published through 31 December, 1958里的through 31 December, 1958作“直到1958年12月31日（也包括那全天）”解。这里的through是近几年来才有的美国用法。不一定指时间，如也可以说from astronomy through zoology（从天文学直到动物学的种种科学）。

throughout

throughout含有“全部、整个”等意思，所以用了它便不该再用entire，whole等词。下面两句里的whole和entire是多余的，该删去：

He was with us throughout the whole week.

She did not miss a day throughout the entire session.

throw

1.比较下面三句：

He threw the ball to me. （他把皮球掷给我。）

He threw the ball at me. （他把皮球向我身上掷来［要伤害我］。）

He threw me the ball. （他把皮球掷给我。）

下面每组里的两句意思相同，不可把第一句里的to改作at：

2.throw a party（开联欢会）和throw a dance（开舞会）里的throw是俚语用法，含有“狂欢”或“热情奔放”的意思。

thunder

thunder统指“雷声”，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。有下面两点该注意：

（1）“一阵雷声”该说a peal of thunder。“多阵雷声”该说peals of thunder。

（2）复数形式thunders只用在譬喻里，如thunders of applause（雷鸣般的掌声）。

Thursday

参见Friday

thus

1.下面两句里都把thus用在现在分词前面，那现在分词并不属于某个固定的名词，thus前面都有逗号：

The tram stopped suddenly, thus causing the delay.

Mr Fox fell ill, thus making it necessary for us to find a substitute for him.

这种结构在报纸里很普通，有时不用thus而用thereby。有人以为不正当，该把thus (或thereby)...ing改作以which引导的从句。例如：

The tram stopped suddenly, which caused the delay.

Mr Fox fell ill, which made it necessary for us to find a substitute for him.

2.thus and so是美国英语。例如：He told me that he had done thus and so in the matter. 在英国用thus或so，不用thus and so。

tidings

1.tidings带有文学韵味，远不及news普通。

2.tidings原来是复数形式，偶尔被当作单数，如these tidings和this tidings。

tiffin

在半殖民地时代我国上海等地的英美人往往用tiffin，但在英美本国并不用它，而用lunch。

tiger

在把虎当作打猎对象的时候，通常用单数形式而不用复数形式。例如：They went out hunting tiger.

till

1.不论用作介词或连接词，till比until普通，在比较正式的文字里多用until。但有下面两点该注意：

（1）在true till death中的till不可改作until。在from...till...里用till比用until普通，如from January till March。unless and until中的until不可改作till。

（2）在一句的开首似乎until比till普通，如Until his arrival we could do nothing和Until he arrived we could do nothing里用Until，似乎通常不用Till。

2.till或until引导的从句里不可用shall，will或would，如不可说：

He will wait till (或until) I shall arrive. （该用arrive）

I shall wait till (或until) he will arrive. （该用arrives）

I waited till (或until) he would arrive. （该用arrived）

但假使那主句里的动词是过去式，那till或until引导的从句里往往用should。例如：

I waited till (或until) he should arrive.

He waited till (或until) I should arrive.

should arrive含有“盼望…来”的意思，arrived含有“…果然来”或“…一定来”的意思。

3.下面各句里的till或until都用得不对：

I hope to finish the work till (或until) Friday.

I hope to finish the work till (或until) he arrives.

I had not been there long till (或until) his arrival.

I had not been there long till (或until) he arrived.

第一句、第二句和第三句里的till或until该改作before，第四句里的till或until该改作before或when。

但下面各句里的till或until都用得不错：

I am afraid I cannot finish the work till (或until) Friday. （用before也可以）

I am afraid I cannot finish the work till (或until) he arrives. （用before也可以）

I remained there till (或until) his arrival.

I remained there till (或until) he arrived.

为什么前四句里不可用till或until，后四句里却可以用呢？因为：（1）假使没有否定的词，那till或until所引导的短语或从句指一段时期（a period of time）。（2）假使有了否定的词，那till或until所引导的短语或从句指一段时间里的任何一点（point）。前四句里的第一句和第二句里没有否定的词，但finish是一时的动作，所以不对，后四句里的第一句和第二句里有否定的词，所以对。前四句里的第三句和第四句里有否定的词，但had been却指一段时间的情况，所以不对，后四句里的第三句和第四句里没有否定的词，remained指一段时间的情况，所以对。

4.下面两句里的till或until是错误的：

I shall start till (或until) Friday. （该用on）

I shall start till (或until) he arrives. （该用when）

假使在start前面加上了not，两句里的till或until便用得不错。

5.比较下面两句：

Don't wait till I come.

Don't go till I come.

第一句里的till I come是状语从句，形容wait，第二句里的till I come也是状语从句，却形容don't go。

可以说Wait till I come，但不可说Go till I come。

6.till或until指时间，不指空间，如下面第一句不错，第二句不对：

He walked till (或until) he reached the end of the street.

He walked till (或until) the end of the street.

7.下面两句的正确意思是“他直到死了才结婚”。当然不对：

He did not marry till (或until) his death.

He did not marry till (或until) he died.

该改作He never married。

8.下面两句意思相同。注意第二句里用did he go，不用he did go或he went：

He did not go abroad till (或until) he graduated.

Not until (用till不普通) he graduated did he go abroad.

9.下面三句意思相同，有人以为第三句不算正当：

Up to then he had lived alone.

Till then he had lived alone.

Up till then he had lived alone.

timber

1.timber统指“木料”，a timber是“一块（有一定形状的）木料”，timbers是“多块（有一定形状的）木料”。

2.timber用作“性格”或“人才”解主要是美国英语。例如：We found him to be the right sort of timber.

time

1.说“现在什么时候？”用What is the time? 或What time is it? 都可以。

2.What time will he be back this evening?和At what time will he be back this evening?都可以说。

3.“一次”通常不说a time或one time，该说once，“两次”通常不说two times，该说twice。但下面几点该注意：

（1）在a time or two（一二次）里用a time。例如：I have met with this phrase a time or two.但这不及once or twice普通。

（2）在many a time（许多次）里用a time。例如：I have played chess many a time.

（3）one time有时作“曾经有一次”解。例如：One time a stranger wrote to her asking for her autograph.但不及once普通。

（4）在one time in ten（十次中的一次）等表达方式里用one time。

（5）在two or three times（两三次）里用two times。说twice or thrice也可以，也有人用twice or three times，但很少见。

4.I have met him three (或four) times等句子里的three times的前面没有for。

5.下面第一句里用the，通常有for，偶尔没有for。第二句里用a，通常没有for，偶尔有for：

When I saw him (for) the second time, he was already married.

When I saw him (for) a second time, he was already married.

for the ... time比(for) a... time确定，如下面第一句里用for the second time，第二句里用(for) a second time：

You ought to read it three times, when you read it for the second time, you ought to pay attention to the sentence structure.

I have seen him once, I do not know whether I shall ever see him (for) a second time.

6.比较下面四句：

How often do you have your hair cut?

How frequently does the heart beat?

How many times does the heart beat each minute?

How many times have you been absent this term?

第三句和第四句都要求对方说明“次数”。

7.注意下面每句里用属于完成时态的动词。那that可有可无：

This is the first time (that) I have seen him.

This is the third time (that) I have been here.

That was the third time (that) I had been there.

8.下面两句意思相同，第二句不算正当：

That was the fourth time for him to leave home.

That was his fourth time to leave home.

9.three times four是“三乘四”，不是“四乘三”。就语法讲，three times four=four reckoned three times=four multiplied by three，那three times是状语短语，所以Three times four is (或are) twelve里的主语是four，不是Three，也不是times。注意three times four后面的动词用单数形式或复数形式都可以。当然，Three times one is three里的is不可改作are。

说“一乘…”该说once...，不说one time...。例如：Once two is (或are) two. 说“二乘...”该说twice...，不说two times...。例如：Twice three is (或are) six.

10.下面第一句和第二句意思相同，但第三句不同：

Your house is three times the size of mine. （你的房子是我的房子的三倍大小。）

Your house is three times as large as mine.

Your house is three times larger than mine. （你的房子比我的房子大三倍［就是我的房子的四倍大小］。）

只可说Twenty-one is three times as much as seven，不可说Twenty-eight is three times more than seven。

11.at that time当然不错。但下面几点该注意：

（1）中国学生似乎用得太多，可以用then代替它，有时竟可以删去。

（2）中国学生往往用作“后来便…”解，是错误的，如不可说I saw a mad dog running towards me, at that time I was greatly frightened。该把at that time删去。at that time作“正在那个时候”解，它所形容的动词所表示的动作或情况并不发生在上文所说的什么的以后。例如：

I saw a mad dog running towards me, at that time I was talking to a friend.

I saw a mad dog running towards me, at that time I was engaged in conversation.

He published his first novel at twenty, he was at that time a freshman.

Everybody was wondering what had become of the little girl and her parents even talked of reporting her disappearance to the police, she was at that time alone with her doll in her bedroom.

12.下面每组里除了第一句以外都有“我们不该再延迟”的含意：

下面几点该注意：

（1）time前面没有a或the。

（2）在口语里往往省去It is或It was。

（3）用high不及不用high普通。

（4）用that不及不用that普通。

（5）should start不及started普通。

（6）第一组里的第三、第四、第五和第六各句里的started改作start也通，但远不及started普通。

（7）每组里的第三、第四、第五和第六句里的started原来属于虚拟过去式，但现在通常用陈述过去式，如通常说It is (或was) (high) time (that) I was told about the matter，不说It is (或was) (high) time (that) I were told about the matter。当然，在we were，we started，I started等表达方式里的were和started在虚拟过去式和陈述过去式里形式相同。

（8）每组里的第三、第四、第五和第六句里的started改作were starting也可以，但不很普通。

（9）第一组里的第三、第四、第五和第六句里用started，在形式上是过去时态，在事实上却指未来。说这四句的任何一句的时候实际还不曾start。这种结构似乎很奇特，但实际是很普通也很纯正的英语，你在读书的时候见到它，别以为那属于过去时态的动词是印错的。

（10）下面两句意思相同：

It is getting time we started. （我们该动身的时候快到了。）

It is about time we started.

13.下面两句意思不同：

It is time to start. （现在是该动身的时候了。）

There is time to start. （动身以前还有足够的时间呢［不必着急］。）

14.this time是“这次”，有“跟前次不同”的意思，at this time是“现在”。例如：

He called on me again, this time in the evening. （他又来拜访我了，这次［跟前次不同］是在晚上来的。）

'So he isn't here, you say?' asked the lady, this time in a firm voice and with an odd sort of smile. （“那末你说他不在这里，是吗？”那女子问道，这次［跟前次不同］用一种坚定的语声，带着一种奇怪的微笑。）

Think about the matter again, more seriously this time. （再把这事情考虑一下，这次［不可像前次那样］应该更加慎重些。）

I do not know where he is at this time. （我不知道他现在在哪里。）

15....times是“…次”，at...times是“在…个时候”。例如：

I met him several times. （我遇到了他好几次。）

I met him at several times. （我在好几个时候遇到了他。）

但比较下面两句：

I hope to read the poem another time. （1.我希望把这首诗再读一次。2.我希望在另一个时候读这首诗。）

I hope to read the poem again another time. （我希望在另一个时候把这首诗再读一下。）

第一句用在第二个意思的时候，可以在another前面加上at，第二句可以在another前面加上at。

16.in five weeks是“在五星期以后”或“在五星期以内”（参见in 2），in five weeks time是“在五星期左右以后”。

17.关于at a time和at one time的不同，参见a, an 20 (3)

18.in time作“及时地”、“及时的”或“最后地”解。例如：I hope you will arrive in time. I hope you will be in time. 和You will succeed in time. 在用作“及时地”或“及时的”解的时候，后面往往接for或不定式，但不可接for和动名词，如可以说I hope you will arrive (或be) in time for the ceremony和I hope you will arrive (或be) in time to attend the ceremony，不可说I hope you will arrive (或be) in time for attending the ceremony。

19.on time原来是美国英语，相当于英国英语up to time，作“准时地”或“准时的”解。例如：The train arrived on time. 和She is always on time. 在美国有时作“分期付款的”解。例如：He has bought a television set on time.

20.关于any time，参见any 7。关于each time，参见each 10。关于every time，参见every 8。关于all the time，参见all 11

tire(d)

1.tire用作及物动词或不及物动词都可以，但下面几点该注意：

（1）用作及物动词有时作“使疲乏”解，有时作“使厌倦”解。 例如：Walking tires（使疲乏）me. （但tires me似乎不及makes me tired普通。）和He often tires（使厌倦）me with his long stories about his childhood. tire（某人）of...作“使（某人）对于…感觉厌倦”解。例如：Ten years spent in the same village may tire you of many of the familiar scenes.

（2）用作不及物动词有时作“感到疲乏”解，有时作“厌倦”解。例如：He soon tires（感到疲乏）because he is in poor health. 和If you hear the same good story repeated, you will sooner or later tire（厌倦）. tire of作“对于…厌倦”解。例如：If you hear the same good story repeated, you will sooner or later tire of it.

（3）tire（厌倦）后面可以接of和动名词，不可接不定式，如You will sooner or later tire of listening to it里的of listening不可改作to listen。

（4）tire out作“使…极疲乏”或“使…极厌倦”解，那tire是及物动词。

2.tired前面用very，不用much。

3.tired of是“对于…感觉厌倦的”，tired with是“因…而感觉疲乏的”。

4.make sb. tired在美国往往作“使（某人）感觉不愉快”解。

tiresome

tiresome通常作“令人厌倦的”或“令人感觉不愉快的”解，很少用作“使人疲乏的”解，决不可用作“感觉厌倦的”、“感觉不愉快的”或“感觉疲乏的”解。说“使人疲乏的”通常用tiring。例如：It is tiring work. 和He had a tiring climb that morning.

title

1.关于title和subject的不同，参见subject 2

2.title在出版界往往指“书名所代表的书”。例如：The following titles will be published in the autumn. （下面各［书名所代表的］书将在秋季出版。）

3.下面两句里的under或with不可改作on：

He has written a book under the title Idiomatic English.

He has bought a book with the title Correct Usage.

4.The book is titled Advanced English Grammar里的titled现在很不普通，该改作entitled。

to

1.have (或has，或had) been to...作“刚才到过…”解。例如：

I have been to Nanjing.

Has anybody been to the station?

I have been to my uncle's about some family matters.

They had been to several places during the holidays.

2.下面每组里的第一句不及第二句普通：

下面几点该注意：

（1）假使把my book或my name改作this，these，that或those，每组里的两种形式都普通。

（2）假使把my book或my name改作it或them，每组里的第一句也普通，但第二句很不普通。

（3）下面每组里的第一句是英国拼写形式，第二句英美通用：

（4）下面两句都很不普通：

I shall give (或lend，或send) them him.

I shall tell them him.

（5）下面各句都不可说：

I shall give (或lend，或send) my book him.

I shall give (或lend，或send) this (或these，或that，或those) him.

I shall tell my name him.

I shall tell this (或these，或that，或those) him.

I shall give (或lend，或send) to him it (或them).

I shall tell to him it (或them).

（6）下面各句都很不普通：

I shall give (或lend，或send) to him my books.

I shall tell to him my name.

I shall give (或lend，或send) to him this (或these，或that，或those).

I shall tell to him this (或these，或that，或those).

（7）上面所举的各例里都用him，是代词。假使不用代词而用名词，如John、my brother或the girl，在（3）里各组的第一句都很不普通。

3.可以说Did you say it was five (minutes) past four or five (minutes) to? (to=to four)

4.to是不定式的符号，如I want to go。但在若干词语后面的不定式里习惯没有to。例如：I heard him cry. 和You need not come.

5.不定式的符号to和动词的中间假使加上了副词或状语短语，这种不定式叫做分裂不定式，如to firmly believe和to at once start。传统的语法家以为分裂不定式是不该用的。但有时为了避免意思含糊，就不妨一用。

6.下面各句里的to都代表不定式：

You may go if you wish to. (to=to go)

He wanted to do it, but I told him not to. (to=to do it)

I have asked her to come, but she does not care to. (to=to come)

Though you do not want to ask him again, I am afraid you will have to. (to=to ask him again)

Though I didn't want to, I was persuaded to go. (to=to go)

这种用法在口语里比在文字里普通。

7.to是不定式的符号，在该在介词to后面接动名词的场合该注意避免用不定式，如该说in addition to doing和devoted to doing，不可说in addition to do和devoted to do。

8.The only thing you have to do is (to) press the button和All he could do was (to) rush into the room等句子里的to可以省去。

9.不可把不定式...to...? 用作疑问句，如不可说How to solve the problem? 和What to say to him about it? 该改作How shall we solve the problem? 或How is the problem to be solved? What should we say to him about it? 或What is to be said to him about it?

toast

toast统指“烤面包片”，是物质名词。a toast（一片烤面包）和toasts（多片烤面包）现在很不普通，“一片烤面包”和“多片烤面包”通常说a slice of toast和slices of toast。

tobacco

复数形式tobaccos是“多种烟草”。

today

1.It is warm today比Today is warm普通。但Today is Friday和It is Friday today同样普通。

2.该说I shall see him today和I have seen him today，不可在today前面加上on。

3.可以说today's papers（今天的报纸），但不可说today's China，该改作China of today。

4.today在记事里有时指上文说起过的那一天。例如：Today he was more cordial than ever.

5.all today不及all day today合乎习惯。

6.It was just a week ago (today) 和That happened exactly two years ago (today)等句子里用today比不用today语气重。

7.today week=this day week, today month=this day month，参见day 10

8.下面两句意思略有不同：

I saw him today. （我今天看见他。）

I have seen him today. （我今天看见过他。）

together

1.关于all together和altogether的区别，参见altogether

2.meet，cooperate，collaborate等词后面的togerther是多余的，该删去。

tomb

参见grave

tomorrow

1.Tomorrow will be Monday和Tomorrow is Monday都可以说。It will be Monday tomorrow和It is Monday tomorrow也都可以说。

2.I hope it will be fine tomorrow比I hope tomorrow will be fine普通。

3.该说I shall see him tomorrow，不可在tomorrow前面加上on。

4.tomorrow在记事里有时指上文说起过的某天的明天。例如：They were talking about the company they were going to have tomorrow.

5.all tomorrow不及all day tomorrow合乎习惯。

6.tomorrow week有两个意思：（1）“一星期以前的明天”（假定今天是星期五，就是上星期六）。（2）“一星期以后的明天”（假定今天是星期五，就是下星期六）。tomorrow month也有两个意思：（1）“一个月以前的明天”（假定今天是4月5日，就是3月6日）。（2）“一个月以后的明天”（假定今天是4月5日，就是5月6日）。a week ago tomorrow有tomorrow week的第一个意思，a month ago tomorrow有tomorrow month的第一个意思。

ton

在数字的后面用ton或tons都可以，如ten ton(s) of coal。

tone

下面每组里的两句意思相同：

但in a tone of apology, in a tone of command等表达方式不可改作in tones of apology, in tones of command等。

tongs

1.a tongs=a pair of tongs。

2.注意Where are the tongs里用are。

tongue

German tongue（德语）等表达方式前面有the。

to(-)night

1.该说I shall see him to(-)night，不可在to(-)night前面加上on。

2.to(-)night有时指全夜，如I hope to sleep better to(-)night，有时指就寝以前，如I am going to a meeting to(-)night。

3.to(-)night在记事里有时指上文说起过的那一夜。例如：She could not to(-)night concentrate her mind.

too

1.too通常比also语气轻。

2.too（也）在英国不用在句子或从句的开首，但在美国有时这样用，如下面两句是美国英语：

Too, your plan will save a lot of money.

You will go to the lecture, too, I shall go.

在英国说：

Your plan will save a lot of money too.

You will go to the lecture, I shall go too.

3.说“也不”不可在否定的词的后面用too，如可以说He did not come, and she too did not come，但不可说He did not come, and she did not come too，这里的too该改作either。说“不也”可以在否定的词的后面用too。例如：He came, but she did not come too. （他来了，但是她不会［也］来。）

4.too beautiful a garden比a too beautiful garden普通而自然，参见a, an 23。通常不说my too big dog，最好改作my dog, which is too big。

5.下面三句意思相同：

It is too hot to eat.

It is too hot to be eaten.

It is too hot for eating.

但不可说It is too hot for being eaten。

下面两句都可以说，但第二句不很自然：

It is too hot for me to eat.

It is too hot to be eaten by me.

但不可说It is too hot for my eating或It is too hot for being eaten by me。

下面两句都可以说：

I am too cold to sit outside.

It is too cold to sit outside.

6.在过去分词前面，too跟too much的不同相当于very跟much的不同，参见much 3 (5)

7.可以说He could not speak, he was too angry。这句里的too的用法跟so 6里第五句He could not speak, he was so angry里的so的用法相仿。

8.谚语Too too will in two（过分亲密的朋友会吵嘴）里没有动词。

9.关于only too，参见only 5

10.关于none too，参见none 7

11.关于too ready to blame others, too ready to make mistakes等表达方式的结构，参见ready 2

比较下面每组里的两句：

top

at the top of the tree, at the top of his voice和at the top of his speed各种表达方式里都有the，但on top of和on the top of都可以说，the似乎不用的多，用的少。on top里没有the。例如：The red book is on top and the black one is underneath. 和He came out on top in the examination.

torment

关于a tormented voice（一个痛苦的语声）等，参见much 3 (5) E

torture

可以说They tortured him to get some information，不可说They tortured him to give some information。但可以说They tortured him to make him to give some information。

关于this tortured moment（这个受苦的时刻）等，参见much 3 (5) E

tough

tough用作“兇恶的”或“恶棍”解是美国英语。

tour

on tour和on a tour都可以说。

toward(s)

在英国towards比toward普通，在美国toward比towards普通。

town

1.关于town和city的区别，参见city 2

2.in town，out of town，come to town，go (up) to town，leave town等表达方式里习惯没有the，town指附近的大城，在英国往往指伦敦，有时指附近的大城。指伦敦往往用大写字母开首。在乡村说the town指附近的市镇。

3.关于down town和up town，参见down(-)town和up(-)town

trade

1.下面三句意思不同：

He is in trade. （他是零售店主人。）

He is in the trade. （他是在这个行业里［不论工业或商业］。）

He is engaged in trade. （他从事于商业。）

2.by trade通常指carpenter，shoemaker，mason，tailor，blacksmith等职业，不指teacher和writer等职业，如可以说He is a tailor by trade，不说He is a teacher by trade。

3.trade union和trades union都可以用。

trader

1.foreign trader通常指“从事于国外贸易的人”，不指“外国的商人”。

2.参见tradesman

tradesman

1.tradesman 在英国现在只指小商人，尤其指“零售店主”，trader指“把货物供给零售商的大商人”。

2.tradesman 指“手艺人（craftsman或artisan）”，现在只用在美国，但也不很普通。

tradespeople

tradespeople 指“小商人（tradesman）”，往往包括他们的家属。

tradition

tradition 统指“传统”或“传说”，a tradition是“一个传统或传说”，traditions是“多个传统或传说”。

traffic

traffic 前面很少加a，如A brisk traffic was going by。

tragedy

统指“悲剧”，说tragedy, the tragedy或tragedies都可以。

tragic(al)

tragical 现在远不及tragic普通。相当于两种形式的副词是tragically。

train

1.train 指“列车”，并不指“一节车厢”。“一节车厢”该说a carriage，a coach或a car，说“多节车厢”该说carriages，coaches或cars。a car和cars是美国英语，参见car

2.下面每组里的第一句主要是英国英语，第二句主要是美国英语：

3.railway train=train

4.比较下面两句：

They trained him to fly. （他们训练他飞行。）

They trained him for flying. （他们训练他，使他学习飞行。）

用for ...ing表示那 ...ing成为一个科目。

5.比较下面四句：

She trained as a nurse. （她受训做护士。）

She was training as a nurse. （她正在受训做护士。）

She was trained as a nurse. （1.她受训做护士。2.她已经被训练成护士。）

She was being trained as a nurse. （她正在受训做护士。）

tram

tram（电车）是英国英语，在美国说“电车”通常用street(-)car，trolley或trolley-car（或trolley car）。

tram(-)car

tram(-)car（电车）=tram

tram(-)line

tram(-)line（有轨电车路线）是英国英语，在美国“有轨电车路线”通常说street(-)car line或street(-)railway。

tramway

tramway=tram(-)line

trample

trample和trample on（或upon）似乎没有区别。

transfer

下面两句意思相同，第二句似乎只用在美国：

He was soon transferred to another school.

He soon transferred to another school.

transient

transient在英国很不普通，但在美国很普通。在美国往往用作temporary，casual，ephemeral或periodical解。有时用作名词，指“暂时的寄宿者”。

translate(d)

1.I shall translate this story into English等句子里的into不可改作in或to。

2.translated edition指“译本”，不指“原文本”，参见revise(d) 2

translation

注意下面两句里的the：

He did translation from the English for years.

He worked at translations from the English for years.

translator

谚语　Translators, traitors. （翻译者都不忠实。）等于Translators are traitors.

transpire

transpire用作“发生”解，主要用在报纸、商业文件和公文里。

transport(ation)

“运输”（不论指人或货物）在英国通常用trasnsport，在美国通常用transportation。

Transvaal

Transvaal（南非地名）前面有the。

travel(led)

1.下面第三句跟第二句意思相同：

He has travelled in Europe.

He has travelled through Europe.

He has travelled Europe.

2.说“游历”往往用复数形式travels。例如：

He is just back from his travels.

He is writing a book about his travels.

He saw many strange things on (或during，或in) his travels abroad.

He likes books of travels.

第四句里的travels改作单数形式也可以。

3.“游记文学”该用复数形式travels。例如：He prefers travels to fiction.

4.不可说a travel，也不可说many travels。

5.travelled（富有旅行经验的、曾到过很多地方的）是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。例如：He is widely travelled.

traveller

African traveller有时指“旅行的非洲人”，有时指“在非洲旅行者”，English African traveller指“在非洲旅行的英国人”。

treat

1.下面两句意思相同：

The article treats an important subject.

The article treats of an important subject.

2.注意Which doctor is treating you for this trouble? 里用for。

trip

1.trip在英国通常指短距离的行程，在美国往往指长距离的行程，a trip to the moon主要是美国英语。make a trip和take a trip都可以说。在美国用make通常指“有特定目的的行程”，用take通常指“旅行”。

2.pleasure trip是“把游玩做目的的行程”，跟pleasant trip不同。pleasure trip跟business trip相反。

triplicate

a letter in triplicate是“有一式三份的某信”，a triplicate of a letter是“某信的第二副本”。

trolley

1.trolley用作“电车”解是美国英语。也作trolley-car或trolley car。

2.trolley或trolley-car（或trolley car）是“有轨电车”，trolley-bus（或trolley bus）或trolley-coach（或trolley coach）是“无轨电车”，不可混淆。

trolley-bus

参见trolley 2

trolley-car

参见trolley

trolley-coach

参见trolley 2

troop

a troop是“一队骑兵”，two troops是“两队骑兵”，several troops是“若干队骑兵”。但troops指“军队”，those troops是“那些军队”，a thousand troops是“一千个兵”。

trouble(d)

1.说“努力”或“辛劳”只可用单数形式trouble，不可用复数形式troubles。take trouble里没有the，但take the trouble to...（不定式）里必须有the。例如：He was good enough to take trouble. 和He was good enough to take the trouble to open the door.

2.He was as well rewarded for his troubles as for his trouble是“他为了他的种种困难，正像为了他的努力一样，得到了充分的报酬。”就是说“他不曾白费力，也不曾白吃苦。”

3.谚语Never trouble trouble till trouble troubles you是“烦恼寻你没办法，总勿自去寻烦恼”。用作名词的trouble前面没有the。

4.The trouble is that we have not much paper left等句在口语里往往省去The，改作Trouble is that...

5.I had little trouble (in) getting the work done里的in可有可无。

6.I am troubled with chilblains和I am troubled by chilblains都可以说。

7.关于a troubled look（一个烦恼的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

troublesome

troublesome是“令人烦恼的”，不是“感觉麻烦的”。

trouser(s)

1.“一条裤子”该说a pair of trousers。a trouser也有人用，但不算正当。

2.trouser pocket和trousers pocket（裤袋）都可以用。

3.trousers指男子的长裤，并不泛指一切裤子。二次大战后，英美女子也有穿长裤的。

trouser(s)-pocket

参见trouser(s) 2

truck

truck用作“商品蔬菜”解是美国英语。

true

1.What I have said is also true of us Chinese（我所说的话对于我们中国人也是对的）和The same may be true of your friends（你的朋友们也许也是这样）等句子里习惯用of。

2.True, ...和It is ture that...作“…虽然是真的”解，后面通常有but...。例如：

True, this is much cheaper than that, but it is not half so strong. （这个当然比那个便宜得多，但是不及那个的一半坚固。）

It is true that the sentence is grammatically perfect, but it does not read naturally. （这句子虽然在语法上是完美的，但是它读起来不自然。）

这两句可以改作：

This is much cheaper than that, it is true, but it is not half so strong.

The sentence is grammatically perfect, it is true, but it does not read naturally.

下面有三点该注意：

（1）在没有“虽然”的意思的时候不该用True, ...或...it is true，但可以用it is true。例如：

Never is perhaps an exaggeration, but it is true that he often speaks for hours together without mispronouncing a single word.

You may not think much of my work, it is true, however, that I always do my best.

（2）True, ...里偶尔在True后面加上enough。

（3）It is ture that...偶尔作True that...。

trunk

参见trunk-call

trunk-call

trunk-call（长途电话）或trunk call主要用在英国，在美国通常说long-distance call。

trust

1.trust（名词）后面接in，如his trust in her。

2.下面三句意思略有不同：

I trust him. （我信任他［相信他不会辜负我］。）

I trust in him. （我信赖他［相信他必能有益于我］。）

I trust to him. （有时跟第一句相同，有时跟第二句相同，但往往含有“过分相信”的意思。）

下面三句里用trust，trust in或trust to似乎都可以：

I do not always trust (或trust in，或trust to) my own judgement.

I trust (或trust in，或trust to) your discretion.

You had better not trust (或trust in，或trust to) the impulse of the moment.

3.下面第一句和第二句意思相同，但第三句意思略有不同：

I will trust him with the money. （我要把这钱托给他。）

I will trust the money to him. （跟第一句相同）

I will trust the money with him. （我要把这钱交给他。）

4.下面两句意思不同：

I trust to see him again some day. （我很希望有一天再见他。）

I trust to seeing him again some day. （我相信必有一天再见他。）

5.下面每组里的两句意思相同，但第一句比第二句通俗：

6.下面两句意思相同，第一句比第二句普通。

He trusts the little girl to walk over the bridge alone.

He trusts the little girl about walking over the bridge alone.

下面两句意思相同：

Trust him to get away with it. （［你可以放心］他总会干了坏事而安然无事的。［讥讽语］）

Trust him for getting away with it.

trustful

trustful是“深信不疑的”。trustworthy是“值得信任的”，就是“可靠的”。trusty作trustworthy解现在不普通。

trustworthy

参见trustful

trusty

参见trustful

try

1.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

每组里的第一句多用在文字里。第二句多用在口语里。第二句比第一句语气重些。参见and 5

2.try后面接不定式或动名词都有。例如：Have you ever tried to cook?和Have you ever tried cooking? 用不定式比用动名词普通。用了动名词把它所表示的动作看作一件特别的事，比较下面两句：

He tried to read, but he was too tired to read much.

He tried reading, but that could not make him forget his trouble.

下面一句里的writing和painting是指“写作”和“绘画”两件事，跟下文various other things处于同等地位，不可改作to write和to paint：

To make a living. Tom had tried writing, painting, and various other things, but had failed in all.

下面两句里也用动名词，不用不定式：

Try knocking at the back door if nobody hears you at the front door.

Try cooking the vegetable, if you don't like it uncooked.

3.The judge tried the case yesterday（这审判员昨天审理这案件）等句是英美通用的。The lawyer tried the case yesterday（这律师［在法庭上］昨天办理这案件）等句是美国英语。

4.try用作名词是类名词。例如：Let me have a try at it. 和I had three tries and succeeded each time.

Tuesday

参见Friday

turf

turf是物质名词，也是类名词，如a strip of turf和a turf。

turn

1.下面三句都作“我已经三十岁以上了”解：

I have turned thirty.

I am turned of thirty.

I am turned thirty.

注意：（1）不可说I have turned of thirty。（2）第二句和第三句里的turned是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。（3）第二句嫌旧，不很普通。

可以说She is only a girl just turned sixteen。

A school-teacher turned novelist published his first work last week里的turned作“成为”解，也是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。参见3

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

参见prove 3

3.比较下面各句：

The young woman turned out a musician. （这个年轻女子后来被人发现她是一个音乐家。［她原来是音乐家，不过人家不知道。］）

The young woman turned into a musician. （这个年轻女子成了音乐家。［例如在童话里］）

The young woman turned musician. （这个年轻女子成了音乐家。）

关于第三句，下面几点该注意：

（1）musician是表语，前面没有a。

（2）即使turned的主语是复数，表语也往往用单数形式。例如：Both sisters turned musician(s).

（3）这结构通常表示突然的或者不很好的变化。例如：

As my mother was ill, I had to turn cook.

He wondered why his sister had turned nun.

He said he would never turn traitor.

4.by turns和in turn不同。by turns是“轮流地”或“忽而…忽而…地”。例如：The five boys read the poem by turns. 和He was happy and unhappy by turns. in turn是“依次相继地”。例如：The five boys read the poem in turn. 和I told him and he in turn told his brother.

下面两句意思不同：

The five boys read the poem by turns. （这五个男孩轮流读这首诗。［每人也许读多次。］）

The five boys read the poem in turn. （这五个男孩依次读这首诗。［每人只读一次。］）

在下面一句里用in turns，不用in turn或by turns：

They took it in turns to keep watch at the gate.

5.比较下面两句：

We went as far as the brook and then turned back（回转来）.

When we heard him call us, we turned round（转身）.

tutor

1.tutor后面接in，如a tutor in geometry。

2.tutor用作不及物动词作“在家庭教师辅导下学习”解是美国用法。

TV

TV=television，前面用on，参见television

twenty

1.twenty有时用作“许多的”解。例如：I have heard of it twenty times.参见fifty 1

2.参见eighty

twin

1.twin指“两个双胞胎的一个”，说“两个双胞胎”该用复数形式twins。

2.可以说He (或She) is my twin。

two

关于an hour or two和one or two hours，参见a, an 20 (1)和one 8

type

1.下面两句意思相同：

He was a perfect type of the Chinese scholar of the old school（老派）.

He was a perfect type of Chinese scholar of the old school.把a改作the也可以。

2.下面各种表达方式都可以说：

a new type of bus

a new type of buses（比较少见）

some new types of bus

some new types of buses

3.参见type(-)write

type(-)script

除了在必须说明是打字稿而不是手写稿的时候以外，即使打字稿也作manuscript而不叫type(-)script。

type(-)setter

type(-)setter多用在美国，在英国通常用compositor。

type(-)write

type(-)write现在不及type普通，如Type(-)write this letter for me不及Type this letter for me普通。但在必须说用打字机打出（而不是手写）的时候最好用type(-)write。例如：Contributions must be type-written.

type(-)writer

1.type(-)writer用作“打字者”解现在极不普通，该改用typist。

2.I shall copy the letter on a type(-)writer和I shall copy the letter with a type(-)writer都可以说。

typical

1.下面两句里typical...前面用a或the都可以：

Lincoln was a (或the) typical American patriot。（林肯是个典型的美国爱国者。）

He is a (或the) typical absent-minded professor, always leaving his umbrella and other possessions in the bus or the tram. （他就是最典型的心不在焉的教授，老是把伞或其他东西遗忘在公共汽车或电车里。）

2.typical后面接of。例如：It was typical of him that he always replied to a letter the day he received it.

typographic(al)

1.typographical比typographic普通。

2.typographic(al)error通常作“印刷上的错误”解，有时作“打字上的错误（typing error）”解。

tyrannic(al)

现在可以说只用tyrannical，不用tyrannic。

tyrannize

tyrannize现在通常用作不及物动词，后面接over。

tyrant

tyrant在古希腊指“僭主”或“僭王”，却不问他是否暴虐或专横。对于“正统”的君王，即使极暴虐或专横，也不叫tyrant。

Tyrol

Tyrol（奥地利西部和意大利北部地名）前面通常有the。

U

U. K.(或UK)

U. K. (或UK)=United Kingdom，前面通常有the，偶尔没有。

Ukraine

Ukraine（乌克兰）前面通常有the。

ultimo

ultimo（简写作ult.）作“上月的”解，如the 28th ultimo（或ult.）。现在不及从前普通，最好不用，该用of last month或说明月份，如the 28th of last month和28 November。注意ultimo是形容词，不是名词，所以不可说of ultimo。事实上简写形式ult. 比较常用。

U. N.(或UN)

U. N. (或UN)=United Nations（联合国），前面通常有the，偶尔没有。

unadvisable

unadvisable比inadvisable普通。

uncle

参见aunt

unchristian

unchristian往往用作“不正当的”或“不合宜的”解。

uncompleted

参见incomplete

undeceived

undeceived有两个意思：“不受骗的”（un＋deceived）和“被人提醒的”（undeceive的过去分词）。

under

参见below

undergarment

undergarments似乎比underwear“文雅”些。

undergraduate

undergraduate student=undergraduate

underline

underline现在往往作emphasize解。例如：We must underline the necessity of...和Her tones underline her meaning so that no-one can mistake it.

underneath

参见below

undersigned

公文里往往用the undersigned代替I或we。

understand

1.Do you understand French? 和Can you understand French? 都可以说，用Do比用Can普通。

2.可以说I find it difficult to make myself understood和Have I made myself understood clearly? 但不可说I find it difficult to make you understood，该改作I find it difficult to help you (to) make yourself understood。

3.比较下面两句：

I understand（据我所知、如是我闻）that he is quite strong again.

I know（［确实］知道）that he is quite strong again.

但I understand why he has got quite strong again so quickly里的understand作“（完全）明白”解。

understanding

understanding（形容词）后面接of。例如：The author became more understanding of our appreciation.

uneasy

1.uneasy不可用作“不容易的”解。

2.uneasy后面有时接以lest引导的从句。例如：The news made me uneasy lest you should suffer from the typhoon.

unemployed

the unemployed指“失业者”。有时省去the，如a group of unemployed。

unequal

I am afraid he is unequal to doing that里的doing不可改作do，参见equal 1

unfortunately

1.unfortunately可以用于重大的事，也可以用于琐屑的事。例如：

Unfortunately, the old man died before the doctor arrived.

Unfortunately, it rained all the time I was there.

2.下面三句意思相同：

Unfortunately, the message failed to arrive in time.

The message, unfortunately, failed to arrive in time.

The message failed to arrive in time, unfortunately.

unfrequent

unfrequent不及infrequent普通。

unhappily

unhappily作unfortunately解，用法也相同，参见unfortunately

uniform

in uniform，in German uniform，wear uniform，don uniform等表达方式里习惯不用a。

uninterested

参见disinterested

unit

在美国往往把a unit用作形容词短语，作“一致的”或“同意的”解。例如：The two experts are not yet a unit about it. 和They are a unit on the question.

united

1.United Kingdom前面有the。

2.United States或United States of America前面有the。

3.United Nations（联合国）在语法上当作单数。

university

1.关于university，college和school的区别，参见college 1

2.Oxford University，Harvard University，Cornell University等前面习惯没有the。Oxford是地名，Harvard和Cornell是人名。

3.注意下面每组里的第一句和第二句里没有the，第三句里有the：

at university和go to university也有人用，但很不普通。

unknown

1.unknown后面接to。例如：All this is unknown to her.

2.unknown可以用在名词后面。例如：I often receive letters from persons unknown.

3.unknown有时用作副词，后面接to，作“…所不知道地”解。例如：He went out of the room unknown to her.

unless

1.unless=if...not，但语气比if...not重，如unless it is fine tomorrow语气比if it is not fine tomorrow重。

2.以unless引导的从句里的动词用现在时，不用将来时，如unless it is fine tomorrow里用is，不用will be。unless you will see him tomorrow里的will表示意志。

3.下面每句里用虚拟现在式，现在远不及用陈述现在式普通：

Unless it be (或is) fine tomorrow, we shall not sail.

Unless he study (或studies) harder, he will lag behind.

Unless she have (或has) already done her best, she does not deserve the prize.

4.unless=if...not，但下面两句意思不同：

If he were not my friend, I should not expect his help. （假使他不是我的朋友，我将不期望他的帮助。［他是我的朋友，所以我期望他的帮助。］）

Unless he were my friend, I should not expect his help. （除非他是我的朋友，我将不期望他的帮助。［他并不是我的朋友，所以我不期望他的帮助。］）

If I were a bird, I could fly和Unless I were a bird, I could not fly都是“我不是鸟，所以我不能飞。”却不可说Unless I were not a bird, I could fly。

但下面每组里的两句意思相同：

5.可以说You must not use my pen unless writing a letter，但不可说You must not use my pen unless wiping it afterwards。因为第一句里的unless writing a letter等于unless you are writing a letter，第二句里的unless wiping it afterwards等于unless you are wiping it afterwards，讲不通。第二句里的unless该改作without。

6.unless and until作until解。

unpractical

参见impractical

unread

unread用于人作“没有学问的”解。例如：The notion of an unread Shakespeare is still widely prevalent in England. （认为莎士比亚是个没有学问的人，这种见解在英国还是很流行的。）参见read 5

unripe

参见raw

unsettled

unsettled有两个意思：“未解决的”或“不定的”（un＋settled）和“被扰乱的”（unsettle的过去分词）。

untie(d)

untied有两个意思：“未被缚住的”（un＋tied）和“被解开了的”（untie的过去分词）。

until

1.Until such time as you are ready, nothing can usefully be done等句子里的such time as是多余的，最好删去。

2.参见till

unused

unused（不习惯的）后面接to。例如：I am unused to this. 和She is unused to meeting people. 注意第二句里用meeting，不用meet。参见use(d) 5

unwillingness

unwillingness后面可以接不定式。例如：Their unwillingness to face the dangers of the journey was not surprising.

unworthy

下面两句意思相同：

This is unworthy to be discussed.

This is unworthy of being discussed.

up

1.up（介词）不可用作“向着…上去”解，如不可说A cat jumped up the roof，该在up后面加上to或on，比较：

A cat jumped up the ladder. （一只猫在梯子上跳上去［一跳一跳地上去］。）

A cat jumped up to (或on) the ladder. （一只猫向着梯子跳上去［一刹那的动作］。）

2.up to（能胜任…）里的to是介词，后面可以接动名词，如I'm sorry, but I am so tired that I am really not up to going to the theatre with you tonight和He did not feel up to arguing with me that morning里的going和arguing不可改作go和argue。

3.Time is up是“时间完了”，不是“…的时间到了”，不可说Time is up for lunch或Time is up to go home。He looked at his watch to see whether his quarter of an hour was up是“他看着他的表，看他（所有）的一刻钟是否已经完了”。

4.关于up和down的区别，参见down 1

upon

upon不及on通俗，在口语里很少用。在句子或从句的末尾的不定式里往往用upon而不用on。例如：In those days he had very little to live upon.

upstair(s)

1.不论用作形容词或副词，upstairs比upstair普通得多。

2.upstairs虽然有时也可以用作名词，但不可说in upstairs或to upstairs。

up(-)town

up(-)town是美国英语，指城市的“住宅区”，用作形容词、副词或名词都可以。例如：He lives in an up(-)town street. He lives up(-)town. 和He prefers up(-)town to down(-)town. 在用作副词的时候往往写作up town。

urge

1.urge（动词）后面接指人的词和不定式作“敦促（人）…”解，并不含有“那个人果然…”的意思，如He urged her to go并不含有“她去了”的意思，尽可以说He urged her to go, but she refused。

2.an urge to go to sea, the urge to write poetry, the travel urge, the creative urge, the urge towards ideal perfection, the urge for adventure等表达方式里的urge作“冲动”或“强烈的欲望”解，似乎主要是美国用法。

3.urge（动词，敦促、力劝）后面有时接以that引导的从句，从句里用虚拟现在式。例如：I urge that he do (不用does) his best. 和I urged that he do (不用did) his best.

比较下面两句：

He urges that his son do his best. （他劝告他的儿子努力。）

He urges that his son does his best. （他力言他的儿子是努力的。）

urgent

1.urgent后面接不定式作“坚持要…的”解，不作“急需…的”解，如He was urgent to have more是“他坚持要多得些”，不是“他急需多得些”，尽可以说He was urgent to have more, though he had quite enough。

2.注意It is urgent that he start里用start（虚拟现在式），不用starts。

us

1.参见we

2.下面两句里都用their，不用our，也有人用our，但不合理，不算正当：

Some of us have already handed in their compositions.

Many of us have not yet made up their minds.

U.S.(或US)

U.S. (或US)=United States，前面通常有the，偶尔没有。

U.S.A. (或USA)

U.S.A. (或USA)=United States of America，前面通常有the，偶尔没有。

usage

1.这本词典叫A Dictionary of English Usage，那Usage统指一切“惯用法”。a usage是“一种惯用法”，usages是“多种惯用法”。

2.可以说This word is in usage和This idiom is in wide usage。

use(d)

1.in use是“被用着的”，of use是“有用的”。

2.下面各句里的of可有可无：

This book seems to be (of) no use to you.

This book seems to be (of) little use to you.

This book seems to be (of) scarcely any use to you.

(Of) What use is this book to you?

This book doesn't seem (of) much use to you.

I wonder if this book will be (of) any use to you.

3.What is the use of complaining? 里用of。但Is there any use in complaining? 和There is no use in complaining里用in。

There is no use to complain和There is no use complaining都有人说，但都不算正当。

4.下面两句里的use作“需要”解，后面接for：

I have no further use for the machine.

Will there be any use for another copy of the book?

have no use for从“不需要”转作“不喜欢”解。例如：I have no use for such things. 和He has no use for boys with dirty hands. 这原来是美国用法。

注意不可说：

The machine has no further use for me.

Will another copy of the book have any use for us?

Such things have no use for me.

Boys with dirty hands have no use for him.

5.下面两句意思相同，注意第一句里用of，有the，第二句里用by，没有the：

This book is prepared specifically for the use of Chinese students.

This book is prepared specifically for use by Chinese students.

6.比较下面三句：

He used to do it.

He was used to doing it.

He was used to do it.

第一句表示过去的习惯，used作“惯常”解，是不及物动词。第二句表示过去的情况，used是及物动词的过去分词，作“（被使）习惯的”解，后面接to，那doing是to的宾语。第三句等于第二句，不用doing而用do，不算正当。

下面第一组里的各句相当于上面的第一句，第二组里的各句相当于上面的第二句：

关于第一组，下面几点该注意：

（1）used to...（不定式）里的used的前面或后面可以加上always，often或sometimes。例如：

He always used to come by tram.

He used always to come by tram.

He often used to come by tram.

He used often to come by tram.

He sometimes used to come by tram.

He used sometimes to come by tram.

（2）used to...（不定式）表示过去的习惯。在现代英语里不可用use to...（不定式）表示现在的习惯，如不可说He uses to come by tram。可以说He usually comes by tram。

（3）used to...（不定式）除了表示习惯以外往往含有“一向这样”的意思，比较下面每组里的两句：

（4）used to...（不定式）往往含有“跟现在不同”的意思。例如：People used to think that the earth was flat. 和When I was a little boy, I used to sleep with my cat.

（5）used to...（不定式）偶尔用在过去完成时态。例如：He said he had used to come by tram. 但不用在现在完成时态。

（6）在疑问句里可以把used用在主语前面，好像助动词一样。例如：Used he to come by tram? 也可以说Did he use to...? 第一种形式主要用在文字里，第二种形式主要用在口语里。

（7）在否定句里有下面五种表达形式可用：

He used not to come by tram.

He usedn't to come by tram.

He usen't to come by tram.

He didn't use to come by tram.

He never used to come by tram.

第一种形式主要用在文字里，第二种形式、第三种形式和第四种形式主要用在口语里。第五种形式跟其他四种形式意思不同，作“从来不…”解。

（8）在否定的疑问句里有下面四种表达形式可用：

Used he not to come by tram?

Usedn't he to come by tram?

Usen't he to come by tram?

Didn't he use to come by tram?

第一种形式主要用在文字里，第二种形式、第三种形式和第四种形式主要用在口语里。比较下面两组：

7.used to...（不定式）表示过去的习惯，would...也是这样，下面几点该注意：

（1）used to...比would...通俗。

（2）used to...可以指持续的情况，也可以指重复的行动。例如：People used to think that the earth was flat. （持续的情况）和She used to see him every Sunday. （重复的行动）Would只指重复的行动，不指持续的情况，如可以说：She would see him every Sunday. 不可说：People would think that the earth was flat.

（3）used to...比would...客观，如He used to ask me about my studies只说出一个事实，He would ask me about my studies往往含有“他关心我”或“他让我讨厌”等意思。

（4）used to...指经常发生的事，would...指往往发生的事，如She used to see him on Sundays是“她经常在星期日见他”。She would see him on Sundays是“她往往在星期日见他”。

8.used在美国往往用作secondhand解，如used books和used furniture。

useful

注意下面第一句里用to，第二句里用for：

This book is useful to students of English.

This is a useful book for students of English.

usual(ly)

1.He came at one o'clock as usual和He came later than usual等句子里的usual不可改作usually。在as或than后面省去was，但通常不加上was。但He is now more than usually happy里的usually当然不可改作usual。

2.as usual和usually意思不同。as usual指一次的事，如That day he came at one o'clock as usual。usually指经常的事，如He usually came twice a week。usually可以改作as a rule。例如：As a rule he came twice a week.

3.下面两句意思相同，但第二句比第一句语气重（am重读）：

I am usually at home in the evening.

I usually am at home in the eveing.

utility

utility在美国往往用作public utility（公用事业，例如电话、自来水、电灯等）解。例如：Does he invest in the utilities? public utility原来也是美国英语。

utmost

of the utmost importance, with the utmost pleasure等表达方式里的the最好不省去。

V

vacation

1.vacation前面往往没有the。例如：

They are on vacation.

She wrote a short story by way of diversion in vacation.

Vacation is at an end.

summer vacation，Christmas vacation等表达方式前面通常有the，但偶尔没有the。

2.vacation在英国通常指法院和大学的假期，但在美国指任何假期，下面两句都是美国英语：

The policemen are on their vacation.

The workmen took a day's vacation.

3.vacation用作动词作“休假”解是美国用法。例如：They are vacationing at the seaside.

vacationist

vacationist是美国英语，相当于英国的holidaymaker。

vain

1.比较下面四句：

It was vain for me to try.

I tried in vain.

It was in vain that I tried.

It was in vain for me to try.

第一句里用形容词vain做表语。第二句里用状语短语in vain形容tried。第三句是第二句的强势式（参见it 5）。第四句把in vain用作形容词短语，有人以为不正当。All my efforts were (in) vain里用in也有人以为不正当。

2.In vain the horse kicked and reared, but he could not unseat his rider里既用In vain，又用but，不合理。该把In vain删去，或把but删去，reared后的逗号改作分号。

valiant

valiant远不及brave普通。

valley

Yangtze Valley（长江流域）和Nile Valley等前面有the。

valuable

1.参见invaluable

2.下面第一句里用for或to都可以，第二句里用for：

This book is valuable for（或to）students of English.

This is a valuable book for students of English.

value(d)

1.It is of no value和Of what value is it等句子里的of最好不省去。

2.your valued letter和your valued favour是商业信函里的陈套语。在一般通信里该避免。

vanish(ed)

a vanished age，a vanished dynasty，vanished London等表达方式里的vanished作“已消逝的”解，是不及物动词的过去分词用作形容词。

various

various of them，various of the rooms等表达方式里的various用作代词，不算正当。Various have said so里的various作various people解，也不算正当。

Vatican

Vatican（梵蒂冈）或Vatican Palace（或Vatican palace），Vatican Hill（或Vatican hill）和Vatican City前面都有the。

V Day（或V-Day，或V day，或V-day）

V Day指“（第二次世界大战的）胜利日”，就是1946年12月31日，V指Victory，前面没有the。

V-E（或VE）

参见V-E Day

V-E Day（或VE day，或V-E，或VE）

V-E Day指“欧洲胜利日”，就是1945年5月8日，V-E指Victory in Europe。前面没有the。

vegetable

vegetable不是物质名词，如可以说I like this vegetable和I like vegetables，不可说I like vegetable。

vent

通常说She gave vent to her grievance，不说She gave her grievance vent，但在被动语态里通常说Her grievance was given vent，没有to。

venturesome

venturesome比adventuresome普通得多。

venturous

venturous远不及adventurous普通。

verbal

verbal用作“口头的（而不是文字上的）”解不算正当，说“口头的”最好用oral。

verdict

verdict后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：The jury returned a verdict that the woman had taken her life while the balance of her mind was disturbed.

vermicelli

vermicelli（细面条）是物质名词，不指一根面条。

vermin

复数形式vermins现在很不普通，该避免，如该说these vermin和Vermin infest everything，不该说these vermins和Vermins infest everything。

verse

参见poem

very

1.关于very和much的区别，参见much 3

2.not very直译作“不很”，但英美人用not very通常作“不”解，不过语气婉转些罢了。如It is not very good并不等于It is only moderately good，却等于It is not good或It is rather bad。

vest

vest在英国指在美国所说的undershirt，在美国指在英国所说的waistcoat。在英国把vest用作waistcoat解的也有，但大都用在裁缝店的广告里。

veteran

veteran在英国指“富有军事经验的人”，在美国往往指任何“退伍军人”（ex-service man）。

vex

vexed question是“被许多人讨论（而意见分歧）的问题”，vexing question是“使人感觉烦恼的问题”。

via

下面两句里的via最好改作through：

I learnt of the accident via the newspaper.

The message came to me via a friend.

vice

vice统指“（道德上的）罪恶”，a vice是“一种（道德上的）罪恶”，vices是“多种（道德上的）罪恶”。

victim

1.victim是“受害者”，不一定“死”，如a relief fund for the earthquake victims和the victims who have survived the disaster。但用在病名的前面通常指“因某病而死者”。

2.He fell (a) victim to the secret police和She fell (a) victim to the lion等句子里的a可有可无。They fell victim to...里当然没有a，但通常用victims。

Victorian

Victorian作“英国女王Victoria（1837年即位，1901年死）时代的”解，往往含有“守旧”，“拘谨”或“不合时宜”的意思。

victory

victory统指“胜利”，a victory是“一次胜利”，victories是“多次胜利”。

videlicet

参见viz

view

1.在用作“意见”解的时候单数形式后面接of，复数形式后面接on或of。例如：What is your view of this policy? 和What are your views on（或of）this policy?

2.in view of作“因为…”或“鉴于…”解。例如：In view of these facts, we can do a great deal. 和This may be interesting in view of the fact that the boy has never been taught to read. 注意view前面没有a或the。这语不作“以…为目的”解。

3.with a view to通常作“以…为目的”解，有时作“希望得到…”解，是正式用语，下面有三点该注意：

（1）用a，不用the。

（2）在用作“以…为目的”解的时候后面通常接动名词，有时接名词，如with a view to improving it和with a view to its improvement。也有人不用动名词而用不定式的，如with a view to improve it，但不很普通。

（3）在用作“希望得到…”解的时候后面当然接名词。例如：He said this with a view to the vacant position.

4.with the view of作“以…为目的”解，下面有三点该注意：

（1）with a view of也有人用，但不算正当。

（2）不及with a view to普通。

（3）后面只接动名词，不接名词。

5.views（意见）往往跟facts（事实）对比。例如：What he wants is facts, not views.

view(-)point

view(-)point不算正当，最好用point of view。

vintage

of...vintage（of后面没有the）作“…时代的品种的”解，如cars of prewar vintage和ink sticks（墨）of Ming dynasty（明朝）vintage。

virtue

virtue统指“美德”，a virtue是“一种美德”，virtues是“多种美德”。

visit(ing)

1.不论用作名词或动词，现在visit在英国比在美国用得少，有下面五点该注意：

（1）在英国说医生到病家出诊，牧师到教区里的人家和公务人员的视察，都用visit。但说一般的“访问”用call而不用visit，用了visit含有“逗留几天”的意思。例如：

He made a call on the artist the other day.

I shall call on you this evening.

She paid us a five-day visit last year.

When she visited us last year, she told us a story every evening.

（2）在英国用call的场合，在美国往往用visit。

（3）visiting list（该去访问的人名单）英美通用。

（4）visiting card（或visiting-card，访客名片）是英国英语，不是美国英语，在美国反而用calling card（或calling-card）。

（5）visit在美国往往用作“叙谈”解。例如：

I met him in the park yesterday and much enjoyed the visit.

He had a pleasant visit with her over the telephone.

I used to visit with him in his office.

注意第二句和第三句里在visit后面用with。

2.比较下面两句：

He happened to be visiting shanghai（访问上海、在上海观光）at the time of the Exhilition.

He happened to be visiting in Shanghai（在上海访问亲友）at the time of the Exhilition.

visitor

注意Mr Wakefield is a daily visitor at the Rectory里用at。

visualize

visualize不及imagine或picture通俗。

vitamin

1.vitamin（维生素）不是物质名词，如可以说This food contains a vitamin和This food contains vitamins，不可说This food contains vitamin。

2.vitamin A，vitamin B等前面没有the。

3.vitamin B不可改作B vitamin，但说“一种维生素B”和“几种维生素B”却不说a vitamin B和vitamin Bs，而说a B vitamin和B vitamins。

viz(.)

viz或viz.是拉丁词videlicet的简写形式，习惯用viz或viz.而不用videlicet。作namely解，通常读作namely（参见namely）。后面可以有逗号，但通常没有。

V-J

参见V-J Day

V-J Day（或VJ day，或V-J，或VJ）

V-J Day指“对日胜利日”，就是1945年8月14（或15？）日（停战日），有时指1945年9月2日（正式投降日），V-J指Victory in Japan。前面没有the。

vocabulary

1.vocabulary（词汇）有时指“所识单词的总数”，有时指“所用单词的总数”。决不可用来指一个单词，如不可说He has only a few hundred vocabularies，该改作He has a vocabulary of only a few hundred words。复数形式vocabularies是“多种词汇”，如the vocabularies of geographical and occupational dialects。

2.vocabulary有时被用作物质名词。例如：The selection of vocabulary is of great importance in teaching elementary English.

voice

voice通常指“人声”，有时指“动物声”，并不指一切声音（sound），如不可说I heard the voice of rain和His knock made a loud voice。the voice of the wind和the voice of the waves是可说的，但这两种表达方式把风声和浪声比作“人声”，并不是voice统指一切声音。

volume

a history in five volumes等表达方式里习惯用in，不用of。

vote

1.说“选举权”在vote前面该有the，有时用a。例如：Women as well as men have the（或a）vote in our country today.

2.vote后面可以接不定式或for。例如：

A majority of the members of the club voted to admit him.

They voted for a change in the system.

3.下面两句意思不同：

They are going to vote for the motion. （他们将［投票］赞成这项动议。）

They are going to vote on the motion. （他们将［投票］表决这项动议。）

4.About a hundred people were voted that morning作“那天早上大约有100个人参加选举”解，是美国英语。

5.可以说I shall vote for you to lead our team。

6.可以说Fifteen voted for and twelve (voted) against（15票赞成，12票反对）。

voyage

1.make a voyage和take a voyage都可以说。

2.voyage有时指“航空行程”。

vulgar(ism)

1.vulgar word，vulgar phrase，vulgar language等表达方式里的vulgar作“粗俗的”或“不雅的”解，并不含有“污秽”的意思，如把like用作as解有人以为是vulgar。

2.vulgarism作vulgar word或vulgar phrase解。

W

wage(s)

现在复数形式比单数形式普通。wages的后面偶尔接属于单数形式的动词。在a的后面只可用wage，不可用wages。

wage(-)worker

wage(-)worker是美国英语，相当于英国英语中的wage earner。

waist

long waist和short waist不指腰围的大小，却指腰部上下的高低，说腰围的大小该用large waist和small waist。

wait

1.wait at table是英国英语，wait on table是美国英语，wait table（没有介词）也是美国英语。

2.参见await

waltress

waitress在英国指旅馆或餐馆里的女服务员，在美国也指家庭里在进餐时侍候的受雇女子。

wake

参见awake

waken

参见awake

walk

1.下面两句意思不同：

The girl is walking out with her mother. （这女孩正在跟她的母亲走出去。）

The girl is out walking with her mother. （这女孩正在外面跟她的母亲一道散步。）

2.下面每组里的两句意思不同：

walk out on是美国英语。

3.He is walking out with her和She is walking out with him直译作“他正在跟她一道走出去”和“她正在跟他一道走出去”。但英美人说这种话通常是“他正在向她求爱”和“她正在向他求爱”的意思。英美社会里通常只用于所谓的“下等”人。 由于家里房子小，人口多，或者在人家帮佣，没有谈情说爱的场所，只好“走出去”。

4.可以说My house is only five minutes' walk to the post-office，下面几点该注意：

（1）five minutes' walk前面可以加上a。

（2）minutes'里的撇号可以省去。

（3）to可以改作from。

（4）加上了a可以把five minutes'改作five-minute。

5.I used to take him long walks in the country（在long walks前面没有on）主要是英国英语，在美国几乎总是有on。

6.walk on two legs（两条腿走路）里的on不可改作with。

7.walk of life（职业、界）比walk in life普通。

wall

Wall Street（华尔街）前面没有the。

want(ing)

1.want在用作名词的时候后面不可接不定式，也不可接of或for和动名词，如不可说his want to go或his want of（或for）going。

2.注意下面各句里的want前面没有the：

This work shows want of care.

They were suffering from（或for）want of food.

They had to live in caves for want of better lodging.

He was then sadly in want of occupation.

He was not in want of money.

for want of引导状语短语，in want of引导形容词短语，前面通常用动词to be。第二句里的suffering from want of food的from跟suffering连在一起，suffering for want of food里的for跟want连在一起。

3.动词want后面接不定式和接动名词不同，下面有四点该注意：

（1）不定式也许属于主动语态，也许属于被动语态，但动名词一定属于主动语态。

（2）假使不定式属于主动语态，want通常作“要”解，是有意志的。例如：I want to see him. 和He wants to buy an umbrella. 偶尔作“该”或“需要”解，是没有意志的。例如：You want to have your tooth out. （你该叫人把你的牙齿拔去。）和One wants to be very careful in doing this. （不论谁做这件事，必须十分小心。）

（3）假使不定式属于被动语态，want有时作“要”解，有时作“该”或“需要”解。例如：He wants to be notified beforehand. （他要预先被通知。）和The machine wants to be repaired. （这机器需要修理。）

（4）动名词属于主动语态，但它的意思是被动的，want作“该”或“需要”解。例如：

The machine wants repairing.

The strings want straining.

These boxes want numbering.

The door wants seeing to, it doesn't shut properly.

The machine wants repairing等=The machine wants to be repaired等。注意不可说The machine wants being repaired等。参见need 8

4.下面两句意思不同：

If you want anything, let me know. （假使你要什么，便告诉我。）

If you want for anything, let me know. （假使你需要什么而得不到它，便告诉我。）

want是有意志的，want for是没有意志的，它的宾语通常是anything或nothing。

5.下面每组里的第一句英美通用，第二句只用在美国：

每组的第二句里的should有时省去，go或take用作虚拟现在式。

6.want后面有时接宾语和过去分词。例如：

If you want a thing done, do it yourself. （假使你要一件事做好，还是你自己做。）

If you want a thing done, go, if not, send. （假使你要一件事做好，就去做，假使你不要一件事做好，叫别人去做。意思是“必须亲自动手才能把事情做好，叫别人做是不可靠的”。）

7.I want it done quickly和I want it to be done quickly意思相同，似乎第一句比第二句语气重。这两句都不可改作被动语态，如不可说It is wanted done quickly或It is wanted to be done quickly。

8.下面每组里的第一句是英国英语，第二句是美国英语：

9.下面四句意思相同，第二句不很普通。

He wants zeal.

He wants for zeal.

He is wanting in zeal.

Zeal is wanting in him.

参见lack(ing) 1

10.可以说Are you wanting a lawn-mower, by any chance? （你万一还需要剪草器吗？）What is he wanting now? 有“他（时常要这个，要那个）现在又在要什么了？”的意思。

比较下面四句：

I want to consult your dictionary.

I wanted to consult your dictionary.

I have wanted to consult your dictionary.

I have been wanting to consult your dictionary.

第一句说“现在要”，似乎不说am wanting。第二句可能有两个意思：“我在过去的某时要（现在不要了）。”和“我不久以前开始要，现在还是要。”第三句只有第二句的第二个意思。第四句也只有第二句的第二个意思，含有较强的情感，有“急切地要”的意思。

11.I want to go比I wish to go语气重。

12.I want (for) you to work harder than before里的for在英国通常不用，在美国通常用。

13.He wants you to help him和He wants someone to talk to都只有一个意思。但He wants someone to help him可能有两个意思：“他要某一个人帮助他。”和“他需要有人帮助他。”

14.The kitten seems to want in和The kitten seems to want out里的in等于to come in，out等于to go out，是美国用法。

war

1.war统指“战争”，a war是“一次战争”，wars是“多次战争”。

2.go to war通常作“开战”解。例如：The country was compelled to go to war with the other. 很少作“从军”解。go to the wars作“从军”解。例如：He went to the wars at thirty. 第二种表达方式现在很少用。注意不可说go to a war，go to the war或go to wars。

3.在第二次世界大战以前英国人用the Great War指第一次世界大战，美国人用the World War。第二次世界大战发生以后英美人都用World War I和World War II指第一次和第二次世界大战，前面没有the。First World War和Second World War也有人用，前面有the。没有见过Great War I或Great War II，First Great War或Second Great War。

warden

美国监狱的warden（监狱官）相当于英国监狱的governor，跟英国监狱的warder（监狱吏、看守）不同。

warder

参见warden

warn

1.下面两句意思相同：

I have warned him not to see her again.

I have warned him against seeing her again.

2.warn后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He warned that the bridge was unsafe.

3.warn的宾语后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：Did he warn you that he might be late?

warning

warning后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：We received warning that the enemy were coming.

wartime

wartime前面没有the。

was

严格地说，在虚拟过去式里该用were。例如：If he were ten years older, he would understand it better. 和I wish I were ten years younger. 但假使那主语是单数，现在（尤其在口语里）往往用was。例如：If he was ten years older, he would understand it better. 和I wish I wasten years younger. 下面几点该注意：

（1）在英国只说if I were you，在美国往往说if I was you。

（2）as it were里的were不可改作was。as it was和as it were意思不同，参见as 25

（3）If he were ten years older, he would understand it better里的were可以改作was，但Were he ten years older, he would understand it better里的Were不可改作Was。

（4）否定词wasn't比weren't普通。

（5）if...were to...（不定式）着重在“设想”，if...was to...（不定式）着重在“预定”。例如：

If she were to call, tell her to wait.

If she was to be advised, it should be done with tact.

（6）关于as if和as though后面的用were或was，参见as 18

（7）下面两句里的was是陈述过去式，不是虚拟过去式，当然不可改作were：

He used to wait for me if I was not at home when he called.

If he was there that evening, I did not see him.

（8）下面两句里的was都用在属于过去时态的间接疑问句里，不该改作were。英美人也有用were的，但现在似乎比从前少：

He asked her whether she was aware of it.

She wondered if I was not talking nonsense.

（9）下面两句里的was是为了时态的呼应而用的，不可改作were：

He would like to know that his son was likely to be elected.

If I could drive a car, I should feel that I was doing something great. 事实上第一句的was改作is普通些，第二句的was改作am普通些。

wash

wash down是“用水冲洗”。例如：They are washing down the car（或carrigae，walls等）.

wash-hand-stand

参见wash-stand

washing(-)stand

参见wash-stand

washlady

washlady（洗衣妇）是美国英语，相当于英国的washerwoman。

wash(-)stand

wash(-)stand，washing-stand和wash-hand-stand都作“洗面台”解，似乎wash-hand-stand只用在英国。

washwoman

washwoman（洗衣妇）是美国英语，相当于英国的washerwoman。

waste

1.It is (a) waste of time（或money，speech等）等句子里的a可有可无。

2.waste是“浪费”，跟spend不同，下面两句里的waste用得不对，该改作spend：

You should learn to waste your money properly.

I hope to waste a pleasant morning with you tomorrow.

3.waste my（或his等）time后面可以接现在分词。例如：He said I was wasting my time reading such books.

waste(-paper)-basket

在英国通常用waste-paper-basket，在美国通常用waste-basket。

watch

1.下面两句意思不同：

We watched them pass（或passing）. （我们看着他们过去。）

We watched for them to pass. （我们等待着看他们过去。）

第一句里没有for，那不定式pass没有to，或者不用不定式而用现在分词，第二句里有for，那不定式pass有to。

假使watch的宾语所指的人或物的动作是一刹那便完成的，通常用不定式，假使是进行的，通常用现在分词。例如：

Watch that boy jump!

Watch that boy jumping up and down.

2.用在chance或opportunity的前面，watch或watch for都作“等待”解。

3.注意下面第一句里没有the，第二句里有the：

He was standing on watch.

Be on the watch for the enemy.

water

1.复数形式waters往往指海、湖或河里的水，如in Chinese waters和the waters of the lake。

2.关于a glass of water和a cup of water，参见glass 2

waxworks

waxworks（蜡像陈列馆）原来是waxwork（蜡像）的复数形式，但通常被看作单数，如a waxworks。

way(s)

1.way（方法）后面接不定式或of和动名词都可以。例如：That is the best way to do it. 和That is the best way of doing it.

2.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

3.下面五句里的this way，that way，which way，your own way和his way的前面习惯没有in：

Please come this way.

They went that way.

Which way do they look?

You may do it your own way.

Opportunity came his way more than once.

the hard way（艰苦地、不容易地）前面也没有in。例如：

His parents helped him to learn self-reliance the hard way.

English spelling, I am afraid, has to be learnt the hard way.

下面每组里的三句意思相同。第一句最普通，第三句最不普通：

下面一句里的the way前面的in和后面的in which都可有可无，通常没有。例如：

He does not bother about things (in) the way (in which) his brother does.

4.注意下面各句的意思：

I might have been his son(,) the way he talked. （他［跟我］那样说话，好像我是他的儿子［他像父亲教训儿子般地跟我说话］。）

One would think these men owned the earth(,) the way they behave. （他们这样行动，人家竟会以为他们是地球的主人［他们做出不可一世的样子］。）

How silly she is(,) the way she keeps asking questions about this and that! （她不断地问这个，问那个，好不愚笨！）

The boy must be a stranger here(,) the way he looks into the shop windows. （这男孩那样地望着店铺的橱窗里面，看来他一定是第一次来这里。）

The way you work, you must be a very skilful carpenter. （看你的工作方法，你一定是一个很有技术的木匠。）

5.by the way，in the way，on the way和in a way各种表达方式不同，下面几点该注意：

（1）by the way有两个意思：“顺便说”和“在途中”。在第一个意思里跟by the bye或incidentally相同，在口语里很常用。例如：By the way, have you ever seen a lion? 和By the way, your cousin told me about it some time ago. 在第二个意思里跟on the way相同。

（2）in the way单独用作“妨碍人的”或“引起不便的”解。例如：I'm afraid I'm in the way. 后面接不定式作“很有…的希望的”解。例如：You are in the way to master the language in a year or two.

（3）on the way作“在路程中的（或地）”解。例如：They are now on the way to the capital. 和He met her on the way.

（4）in a way作“有一些地”解。例如：This is in a way better than that. 和He is in a way proud of it.

6.by way of有四个意思：1.“取道…”。2.“以作…”。3.“以…为目的”。4.“做出…的样子”。例如：

She travelled there and back by way of China and Russia.

I write these words by way of introduction. （我写这些文字以作介绍。）

We must number all the items by way of distinguishing them. （我们必须把各个项目编号，使它们区别开来。）

He is by way of paying particular attention. （他在做出特别注意的样子。）

I am by way of being a musician. （我也算一个音乐家。）

下面几点该注意：

（1）用在第二个意思里，by way of后面通常接抽象名词，如commemoration，criticism，disguise，precaution，recognition和reply。假使后面接类名词，可以有a（或an），也可以没有a（或an）。例如：

By way of (a) joke the farmer told him to plant his money in the ground.

She tuned her lute, and by way (a) prelude played a gay little tune.

（2）第四个意思主要用在英国。

（3）I am by way of being a musician比I am a musician婉转。要是说He is by way of being a musician，便有轻视那个人的意思。

7.下面两句里都有介词to＋动名词，把becoming改作become和把mastering改作master也可以，但不很普通：

He is on his way to becoming a journalist.

She is well on the way to mastering English.

这两句里的to改作towards也可以，但不及用to普通。

8.下面两句意思相同：

The book is good in more than one way.

The book is good in more ways than one.

9.关于see one's way (clear) to...(ing)，参见see 6

10.way above，way ahead，way back，way behind，way below，way down，way off，way out west等表达方式都是美国英语，way作away解。

11.a long ways from，a good ways apart等表达方式在英国是方言，但在美国可说是正常的英语。

W. C.

W. C.=water closet，现在很少用。

we

下面第一句里的we指“我国的人们”，第二句里的we指报纸或杂志，第三句里的we指“我们一般人”：

We are a peace-loving people.

We shall soon publish a series of articless on this interesting sudject.

We should do our duty.

注意：（1）这三种用法不可混用。（2）第二句里的we是编辑代表报纸或杂志或书的自称，有时竟指那报纸、杂志或书的本身。例如：We are a quarterly. 和We differ from other dictionaries in several ways. （3）第二句里的we不可用在一个人单独著作的文章或书里，明明是自己的意见而偏要说We believe that..., We are of opinion that...等，不算正当。

weak

weak（薄弱的、不熟练的）后面可以接in或on。例如：He was weak in（或on）English spelling（英语拼写）.

weakness

weakness在作“嗜好”或“爱好”解的时候，前面通常用a，后面接for。例如：He has a weakness for detective fiction. 下面各句都可以说，但似乎都不很普通：

Detective fiction is a weakness of his.

Detective fiction is one of his weaknesses.

He told me of his weaknesses for detective fiction and ghost stories.

Detective fiction and ghost stories are his weaknesses.

wear

1.wear是持续的动作，put on是一时的动作，如假定你在5点钟穿上一件衣服，在8点钟脱下，那末你在5点钟put on，从5点到8点一直wear着，下面两句都不对：

I shall wear my overcoat before I go out. （该把wear改作put on。原句的意思是“我将在出去以前一直穿着大衣。”就是说“我一出去便脱去大衣。”）

In such cold weather I put on my overcoat all day. （该把put on改作wear。）

2.wear...to...作“穿了…到…去”解。例如：I used to wear a jacket to meetings.

3.wear and tear（消耗、损坏）比tear and wear普通得多，tear and wear似乎只用在苏格兰。

4.He wore a black coat可能指习惯，也可能指某一时刻，He was wearing a black coat指某一时刻。

5.a cloth that will wear是“一种耐穿的布”，a cloth that will not wear是“一种穿不破的布”，实际上两种表达方式的意思相同。

wearied

参见weary

weary

weary和wearied都比tired语气重，都不及tired普通。wearied比weary语气重。

weather

1.关于weather和climate的不同，参见climate

2.weather前面不可用a。

3.注意in all weathers（在不论哪种天气里）中用复数形式。

4.下面各句里的this weather等于in this weather：

Meat won't keep this weather.

As you have a cold, you had better keep indoors this weather.

Why are all the windows open this weather?

wed(ded)

wed不及marry通俗，但wedded用作形容词很普通。

Wednesday

参见Friday

week

1.说“两星期”在英国通常用fortnight，在美国通常用two weeks。

2.关于this day week，参见day 10，today week跟this day week相同。tomorrow week指一星期后的明天，如假定今天是星期五，就指下星期的星期六。yesterday week指一星期前的昨天，如假定今天是星期五，就指上星期的星期四。Sunday week，Monday week等指最近过去的第二个星期日等，或以后的第二个星期日等，如假定今天是10月30日，星期四，说Sunday week是10月19日或11月9日。

3.the week of 4 March作“3月4日开始的一星期”解（3月4日是星期一）。

4.关于week end，参见week(-)end

week(-)end

1.week(-)end（或week end）普通译作“周末”，就字面讲是正确的，其实指从星期六中午到星期一上午（叫做short week(-)end）或从星期五晚上到星期一上午（叫做long week(-)end）。

2.复数形式week(-)ends有时用作副词，作“在每个周末”解，这主要是美国用法。例如：I visit my parents week(-)ends.

welcome(d)

1.welcome用作形容词是“受人欢迎的”，不是“欢迎别人的”。

2.You are welcome to...（不定式）作“你尽可以…”解。例如：You are welcome to take what you need. You are welcome to（介词）作“你尽可以用”解。例如：You are welcome to any book in my library. 注意用形容词welcome，不可用过去分词welcomed。Your welcome letter was received yesterday和Your letter is most welcome等句子里也用形容词welcome，不可用过去分词welcomed。

3.He will be welcomed by us当然作“他将受到我们的欢迎”解，但通常指一时的形式上的欢迎（如开欢迎会），不指长久的心理上的欢迎（如我们喜欢跟他接近）。

4.welcome（名词）后面通常接to，如a meeting of welcome to the visitors。

5.可以说We welcome criticisms和Criticisms will be welcome，但不可说our welcome to criticisms或our welcome to receive criticisms。

well

1.I am quite well和She is now well again等句子里的well作“健康的”解。在英国现在只用在表语用法里，不用在定语用法里，如不可说a well man或a well boy。但在美国现在也有时用在定语用法里。

2.I am quite well等句子里的well指人。well偶尔也指病。例如：His cold is getting well.

3.可以说well enough off（颇富裕的），不可说well off enough。

4.关于as well as，参见as 27, 28, 29和30

were

参见was

west

1.参见east。west（形容词），westerly和western的不同，相当于east（形容词），easterly和eastern的不同。

2.the West在美国指美国的西部，含有“未开发的资源、无限的机会、没有束缚”等的意思。往往说go to the West或out West。Western也是这样，如Western life。

westerly

参见west

western

参见west

Westminster

Westminster Abbey（威斯敏斯特教堂），Westminster Cathedral和Westminster Hall前面都没有the。

wet

wet（动词）的过去式和过去分词在英国通常是wetted，在美国通常是wet。

wharf

wharf的复数形式在英国常是wharfs，在美国常是wharves。

what

1.What is he? 是问那个人的职业或身份，它的答语该是He is a professor of physics或He is the governor等，不该是He is George P. Temple或He is my brother等。

2.下面各句里的what作whatever解：

I gave him what help（或books）I could.

I gave him what little help I could.

He used to save what little money he earned.

What little he does do he does very carefully.

上面各句里的what可以改作the。

3.What is required is a good book里当然用is。What is required is some good books里也该用is，不该用are，因为那表语books虽然是复数，那主语What却是单数。注意What后面用is。

下面每组里的两句都可以说：

但第一组里的第一句比第二句好，第二组里的第二句比第一句好，因为下面第一组里的第一句比第二句好，第二组里的第二句比第一句好：

4.下面两句都不可说：

I do not know what he is and does.

This is what is generally known and you should know.

第一句里的what是表语，属于主格，同时是does的宾语，属于宾格，所以不对，该在and后面加上what he。第二句里的what是is known的主语，属于主格，同时是should know的宾语，属于宾格，所以不对，该在and后面加上what，或把is generally known改作most people know。

5.I do not know what he is and does里的what不但同时用在主格和宾格，而且指两个不同的事物。I do not know what he likes and dislikes里的what虽然并不用在两个不同的格，却指两个不同的事物，所以也不对，该在and的后面加上what he。

6.下面四句都不可说：

He is the author of what is the best, and which is certainly the most popular, of English grammars.

This book discusses much of what is apparently right but which is really wrong.

I can never be certain that I am receiving what I want and for which I am paying.

You had better write about what you know and in which you take a keen interest.

第一句和第二句里的which该删去。第三句里的for which I am paying该改作am paying for。第四句里的in which you take a keen interest该改作take a keen interest in。

7.what=that（或those）which。下面两句都不可说：

What I am interested in you may not be interested.

What I am interested in regard to this matter has nothing to do with you.

第一句该在句末加上in，否则what里的that没有着落，第二句该在interested后面加上in（原来的in把regard做宾语），否则what里的which没有着落。

8.He asked me what I wanted里的what是疑问代词，He gave me what I wanted里的what是关系代词，He not only asked but also gave me what I wanted里的what同时做疑问代词和关系代词，所以不对。He not only asked me what I wanted but also gave me what I wanted当然不错，但很不自然，可以把第二个what I wanted改作the thing。

9.关系代词what有时泛指下文所讲的话。例如：

He went, and, what is more surprising, actually won the prize.

I have the letter, and, what's more, I mean to keep it.

这样用法的what现在不及which普通，参见which 11

10.注意下面每组的第一句里有a，第二句里没有a：

11.不可说All what I can say is this，该把what改作that，参见all 9

12.and what not（以及其他）前面通常用两个或两个以上的名词。例如：He sent me books, magazines, newspapers, pictures, and what not. 但有时前面用的是形容词而不是名词。例如：They were then generally dirty, ignorant, superstitious, and what not. 偶尔不用and而用or。

13.What if he does not come? 可能有两个意思：“假使他不来，怎么办呢？”或“即使他不来，有什么关系？”

14.关于what和which的不同，参见which 13

whatever

1.whatever跟what ever不同，参见ever 5

2.whatever比whatsoever普通。

3.Do whatever you can里的whatever和Do it，whatever happens里的whatever都是关系代词，但第一句里的whatever是what的强势式，第二句里的whatever是表示concession的，有“虽然有什么”的意思，比较下面两句：

Whatever he has done he repents. （他不论做了什么总要后悔。repents是及物动词，把whatever里的what做宾语。）

Whatever he has done, he repents. （他虽然做了什么，却是后悔的。［他也许做过坏事，但他能后悔，也是可取的。］repents是不及物动词。）

4.下面两句里的关系代词that都该删去。

You may write about whatever subject that interests you.

I shall be glad to consider whatever suggestions that you may offer.

5.下面三句都合乎习惯：

Whatever the causes, a change took place.

Whatever the help I have received, I am responsible for the whole work.

Whatever the ultimate conclusion reached, the discussion ought to prove of great interest to all concerned.

第一句里可以在causes后面加上may have been，第二句里可以在received后面加上may have been，第三句里可以在reached后面加上may be，但都不及原句自然。第二句里也可以把help前面的the省去，第三句里也可以把ultimate前的the省去，在reached前面加上may be。

what's

what's有时等于what is，如What's in a name? 有时等于what has，如What's happened? 有时is或has并不属于what而属于后面的词，如What's he doing over there? 和What's he done about it? 有时what's等于what does，does属于后面的词。例如：What's he think about it?

whatsoever

whatsoever在英国现在不及whatever普通，在美国还流行着。

when

1.在定义的开首不该用when，如不该说Homesickness is when one longs for one's home。

2.疑问副词when所修饰的动词不该属于现在完成时态，如不可说：

When has he done it?

I wonder when he has done it.

该改作：

When did he do it?

I wonder when he did it.

但When has he done it?用作修辞疑问句便不错，作“他何曾做过这个？”解。

3.疑问副词when所修饰的动词可以属于将来时态。例如：When will he go? 和I wonder when he will go. 但关系副词when所修饰的动词往往不可属于将来时态，如不可说When he will go, I shall go with him。该把will go改作goes。比较下面三句：

When he goes（不可用will go）, I shall go with him.

I am looking forward to the day when I shall be able to go with him.

A meeting will take place tomorrow, when I shall express my views on the subject.

第一句里的when引导一个状语从句，第二句里的when引导一个形容词从句，第三句里的when作and then解。

4.下面每组里的两句都可以说，似乎第二句比第一句普通：

whenever

1.whenever跟when ever不同，参见ever 5

2.whenever比whensoever普通。

whensoever

whensoever不及whenever普通。

where

1.定义的开首不该用where，如不该说Homesickness is where one longs for one's home。

2.Where are you going?和Where are you going to?都可以说。但有人以为不该用to。Where have you been to? （你刚才到过什么地方？）里的to也有人以为最好不用。

whereabouts

His whereabouts（下落、行踪）is unknown等句子里的is改作are也可以，但不及用is普通。

whereas

除了在法律和合同等文件里以外，whereas不可用作“因为…”或“鉴于…”解。

whereat

whereat用作疑问副词作at what解。用作关系副词作at which解，whereby用作疑问副词作by what解，用作关系副词作by which解，wherefrom，wherein等词也是这样。这些词使文件有“正式”或“古雅”的韵味，在一般文字里该避免，尤其该避免把它们用作疑问副词。

注意whereat等（用作关系副词）和thereat等不同，比较下面两句：

I did not hear the remark whereat she was annoyed.

He made a remark, and she was annoyed thereat.

whereby

参见whereat

wherefrom

参见whereat

wherein

参见whereat

whereinto

参见whereat

whereof

参见whereat

whereon

参见whereat

wheresoever

wheresoever不及wherever普通。

whereto

参见whereat

whereupon

whereupon除了作upon what和upon which解以外（参见whereat），往往用作“于是”解，有时用在句首。例如：He nodded to me, whereupon I entered the room. 和Whereupon he made the following speech.

wherever

1.wherever跟where ever不同，参见ever 5

2.wherever比wheresoever普通。

wherewith

参见whereat

whether

1.下面两句意思相同，第一句比第二句普通：

I do not know whether he is twenty or twenty-one.

I do not know whether he is twenty or whether he is twenty-one.

2.下面六句意思相同，第一句最普通：

I do not know whether he is well or not.

I do not know whether he is well or no.

I do not know whether or not he is well.

I do not know whether or no he is well.

I do not know whether he is well or whether he is not well.

I do not know whether he is well or is not well.

whether or no可以作“无论如何”解。例如：Well, I'll come whether or no. （唔，我无论如何要来。）

3.下面三句略有不同：

I do not know whether he is well or not.

I do not know whether he is well.

I do not know whether he is not well.

第一句是“我不知道他身体是否好”。第二句有“我想他身体也许不好”的意思。第三句含有“我想他身体大约并非不好”的意思。比较下面两句：

I asked him whether he knew her. （我想他并不认识她。）

I asked him whether he did not know her. （我想他也许认识她。）

4.注意下面第一句里用rains，不用will rain，第二句里用calls和call，不用will call和shall call：

Whether it rains or not, I will go tonight.

Whether he calls on us or we call on him tomorrow, we shall talk the matter over.

5.下面每组里的第一句比第二句普通：

6.the question (of) whether we ought to start today or tomorrow和the problem (of) whether light is matter等表达方式里的of是多余的，最好删去。

7.比较下面每组里的三句：

第一句和第二句都是正常的英语，有人以为第三句不算正当。

which

1.关于关系代词which跟关系代词that的区别，参见that 9

2.关于关系代词which跟关系代词who(m)的区别，下面几点该注意：

（1）army，company，family，party等词在被当作单数的时候，该用which指它们，在被当作复数的时候该用who(m)指它们，不可混用。如下面第一句和第二句都不错，第三句和第四句却不对：

The party, which is a large one, has lost its way.

The party, who are all children, have lost their way.

The party, who is a large one, has lost its way.

The party, which are all children, have lost their way.

（2）指国家名称通常用which，偶尔用who，动词该用单数。例如：They have visited China, which（偶尔用who）they believe is a beautiful country.

（3）人以外的动物往往被当作阳性或阴性。例如：The dog is running before his master. 和The cat is sitting beside her mistress. 但在被当作阳性或阴性的时候却往往也被which所指代。例如：The dog, which is a big one, is running before his master. 和The cat, which is black and white, is sitting beside her mistress.

（4）船通常被当作阴性，但被which所指代。例如：The ship, which is a big one, is on her way to a distant country.

3.关系代词which往往没有固定的某词做它的先行项，却指前面的短语或从句里所表示的意思。例如：

He said he was ill, which was true.

They lost their way, which delayed them considerably. （注意这句里的which并不指way，却指lost their way）

I was very useful to him, which he realized.

He is very easy to get acquainted with, which is not a traditional English trait.

这样用法的which一定属于单数形式，一定用在非限定从句里。

这样用法的which往往用在句首，指前面所表示的意思，往往有些滑稽性质。例如：

He said he was ill. Which was true.

They lost their way. Which delayed them considerably.

有时竟然用在一个段落的开首。例如：

I called on a friend the other day. He was in bed and looked rather pale. He said he was ill.

Which was true.

4.下面四句里用which而不用who，因为所指的不是“人”而是那种人的“性质”：

He was dressed like an artist, which he was not.

She looked like an actress, which she was.

He talked like a native - which he hardly was.

He is not the self-seeking man which he is generally represented to be. （这句里的which最好改作that）

5.下面每组里的第一句、第二句和第三句都不错，第四句不对。第二组里的第三句不很自然：

注意每组里的第二句里用分号，第三句里用逗号。

6.下面第一句里的which用作主格，第二句里的which用作宾格，第三句里的which同时用作主格和宾格，所以不对：

He gave me a watch, which is made of gold.

He gave me a watch, which I keep to this day.

He gave me a watch, which is made of gold and I keep to this day. （该在and后面加上which）

7.比较下面三句：

This is a dictionary of English usage, which if you use constantly you will learn to write correctly.

This is a dictionary of English usage, which if you use constantly you will find very useful.

This is a dictionary of English usage, which if you use constantly will prove very useful.

第一句语法不错，但不很自然，可以改作This is a dictionary of English usage, if you use which constantly, you will learn to write correctly。但也不很自然，该改作This is a dictionary of English usage, from which you will learn to write correctly if you use it constantly或This is a dictionary of English usage, the constant use of which will help you to learn to write correctly。原句里的which所引导的从句同时被if所联结，语法不错，但毕竟不是正常的英语。第二句里的which既做use的宾语，又做find的宾语，不合语法，该改作This is a dictionary of English usage, which, if you use it constantly, you will find very useful。第三句里的which既做use的宾语，又做will prove的主语，不合语法，该改作This is a dictionary of English usage, which, if you use it constantly, will prove very useful。

8.下面每组里的两句意思相同，似乎第一句不及第二句自然：

9.下面两句里的which都指前面的形容词：

He is sometimes impatient, which no teacher should be.

She thinks his answer incorrect, which it probably is.

10.下面两句里的which指它引导的从句的后面的名词从句：

I told him, which was true, that I was proud of his acquaintance.

He could not tell me, which I was anxious to know, whether the book was still in print.

11.下面两句里的which泛指下文所讲的话：

He went, and, which is more surprising, actually won the prize.

I have the letter, and, which is more, I mean to keep it.

12.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

13.比较下面每组里的两句：

但下面两句意思相同：

Which will you have, tea or coffee?

What will you have, tea or coffee?

whichever

1.whichever跟which ever不同，参见ever 5

2.whichever比whichsoever普通。

whichsoever

whichsoever不及whichever普通。

while

1.while（连接词）作“当…的时候”解。例如：

It was raining while we were out.

While he was reading, he heard his father call him.

while不可指一点时间（a point of time），如不可说：

He rang me up while he heard of his brother's arrival.

While I had finished my letter, I posted it.

这两句里的while都该改作when。

2.下面两句里的while表示对比（contrast），有(al)though的意思：

While this is true of some, it is not true of all.

While I like the story, I do not like the English.

3.While he was reading, he heard his father call him里的he was可以省去。但While I like the story, I do not like the English里的I like不可改作liking，因为liking只能代表I am liking，不能代表I like（参见though 3）。下面三句都不可说：

While being ready to help him, I wondered what he needed most. （该把being删去，或把While删去而把being改作Being）

The house, while being a very old one, is still kept in good repair. （该把being删去，或把while删去，或把while being删去）

While admitting that the idea is a very good one, we are sorry we are not in a position to carry it out. （该把admitting改作we admit）

4.在2里所讲的while表示对比（参见2）。while决不可表示原因，如下面两句都不对，该把While改作As或Since：

While he is perfectly honest, we all love him.

While you cannot go with me, I have to go alone.

5.while不可用作and then解，如下面三句都不对，该把while改作when：

I was about to start while it began to rain.

He was going to bed, while a letter came.

The case was heard yesterday, while she did her best to defend herself.

6.while用作动词只用在while away（闲混过）his（或her等）time，while away many afternoons等表达方式里，后面接现在分词，不接不定式。例如：He whiled away his time talking or walking. 和The children whiled away many afternoons playing on the beach.

white

white用于面色通常指“苍白的”，有时指“白种的”，很少指“白皙的”。

White House（白宫）的前面有the。

Whitehall

Whitehall（伦敦街名，白厅，也指英国政府或英国政府的政策）前面没有the。

who

1.不论用作疑问代词或关系代词，who属于主格，whom属于宾格。例如：

Who said so?

I do not know who said so.

Whom did you see?

I do not know whom you saw.

The man who called this morning is my cousin.

The man whom you saw this morning is my cousin.

下面几点该注意：

（1）在口语里用疑问代词时通常用who，不用whom。例如：

Who did you see?

I do not know who you saw.

下面每组里的第一句最自然，第三句最不自然：

第三组里的to不可省去，参见whom 3

（2）比较下面每组里的三个对话：

注意不可说Whom to? 或Whom with?

（3）也有少数英美人把who用作属于宾格的关系代词，但不算正当，如不该说The man who you saw this morning is my cousin，该把who改作whom。

（4）The man whom you saw this morning is my cousin里的whom用得不错，但除了在正式文字里以外通常省去。比较下面两句：

The man (whom) you saw this morning is my cousin.

Mr Lee, whom you saw this morning, is my cousin.

第二句里的whom you saw this morning是非限定从句，whom不可省去。

（5）比较下面每组里的两句：

每组第一句里的who是is或was的主语，不是believe或supposed的宾语。believe或supposed把从句(that) who is honest或(that) who was dead做宾语。不用who而用whom是英美人常有的错误。

2.在口语里，关系代词who往往省去。例如：There's somebody (who) wants to speak to you.

3.The ship has lost her rudder里用her。The ship, which is a small one, has lost her rudder里也用her，但不用who而用which，参见which 2 (4)

4.下面第一句、第二句和第三句都不错，第四句不对。参见which 5

I found many children there, most of whom were boys.

I found many children there; most of them were boys.

I found many children there, most of them being boys.

I found many children there, most of whom being boys.

注意第二句里用分号，第三句里用逗号。

5.关于关系代词who和关系代词that的区别，参见that 9

6.疑问代词who不可作关系代词who或whom的先行项，下面两句都不对，该把who或whom改作that：

Who who has ever heard her sing does not admire her?

Who whom you have ever heard sing sings better than Miss Drake?

7.关于who和which的不同，参见which 2和13

8.下面两句意思相同，就是说“谁也不会曾经想到那个”。

Who would have thought of that?

Who would have thought of that!

whoever

1.whoever跟who ever不同，参见ever 5

2.whoever比whosoever普通。

3.比较下面每组里的两句：

每组第一句里的whoever是met或may ask的主语，第二句里的whomever是met或like的宾语。第一句里的whoever不可改作whomever，在第二句里不用whomever而用whoever是英美人惯常的用法。whomever实际上很少见。

whole

1.whole或the whole of不可用在复数形式的名词前面作“全体的”或“一切的”解，如可以说the whole book, the whole town, the whole of my money和the whole of humanity（全人类），但不可说：

My whole books are kept upstairs.

The whole of my books are kept upstairs.

The whole boys are at play.

The whole of the boys are at play.

该改作：

All (of) my books are kept upstairs.

All (of) the boys are at play.

关于of的用或不用，参见all 4

下面两点该注意：

（1）whole cities，whole days，whole groups等表达方式都可以说。但whole cities是“多个全城”，不是“一切的城”，whole days是“多个全天”，不是“一切的日子”，whole groups是“多个全组”，不是“一切的组”。

（2）his whole energies或the whole of his energies和the whole ten days都可以说。但energies在形式上虽然是复数，在意思上却等于单数，energies并不像books和boys那样是可数的名词。the whole ten days里的ten days指十天长的一段时间，并不指十个分开的日子。the whole ten days是“十天长的一段时间（并不缺少一天）”，the ten whole days是“十个全天”。

2.1里说可以说the whole of my money和the whole of humanity，但不可说my whole money或whole humanity。下面每组里的第一句和第二句是对的，第三句不对：

第一组里的第一句不很自然。

可以说the whole of my money而不可说my whole money，但可以说the whole of my time，也可以说my whole time，因为time可以被看作整个的一个东西。可以说the whole of humanity而不可说whole humanity，但可以说the whole of the human race，也可以说the whole human race，因为humanity不是类名词，但race是类名词（比较all humanity和all the human race）。

3.不可说whole China或whole Shanghai，该改作the whole of China和the whole of Shanghai。

4.The whole city was not occupied是“这个城并没完全被占领”，不是“这个城完全没被占领”。

5.下面两句里的whole作“整个的”解：

We must learn to see things whole.

Surely you cannot eat an apple whole.

eat an apple whole是“把整个的一只苹果一口吃下”，eat a whole apple是“把整个的一只苹果吃下”。

wholesale

在英国只说by wholesale，在美国通常说at wholesale。

whom

关于whom和who的区别，参见who 1

2.whom不用来指船，如不可说The ship whom you saw this morning will sail tomorrow，该把whom改作which。参见which 2 (4)和who 3

3.whom不可用作间接宾语，下面每组里的第一句和第二句都对，第三句不对：

下面两点该注意：

（1）虽然可以说I gave him the letter和She has bought him a book，第一组和第二组里的第三句却不可说。

（2）第三组和第四组里的第三句都不对，假使把whom省去了也不对。

4.下面四句意思相同：

He is a man whom to know is to love.

He is a man to know whom is to love him.

He is a man whom to know him is to love.

He is a man whom to know is to love him.

第一句里的whom同时做know和love的宾语，严格地说不合语法，但这句最合习惯、最自然。其他的三句都合乎语法，但不合习惯。

whom(so)ever

1.whomever比whomsoever普通。但whomever也不多见。

2.参见whoever 3

who's

who's有时等于who is，如Who's standing over there? 有时等于who has，如Who's shut the door? 有时等于who is而那is却不属于who而属于它后面的词。例如：Who's he going to see? (=Who is he going to see?)

whose

1.疑问代词whose不可用来指没有生命的东西，但关系代词whose尽可以这样用，在文字里这种用法更普通。

2.Whose umbrella is this? 比Whose is this umbrella? 普通。

whose-ever

whose-ever，whosever和whosesoever都有人用。在口语里往往用whoever's，也有人用whatever person's。

whosesoever

参见whose-ever

whosever

参见whose-ever

whosoever

whosoever不及whoever普通。

why

1.reason，consideration，explanation等词后面可以接以why引导的从句。例如：

This is the reason why I did not go.

There are many considerations why this work should be done.

Now I have given sufficient explanation why the work should be done at once.

2.在以why开首的疑问句里的do you往往被省去。例如：

Why spend such a lot of money?

Why not go there with them?

Why not apologize and ask his pardon?

wide(ly)

1.关于wide和broad的区别，参见broad

2.wide和widely略有不同。wide通常表示范围或程度的极点。例如：Her eyes were wide open. （她的眼睛张得很大。）和She was wide awake. （她完全醒着。）widely通常表示范围或程度的广大，往往跟过去分词用在一起。例如：

His name is widely known.

He is widely read. （他博览群书。）

They differ widely in opinion.

They are widely different in temperament.

wife

1.在英国提及自己的妻子通常用my wife，在很正式的场合才用Mrs...，但在美国似乎用my wife不及用Mrs...普通。

2.wife不指寡妇，如His wife, who has lived in the country ever since his death in 1940, is good pianist里的wife该改作widow。

wild

wild（急切的）后面可以接不定式。例如：She is wild to go with us.

will

参见shall和won't

willing

1.willing后面有时接以that引导的从句，那从句里用should。例如：I am willing that he should come to see me tonight.

2.willing后面有时接for和宾语和不定式。例如：I am willing for him to come to see me tonight.

willingness

willingness后面可以接不定式。例如：They did not show much willingness to help.

win

win有时有双宾语。例如：His genuine kindness of heart will win him many friends.

window

比较下面三句：

He is looking out of the window.

He is looking out of window.

He is looking out the window.

第一句英美通用。第二句只用在英国，现在不很普通。假使把out of改作through，必须加上the。第三句只用在美国。

winter

1.可以说the winter of 1959—1960（1959年末和1960年初的那个冬季）。曾见过during the winter and spring of 1941—1942。这实际上是不成立的，因为spring在2月或3月才开始，不可能跨着两年。

2.参见autumn

wire

1.wire统指“金属线”，a wire是“一根或一段金属线”，wires是“多根或多段金属线”。

2.wire用作“电报”解，后面可以接不定式。例如：He got a wire to come home. （他接到一个电报，叫他回家去。）

3.His father wired (for) him to come home里的for可有可无。

4.wire（动词）后面可以接以that引导的从句。例如：He wired that he had quite recovered.

wireless

注意下面第一句和第二句里没有the，其他各句里有the：

I am interested in wireless.

I have received a message by wireless.

I have heard the news on（或over）the wireless.

I am listening to the wireless.

The story has been made available to a wider public through the wireless.

参见radio

wise

下面两句意思不同：

You were wise to refuse. （你拒绝了，那证明你是聪明的。）

You were wise enough to refuse. （你很聪明，所以你拒绝了。）

第一句等于You were wise in refusing或It was wise of you to refuse。

wish

1.名词wish后面接不定式或for和名词，不接for和动名词，如可以说his wish for better times和his wish to go abroad，不可说his wish for going abroad。

2.名词wish后面可以接以that引导的从句，从句里用should或虚拟现在式。例如：It is my wish that he should do so. 和It is my wish that he do（不用does）so.

3.wish（名词）用作“请求”解往往用复数形式。例如：In accordance with your wishes, I have written to him.

4.动词wish后面接不定式，不接动名词，如可以说I wish to see him immediately，不可说I wish seeing him immediately。I wish to see him immediately比I want to see him immediately语气轻。

5.下面每组里的两句都可以说，第二句似乎含有“想要（而难于得到）”的意思：

比较下面两句：

You may get what you wish.

You are not likely to get what you wish for.

6.下面三句意思不同：

I wish to see him immediately. （我要立刻见他。）

I wish I may see him immediately. （希望我可以立刻见他。）

I wish I could see him immediately. （但愿我能够［实际不能］立刻见他。）

注意：（1）第二句不很普通。（2）第三句里不用can而用could。

下面两句意思可以说相同：

I wish you to go immediately. （我要你立刻去。［表示命令或请求。这句里用wish不及用want普通］）

I wish you would go immediately. （我巴不得你立刻去。［也表示命令或请求，但语气婉转些］）

注意第二句里用would而不用will。比较下面两句：

I wish you would go immediately.

I hope you will go immediately.

注意I wish he would go immediately含有“恐怕他不会立刻去”的意思，并不表示恳求。

7.下面每组里的两句意思相同，第二句里用was或had是为了时态的呼应：

8.下面两句意思相同：

I wish my father were in better health.

I could wish my father were in better health.

第二句里的could实际是没有作用的，但事实上往往这样用。

9.I wish you to go immediately是“我要你立刻去”。I wish you to be happy是“我希望你快乐”。下面各句里的wish，wishes或wished都作“愿望”解，那for用的少，不用的多：

I wish (for) you to be happy.

He wishes (for) all his friends to become heroes.

He wished (for) her to become both educated and temperament.

She wished (for) her daughter to make a satisfactory marriage.

10.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

11.下面一句里用is wishing比用wishes生动，有口语性质：

James sold his typewriter because he thought he would get a good price for it, now he is wishing he had kept it.

12.下面每组里的两句意思相同：

13.假使把I wish I could see him immediately和I wish my father were in better health等句改成了过去时态，那could和were不变。例如：I wished I could see him immediately. 和I wished my father were in better health.

wit

1.wit（诙谐、滑稽）是抽象名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式。

2.at his（或her等）wits' end（不知所措的）和at his（或her等）wit's end都可以用，但似乎at his（或her等）wits' end比较普通。后面可以接不定式，也可以接what和how等词。例如：I had searched unsuccessfully all summer and was at my wits'（或wit's）end to find the right school for my daughter. 和He was at his wits'（或wit's）end what to do. in his（或her等）wit（清醒的）和out of his（或her等）wit（发狂的）似乎不及in his（或her等）wits和out of his（或her等）wits普通。

下面每组里的两句意思相同：

with

1.with前面用away和down等词可以成为不用动词的命令式。例如：

Away with him!=Take him away!

Down with imperialism!=Put down imperialism!

Off with your caps!=Take off your caps!

On with your clothes!=Put on your clothes!

Up with the box!=Take up the box!

2.下面每句里with的宾语后面的形容词、过去分词或名词好像是表语：

He always sleeps with the windows open.

With both my friends gone home, I lived alone for some time.

She used to sit reading in the evening with her cat her only companion.

He died with his daughter yet a schoolgirl.

3.下面两句里的a可有可无：

She followed them with (a) beating heart.

He threatened the dog with (a) raised hand.

下面两句里的his可有可无：

He said so with (his) head thrown back.

He looked at us with (his) face a little sidelong.

withdraw(al)

withdraw(al)（撤退）通常用于己方的军队，retreat通常用于对方的军队。

within

注意下面四句里都用of而不用from：

I live within an easy walk of the park.

There is no shop within a mile of his house.

He returned within an hour of his departure.

He called on me within an hour of his departure.

within an hour of his departure在第三句里是“在他动身以后的一小时以内”，在第四句里是“在他动身以前的一小时以内”。第三句里的of可以改作after。

without

1.比较下面四语：

without A and B

without A and without B

without A or B

without A or without B

第一种表达方式、第二种表达方式和第三种表达方式意思相同，都是A和B都没有。第四种表达方式是“没有A或没有B”，就是“没有A而有B，或没有B而有A”。说A和B都没有不该用第四种表达方式。

2.下面两句里的it和them可有可无：

If there isn't one left, I shall have to do without (it).

I can speak from notes only, though experienced speakers may manage without (them).

witness

1.witness（目击者）后面接of或to都可以。例如：I was a witness of（或to）the accident.

2.I was (a) witness of（或to）the accident里的a可有可无。am（或is等）witness of（或to）里通常省去a。即使那主语是复数，也通常用witness而不用witnesses。例如：They were witness(es) of（或to）the accident. stand witness也是这样。例如：We stand witness(es) in this age to the decline of colonialism in Africa.

3.witness（［法律上的］证人）前面往往没有the。例如：Then (the) witness was ordered to keep back.

4.下面一句里的witness通常被当作属于虚拟语气的不及物动词，作“供给证据”解，习惯用在它的主语前面。例如：He is afraid, (as) witness his hesitation. （他是恐惧的，这可以从他的迟疑看出。）把分号改作逗号也可以，as可有可无。但也有人说witness是名词，(as) witness his hesitation=his hesitation (being) (as) witness。

woman

1.woman单独用指一般女子。例如：In the old society woman's sphere was said to be the home. 和Woman is not at all weaker than man, neither physically nor intellectually. the woman往往指女子的特性。例如：He has much of the woman in him. 和There is little of the woman in her.

2.woman用作形容词跟female相同，如woman doctor和woman friend。假使那个名词是复数，通常用复数形式women，偶尔用单数形式woman，如women clerks，women doctors和women friends里的women偶尔改用woman。

3.形容doctor(s)，friend(s)，counsellor(s)，student(s)等词，当然只可用woman或women，不可用woman's或women's。woman movement（妇女运动）和woman suffrage（妇女参政权）等表达方式里的woman不可改作women。但也有人用woman's suffrage或women's suffrage。

严格地说，woman's统指“女性”或“女子们”，women's指“一个一个的女子”，但事实上竟可以说没有区别，如woman's rights（女权）和women's rights，woman's opportunity和women's opportunity，woman's college和women's college。

womanish

womanish只用于男子，作“有女子气（而没有男子气）的”解。例如：His manner is rather womanish. womanly只用于女子，作“女子气的”或“成年女子似的”解。例如：She is a most womanly woman. 和All admire her womanly beauty.

womankind

womankind统指“女子们”。有时指一个人家里的女子们。例如：His womankind are in the country. womenkind只指一个人家里的女子们，不可统指女子们。

womanly

参见womanish

woman's

参见woman

women

参见woman

womenkind

参见womankind

women's

参见woman

wonder

1.下面四句意思不同：

I wonde (that) he did see you. （他竟然曾经看见你，我感觉奇怪［我原来以为他不曾看见你］。）

I wonder (that) he did not see you. （他竟然不曾看见你，我感觉奇怪［我原来以为他看见你］。）

I wonder whether he saw you. （我很想知道他是否曾经看见你［我想他大约不曾看见你］。）

I wonder whether he did not see you. （我很想知道他是否不曾看见你［我想他大约曾经看见你］。）

参见whether 3

2.It is not to be wondered at that...（…是不足奇的）里的at从前往往省去，现在通常不省去。

3.wonder后面可以接不定式，但不很普通。例如：I wondered to see him looking so cheerful.

4.I shouldn't wonder if the weather didn't change soon照字面解是“假使天气不立刻就变，我将并不觉得奇怪”。但事实上这句话等于I shouldn't wonder if the weather changed soon。这当然是不合理的。

5.下面三句都作“他辞职了，那是不足奇的”解：

It is no wonder (that) he resigned.

No wonder (that) he resigned.

He resigned, and no wonder.

No wonder he resigned里的no wonder并不是状语短语，所以不可说He no wonder resigned。

6.wonder用作形容词现在往往在报纸上见到（尤其在标题里），如a wonder child和a wonder golfer。这用法在一二百年以前也有，后来不用了。

wonderful

1.wonderful是“使人感觉惊奇的”，不是“感觉惊奇的”，如可以说This is a wonderful sight，不可说I am wonderful at the sight或I am wonderful about it。

2.wonderful往往用作“很好的”或“出色的”解。例如：We had a wonderful dinner. 和What a wonderful teacher your sister is!

3.可以说We had a wonderful dinner，但不可说：

We did not have a wonderful dinner.

Did you have a wonderful dinner?

If you had had a wonderful dinner, you would not have wanted anything to eat when you came back home.

I should like to have a wonderful dinner with you.

参见most 4

won't

比较下面两句：

Come in, won't you? （邀请）

Open the door, will you? （请求）

woo

woo多少有些文学韵味，在一般文字里该避免，在口语里更不可用。它的意思是“向（女子）求爱”，通常以婚姻为目的，但不一定。指持续的行为（如天天求爱，持续了一年），不指一时的行为，不指一次的求婚。“我将在明天早上向她求婚”不可说I shall woo her tomorrow morning，该把woo改作propose to。

wood(s)

1.说“树林”用wood或woods都可以。例如：We met them in the wood(s). 在英国几乎总是说a wood，在美国通常说a woods。很少说a wood。可以说these pine woods。

2.wood（木料）是物质名词，前面不可加a，也没有复数形式woods。

wood(s)man

说“伐木者”通常用woodman，说“在森林中居住的人”通常用woodsman。

word

1.下面两句意思不同：

He had a word with her yesterday. （昨天他跟她作了一次简略的谈话。）

He had words with her yesterday. （昨天他跟她争吵。）

2.下面各句里的word作“消息”或“通知”解，注意前面没有a或the：

I have just received word of his arrival.

We've just got word that my wife's family is coming to spend the holidays with us.

She has sent word of her accident.

He has left word（留言）that he will be back within a week.

Word has come that the meeting will be held on Friday.

Word was immediately sent to the old man, who received the news with real pleasure.

3.a man of his word（守约者）中的his不可改动，如You are a man of his word里的his不可改作your，I am a man of his word里的his不可改作my。

4.关于eat his（或your等）words，参见eat 4

5.关于by word of mouth，参见mouth

work(s)

1.at work有两个意思：（1）“正在工作”，如He is hard at work和He's at work upon a new book（他正在写一本新书）。（2）“在工地上工作”或“在厂里工作”，如回答Is your brother at home? 可以说No, he's at work。at work（正在工作）后面可以接现在分词。例如：He is at work translating a long story.

2.把a work和works用来指“一件工作”和“多件工作”很不普通，最好用a task和tasks。

3.the work of the author（或artist等）里的work统指“作品”，是抽象名词，着重在它的特性，the works of the author（或artist等）里的works指一件一件的“作品”，比较下面两句：

I can hardly recognize the work of Charles Lamb（英国19世纪文学家）.

I have read the complete works of Charles Lamb.

4.复数形式works（工厂）用作主语的时候通常被当作单数，但当作复数也可以。例如：The glass-works is（或are）outside the town.

一个工厂是works，两个、三个工厂也是works。例如：There was a gas-works in the town. There were two gas-works in the town. 和All the works are to open again soon. works作“工厂”解主要用在英国。

5.start work和start working都可以说，stop work和stop working也都可以说。

workaday

workaday现在可以说只用作形容词，作“寻常的”或“实用的”解，如this workaday world和a workaday education。workday在英国指“（星期日和其他放假日以外的）工作日”，在美国指“一天里的工作时间”。working day（或workingday）在英美都有workday的两个意思。

workday

参见workaday

worker

参见workman

workhouse

workhouse在英国指“济贫院”，在美国指“感化院”。

working

1.关于working day，参见workaday

2.关于working man，参见workman

working-day

参见workaday

working(-)man

参见workman

workless

workless往往指“失业者”，前面有时有the，有时没有the，可以说many workless和numbers of workless。参见unemployed

workman

workman，working man（或working(-) man）和worker都作“工人”解，但workman着重在那工人的本领的好坏，working man着重在工人的阶级或地位，worker是“工作者”，...worker是“…工作者”。如“工欲善其事，必先利其器”里的“工”是workman，“他是一个工人”里的“工人”是working man。但说“工人们”通常用workmen，不用working men或working(-)men。“工人俱乐部”和“工人日报”等里的“工”或“工人”通常用worker(s)。

workmen

参见workman

world

1.in the world不可滥用，如下面四句里的in the world都该删去。

Everybody ought to work in the world.

China is a great country in the world.

He has published a good work on the subject in the world.

This book contains many famous stories in the world.

下面四句里的in the world用得不错。注意第一句和第三句里有属于最高级词，第二句里有only，第四句里有否定词nothing：

China is one of the greatest countries in the world.

He has published the only work on the subject in the world.

This book contains many of the most famous stories in the world.

Nothing in the world disturbs her.

2.all over the world，all the world over，the world over和the whole world over四语意思相同。例如：People all over the world（或all the world over，或the world over，或the whole world over）who are studying English as a foreign language do not find it easy to use idiomatic expressions fluently.

3.The whole world knows it里的world统指“世界上的人们”或指“一般人们”，通常当作单数，所以用knows。all the world who（或that）are interested in this subject里的world当作复数，all the world that（或which）is interested in this subject里的world当作单数，注意不可说all the world who is interested in this subject或all the world which are interested in this subject。

4.下面两句意思相同，第一句普通些：

I hope this practice will do you of world of good.

I hope this practice will do you worlds of good.

worry

1.worry统指“忧虑”，a worry是“一件忧虑的事”，worries是“多件忧虑的事”。

2.下面各句都可以说：

Don't worry about that.

Don't worry yourself about that.

Don't let that worry you.

Don't be worried about that.

第二句有“别为了那件事而庸人自扰”的意思。第四句最不普通。

3.worry（动词）可以作“不断地请求”解。例如：The boy was always worrying me to take him to the zoo. 和The boy worried his mother to buy a pop-gun. 把to take和to buy改作into taking和into buying也可以，但比较不普通。

4.关于a worried look（一个忧虑的神情）等，参见much 3 (5) E

worship

参见cult

worth

1.worth用作形容词不可单独用作表语，如不可说This is worth。This is worth five yuan和This is worth doing才是正常的英语。worth跟yuan或doing的语法关系怎样？这是一个“言人人殊”的问题，为“便利”起见，我们不妨把worth看作及物动词的现在分词，把后面的名词或动名词看作它的宾语。

2.worth后面的动名词一定属于主动语态，但意思是被动的。例如：

This is worth doing. （不可用being done）

The book is worth reading. （不可用being read）

His advice is worth taking. （不可用being taken）

The event is worth looking forward to. （不可用being looked forward to）

I do not think the subject is worth knowing anything about. （不可用being known anything about）

下面三句都不可说：

I think a poet is worth becoming.

I do not think I am worth publishing my poems.

It is worth discussing the question again.

第一句里的becoming是不及物动词的动名词，它的意思并不是被动的，所以不对，该改作I think it (is) worthwhile to become a poet。第二句里的publishing的意思也不是被动的，所以不对，该改作I do not think it (is) worthwhile for me to publish my poems或I do not think my poems are worth publishing。注意原句的意思不很明白，这两句的意思并不相同。第三句里的discussing是It的同位语，worth没有宾语，所以不对，该改作下面的任何一种表达形式：

It is worthwhile to discuss the question again.

The question is worth discussing again.

It is worthwhile discussing the question again.

To discuss the question again is worthwhile.

Discussing the question again is worthwhile.

第四句和第五句都不很自然。

但下面两句都可以说：

The sight is worth going to see.

Your son is worth denying yourself for the sake of. （你的儿子值得你节衣缩食去培养他。）

不过第二句未免生硬。

Dreams that are worth dreaming are worth coming true（值得梦想的梦想是值得实现的）里的worth coming true当然是错的，不过就全句而论，错了些倒很流利，可以说“无伤大雅”。

3.worth和worthwhile前面用well，不用very。

4.下面每句里在worth后面的动名词前面都有the：

The soil was truly worth the ploughing for the return it gave.

Some of the suggestions are scarcely worth the making.

Was the play really worth the acting?

用了the表示那动作已经实现。

5.偶尔worth后面接属于完成时态的动名词。例如：Soon I realized that some of the phrases I had copied into my notebook were archaisms not worth having learnt.

6.可以说It is worthwhile to discuss the question again，不可说The question is worthwhile discussing again，该把while删去。这样多用的while是英美人常有的错误。下面每组里的第一句和第二句都对，第三句不对：

但下面两句都可以说：

It is worth remembering that all that glitters is not gold.

It is worthwhile remembering that all that glitters is not gold.

第一句里以that引导的从句是It的同位语，第二句里remembering that all that glitters is not gold是It的同位语。

7.说“值得被某人…”不可说worth...'s ...ing或worth...ing by...，如不可说This is worth my father's doing或This is worth doing by my father，该改作下面的任何一句：

This is worthy to be done by my father.

It is worthwhile for my father to do this.

It is worth my father's while to do this.

8.a yuan's worth of stamps，ten yuan's worth of oranges等表达方式里有撇号和s，但¥800 worth of...等表达方式里习惯在¥800后面不加撇号和s。

worthwhile

worthwhile往往（尤其在美国）用作“好的”或“有价值的”解，如a worth-while book和a worth-while friend。

worthy

1.下面四句意思相同：

This is worthy to be done.

This is worthy of being done.

This is worthy being done.

This is worth doing.

下面几点该注意：

（1）第一句里的to be done不可改作to do。

（2）第二句里的of being done不可改作of doing。

（3）第三句里的being done不可改作doing。

（4）第四句里的doing不可改作being done。参见worth 2

（5）第一句不很自然。第三句现在远不及第二句普通。假使动名词改作名词，也是这样，如This is worthy consideration现在远不及This is worthy of consideration普通。

（6）第四句最普通。

（7）worthy后面的不定式不一定属于被动语态，比较下面两句：

This question is worthy to be considered. （这问题是值得被考虑的。）

He is worthy to consider this question. （他是值得考虑这问题的［他有考虑这问题的能力］。）

（8）说“值得被某人…的”通常用第一句，不用第二句或第三句，不可用第四句。参见worth 7

2.下面两句意思不同：

This task is not worthy of him. （这件工作配不上他［太简易，配不上有像他这样本领、经验等的人］。）

He is not worthy of this task. （他配不上这件工作［他的本领、经验等太差，配不上这件工作］。）

3.worthy不可单独用作表语，如不可说He is worthy或The reward is worthy，该改作He is a worthy man和This is a worthy reward。worthy man和man of worth略有不同。worthy man里的worthy往往含有“还算不坏”、“殊堪嘉尚”等不很尊敬的意思，man of worth是“德才兼备的人”。

would

参见shall

wound(ed)

1.注意He has a knife wound in the leg和There are wounds in his forehead and face里用in，不用on。

2.可以说our wounded（我方的受伤者），fifty wounded（五十个受伤的人）等。

write

1.write后面可以接双宾语。例如：Don't forget to write me all the news. 和They wrote us a report last month. 也往往只用间接宾语而不用直接宾语，如I shall write you again soon和They wrote us last month。有人以为该在write和wrote后面加上to。假使write的直接宾语是一个以that引导的从句，也有人以为该用to。例如：They wrote to us that they were coming to see the show.

上面各句都不可改作被动语态，如不可说We were written a report (by them) last month或You will be written again soon，也不可说A report was written us (by them) last month。可以改作：

We received a report from them last month.

You will be written to again soon.

A report was written to us (by them) last month.

但第二句和第三句不很自然。

2.I（或We）write to...（不定式）和I am（或We are）writing to...（不定式）都用在信的开首，作“我（们）写这信，目的在于…”解。

3.I shall write to him to tell about her可能有两个意思：“我将写信给他，告诉他关于她的事。”或“我将写信给他，请他告诉我关于她的事。”改成下面两句当然便明白了：

I shall write to tell him about her.

I shall write to ask him to tell (me) about her.

下面两句当然也很明白：

I shall write to him to come immediately. （他“来”，不是我“来”。write后面的to改作for也可以）

I shall write to him to answer his questions. （我“答”，不是他“答”）

4.下面两句意思相同：

He has written (to say) that he is in town.

He writes (to say) that he is in town.

5.He wrote to her in London和He wrote to her from London意思不同。第一句里的in London修饰her。

writer

在文章里用the writer或the presnet writer指自己不很自然，在信函里更不自然。

writing(s)

1.a writing用来指“一篇文章”或“一本著作”很不普通，但往往指“一个文件”。复数形式指“（某人的）著作”。例如：His writings have been published in five volumes.

2.writing用作“笔迹”解总是用单数形式。例如：His writing is not clear enough.

3.at the time of writing作“当我在写这篇文章（或这本书）写到这里的时刻”。例如：At the time of writing, birds are singing outside the window. 和At the time of writing, news of technical transformation of agriculture keeps coming in.

wrong(ly)

1.He is wrong to think so不及He is wrong in thinking so普通。

2.比较下面四句：

It is wrong for you to do this. （你做这件事是错误的。）

It is wrong of you to do this. （你做这件事是不应该的。）

It is wrong that you should do this. （跟第一句相同）

You do wrong in doing（或to do）this. （跟第二句相同）

3.wrong和in the wrong的区别，相当于right和in the right的区别。参见right 4

4.wrong（副词）和wrongly的区别，相当于right和rightly的区别。参见right 5

但下面两句里用wrong或wrongly都可以：

You guessed wrong(ly).

You've done it wrong(ly).

5.注意下面各句里在wrong前面用the而不用a：

They took the wrong course.

He came on the wrong day.

She brought me the wrong book.

I knocked at the wrong door.

You have said the wrong thing.

That is the wrong way to do it.

Dirt is said to be matter in the wrong place.

Take care not to let the letter fall into the wrong hands.

the wrong...跟the right...相反，作“不是the right...的那个…”解。因为the right...里用the，所以也用the，并没有“唯一的”的意思。如假定一共有10本书，你叫某人拿第4本来，那第4本是right book，第4本以外的任何一本都是wrong book（一共有9本），第4本并不是“唯一的wrong book”，但习惯用the而不用a。

X

X-ray（或x-ray）

1.X-ray（爱克斯光）原来不是物质名词，所以原来不说The doctor is examining his lungs by means of X-ray。而用复数形式X-rays。但现在偶尔有by means of X-ray等表达方式。用作形容词该用单数形式，如an X-ray examination和X-ray therapy。

2.不论摄影、透视或治疗，当然不会只有一束爱克斯光，所以an X-ray很少用。但在譬喻里有时用。例如：Her eyes probed my face like an X-ray。

3.用作名词时往往写作X ray。用作形容词或动词时，可以说总是写X-ray。

Y

Yankee

Yankee在英国和欧洲指“美国人”，在美国通常指New England人。New England指美国东北部的Maine，New Hampshire，Vermont，Massachusetts，Rhode Island和Connecticut六州。美国南方各州的人说Yankee有时指美国北方任何一州的人，多少有些轻视的意味。

Yard

the Yard指Scotland Yard。参见Scotland

year

1.a five-year-old boy，a twenty-year-old school等比a five-years-old boy，a twenty-years-old school等普通。

2.We studied together for years和His mother died years ago等句子里的years都作“好几年”解。不可用years指几十年或一百多年，如不可说Years ago the telephone was invented或Wealth of Nations（国富论）was first published years ago。

3.the time of (the) year（这个季候）和this time of (the) year里的the似乎用的少，不用的多。

4.the year (of) 1999等表达方式里的of用的少，不用的多。通常只用1999等，不用year。

5.习惯上不说How many years old are you? 或I do not know how many years old he is，该把many years删去。

6.His father died in the same year和Her second novel appeared in the following year等句子里的in往往省去。

7.He came to Beijing at fourteen (years)里的years用的少，不用的多。

8.year in year out和year in，year out（有逗号）和year in and year out都可以说，第三式最不普通。

9.I hope the book will go through many editions over the years里的over the years作“在这（或那）几年中间”解。

yellow

yellow用于press，journal，journalism，journalist，newspaper，editor等词前面通常译作“黄色（的）”，但yellow的涵义跟汉语“黄色新闻”、“黄色歌曲”等表达方式里的“黄色”的涵义不同。yellow用于press等词前面含有“骇人听闻”、“扰乱人心”、“妖言惑众”、“造谣生事”、“夸夸其谈”、“言过其实”等意思。“黄色新闻”和“黄色歌曲”等表达方式里的“黄色”在口语里有时用blue。例如：blue stories和The play is rather blue.

yes

1.关于yes和no的区别，参见no 1

2.下面每组里的三句意思相同：

3.下面对话里的yes and no表示“不能说定”：

A: Did you convince him?

B: Well, yes and no.

yesterday

1.on yesterday似乎只用在美国。

2.yesterday在记事里有时指上文说起过的某天的昨天。例如：We got a better chance than we had had yesterday.

3.all yesterday不及all day yesterday合乎习惯。

4.yesterday morning和yesterday afternoon里的yesterday不可改作last。yesterday evening和last evening都可以说。yesterday night不及last night普通。

yet

1.下面三种表达方式意思相同：strange(,) yet true，strange and yet true，strange but yet true。第三种表达方式最不普通。

2.a yet longer poem，yet more interesting等表达方式里的yet作even或still解，现在不及用even或still普通。

3.the fastest car that has yet been made（到现在为止最快的汽车）是正常的英语，近几年来也有人用the fastest-yet car等语。

4.参见already 1和still 1

you

1.you有时泛指“任何人”。例如：

You never can tell. （万事不可预料。）

You never know what you can do till you try.

You cannot lose what you never had.

You cannot catch old birds with chaff. （有经验的人决不会上［你的］当。）

这样用法的you比one亲切，在口语和口语式的文字里比one普通。

2.祈使句里的主语you通常省去。但有时可以用you来加重语气，用了you句子仍旧是祈使句，并不成为陈述句。例如：

You go.

Go you.

You be quiet.

You mind your own business.

You get out of the room.

Don't you worry about that.

Don't you come here again.

Don't you keep on asking me questions like that.

Never you mind how old she is.

Never you mind.

But I have no objection, mind you（或mark you）.

In you go!

Out you come!

下面几点该注意：

（1）用Don't you...和Never you...，不用You don't...和You never...。

（2）用mind you和mark you，不用you mind和you mark。

（3）In you go!和Out you come!都是非正式的句法，只用于熟人。

（4）用you往往有把“你”跟“我”或别人对比的意思。例如：I must go away for a while. You sit here till I come back. 和You stand up. Your sister is too tired to stand any more, and would like to have the seat.

下面三句都是祈使句，但只有第一句里的You是take的主语，第二句里的You和第三句里的You都是呼唤语，不是take的主语：

You take that chair.

You, take that chair. （有逗号）

Take that chair, you.

3.下面两句里都用their，不用your，也有人用your，但不合理，不算正当：

Some of you have already handed in their compositions.

Many of you have not yet made up their minds.

4.注意下面第一句里用us，第二句里用you。

You and I have no misunderstanding between us.

You and he have no misunderstanding between you.

5.you all比all of you通俗。

在美国南方you all很常用，往往也用于一个人，如向一个朋友说How are you all today? 和向一个店员说Do you all keep fresh butter here? 美国北方人说这种用法不合理，可是南方人说它是合理的，他们说you all指“你和你的家属”、“你们这店（里的全部员工）”等。

young(er)

1.关于younger brother和younger sister，参见brother 1和elder。young brother是“年幼的兄或弟”，不一定是“弟”，不可用来代younger brother。

2.young Clark可能有下面各个意思：1.年轻的Clark。2.Clark父子的子。3.Clark兄弟的弟。4.两个姓Clark的人中的较年轻的一个。

the young Clark是“年轻时代的Clark”。

the young Clarks是“Clark家的孩子们”。

3.the younger pitt（指18世纪英国政治家William Pitt的儿子William Pitt，也是政治家）或pitt the younger都可以说。

your(s)

1.your有时泛用作“大家知道的”解，往往含有轻视或讽刺的意思。例如：He used to be one of your 'modern' gentlemen.

2.yours有时指“你的家里的人们”（用在you and yours中），有时指“你的全部财产”，在信函里往往指“你的来信”或“你的定单”，是商业信函用语。

3.在信函的信尾客套语里，在美国往往只用Sincerely，Cordially等词而不用Yours或yours。就语法讲，Yours sincerely，Sincerely yours等表达方式里的sincerely，Sincerely等修饰Yours或yours。

4.有些人把yours单独用作信尾客套语，有人以为不正当。

5.Yours sincerely，Very truly yours等表达方式的第一个单词通常用大写字母开首，但也有人用小写字母开首，第二个单词和第三个单词用小写字母开首。

6.下面各句里的斜体部分不可改作your，用you是英美人常有的错误：

Each of you has done his（或her，或his or her）best.

Neither of you has failed to do his（或her，或his or her）best.

Every one of you has done his（或her，或his or her）best.

Some of you have done their best.

Many of you have done their best.

None of you have failed to do their best.

yourself

下面两句里用yourself而不用you，是为了加重语气：

I wrote to your brother about it a week ago, but later I thought I had better write to yourself too.

Here is a point of grammar that I should not mention to any less serious student than yourself.

youth

1.a youth通常是“一个青年男子”，不指女子，如a girl and a youth，youths通常是“多个青年男子”，不指女子，如Both her brothers are tall fair-haired youths。youth统指“男女青年们”，通常被当作复数，有时被当作单数。例如：The youth of the city are（或is）preparing for the charity bazaar. a thousand youth，college youth，a group of Chinese youth等表达方式里的youth都兼指男女。

2.They studied together in their youth（青年时代）里的youth改作youths也可以，但不及用youth普通。

Z

zealous

zealous后面有时接不定式。例如：He seems to be more afraid of doing wrong than zealous to do right.

zero

1.above zero，below zero，to zero等表达方式里的zero前面没有the。

2.zero weather（零度气候）前面没有the。

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余幼时诵方望溪姚姬传刘大櫆诸先生所为古文辞，窃喜其意在言外，淡而弥永，至于循玩不忍释手。长习英吉利文字，仍嗜读其隽逸有神味者。求诸国内殆鲜其人；有之自嘉定葛君传椝始。葛君夙赋天禀，又能力学不倦。骤聆其言论，似尚诡辩，多偏见；然静焉思之，确有至理存乎其间。譬食谏果，初甚涩口，终则齿颊间津津有余味也。其为文善取不伦不类者以为比，轻描淡写，寓讽深刻。余尝拟为英文之桐城派，英文学者中之东方生。虽人事百忙，读之便觉大快。君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊；论文往往多独到处。生平著述极富，所作《致友人书》及《英文学生日记》，尤风行海内。兹更汇其生平所作，付梓问世；以余相知较深，驰书索言，因泚笔而乐为之序。

苏兆龙

PREFACE

Except for the fact that it is issued in three volumes， this book may be properly called an omnibus. It contains special articles， letters， prefaces， little essays， poems interpreted， and essays concerning the study of English. Most of the things included have been first published in The Chung Hwa English Weekly， under the headings “Talks on Things”， “This and That”， “Thoughts and Impressions”， “The Open Classroom”， “Chats on Writing English”， and “Helps to the Study of English”. The “Thoughts and Impressions” series and three other essays originally appeared under a pseudonym.

It is a matter of regret that I did not make a duplicate of my first letter to Mr H. W. Fowler， and therefore cannot include it in this book. The one printed herein， as is mentioned in “To the Memory of Mr H. W. Fowler”， was written a fortnight after his death.

The essays concerning the study of English must not be regarded as a systematic treatment of the subject. Many of the points touched upon are more fully dealt with in my How to Master English Without a Teacher.

The following publishers have kindly permitted the inclusion of the pieces the titles of which follow their names in brackets：The China Journal （“On the Europeanization of the Chinese Language” and “Some Fragments of Pai Chü-i’s Poetry concerning Women”）；The English Weekly （“Letter to Mr H. W. Fowler” and “Letter to Mr A. J. Fowler” [dated March 23，1934]）；The Ching Wen Book Company （“Preface to ‘The Diary of a Student’”， “Preface to ‘The Peacock Flies South-East’”， and “Preface to ‘A Chinese Schoolboy Visits England’”）.

Hertz C. K. Kê

December，1936

说明

《葛传椝英文学习法》所收文章多出自《葛传椝英文集》(Man and Student)第一集，书中最后四篇“On the Europeanization of the Chinese Language”，“Some Fragments of Pai Chü-I’s Poetry Concerning Women”，“Some Longer English Lyrics”和“How to Study English”则出自《葛传椝英文集》第三集。

WHAT IS YOUR OBJECT[1] IN STUDYING ENGLISH？

I ask you this question. But I do not want you to answer me.I want you only to answer yourself. You might[2] answer me falsely.[3]You might answer anybody falsely. But you cannot answer yourself falsely. You do not need to answer yourself falsely.

I do not suspect[4] that your object of studying English may be a dishonourable[5] one. It cannot be[6] to kill a friend， nor to win[7] your neighbour’s wife， nor to pick pockets[8] in the street.

Still[9] your object may be one that you do not like to tell me or anybody else. It may be to please[10] your parents， to be “modern”，[11] to get through an examination as through a fever.[12] Do you， reader， care[13] to say so to me or anybody else？

Whatever your object may be，[14] you must feel free[15] to tell yourself truly.

However， I hope you are a serious[16] student of English. I hope your object is a serious one. It may be to read the English classics[17] in the original，[18] to introduce the best in Western civilization into China，[19] to help foreigners to understand what is now misunderstood of China and things Chinese.[20]

Whatever your object may be， you must aim at[21] the ability to read general literature[22] and to speak and write correct and idiomatic English.

[1]Object：目的

[2]might：此处用此字而不用“may”，表十分疑惑之意

[3]falsely：伪；假

[4]suspect：猜疑

[5]dishonourable：卑劣的；不正当的

[6]cannot be：决非

[7]win：得

[8]pick pockets：做扒手

[9]Still：但；仍

[10]please：取悦于

[11]modern：摩登的

[12]get through an examination as through a fever：挨过考试，如挨过热病

[13]care：肯

[14]Whatever your object may be：无论君之目的为何

[15]free：自由的；无所顾虑的

[16]serious：认真的

[17]classics：文学名著

[18]original：原文

[19]introduce the best in Western civilization into China：介绍西方文明之最佳处至中国

[20]understand what is now misunderstood of China and things Chinese：了解中国及中国事物之被人误解处

[21]aim at …：以……为目的

[22]general literature：一般文学

A FEW WARNING[1] WORDS

In this book you will find many bits of advice and information that you have not found elsewhere.[2] I shall write in the light of [3] my own experience and in the belief that what I say will be of practical use to you， and I hope that you will find it really useful.

Here I will say a few warning words. I say “warning words”， mind.[4] I feel that most Chinese students of English— including you perhaps — need warning.

First of all，[5] I have to warn you against spending money and time on books that profess[6] to teach you something but really teach you nothing. There is no royal road to the mastery of English.[7] You cannot master English in three years， still less[8] in three months. You cannot learn composition by reading about some rules of composition. You cannot acquire the ability to write correct English by reading an outline[9] of grammar. Don’t imagine that every author[10] of a composition book or a grammar[11] can himself write a composition or write correct English.

Secondly， I have to warn you against respecting persons.[12] You learn English；you learn the English of the English people， not the English of a few professors[13] and Ph.D.’s.[14] You will do better to[15] read a third-rate[16] English novel[17] by an unknown author than read any treatise[18] by a Ph.D. who knows more about the way[19] the English people eat or swim[20] than the way they write.

Thirdly， I have to warn you against trying to be “literary”[21] or “classical”.[22] You should aim at a clear and idiomatic style，[23] but not at any “literary” or “classical” beauty. You may have considerable[24] literary talent[25] or even genius.[26] But you cannot possibly express it in English before you can write clear and idiomatic English.

Fourthly， and lastly， I have to warn you against confining yourself to[27] a few school-books. You cannot master English without reading widely. By “reading widely” I mean the reading of not only books and magazines[28] and newspapers but also anything else in English that you may come across.[29] A poster[30] or a signboard[31] may teach you some practical English that you cannot learn from another source.

[1]Warning：警告

[2]elsewhere：在他处

[3]in the light of …：以……为根据

[4]mind：请注意

[5]First of all：第一

[6]profess：自以为

[7]There is no royal road to the mastery of English：精通英文，并无不劳而获之秘诀。

[8]still less：更不可能

[9]outline：纲要

[10]author：著作人

[11]grammar：文法书

[12]respecting persons：因重视其人而即重视其才

[13]professors：大学教授

[14]Ph. D. = Philosophiae Doctor = Doctor of Philosophy：哲学博士

[15]do better to …：作……较为有益

[16]third-rate：第三等的；劣的

[17]novel：章回小说

[18]treatise：论文

[19]the way = the way in which

[20]swim：游泳

[21]“literary”：文学的

[22]“classical”：古典的

[23]style：文体

[24]considerable：颇大的

[25]talent：才

[26]genius：天才

[27]confining yourself to：自限于

[28]magazines：杂志

[29]come across：遇到

[30]poster：招贴

[31]signboard：招牌

TWO DICTIONARIES RECOMMENDED[1]

It goes without saying[2] that every student of English must have a dictionary. I do not know what dictionary you use. Do you use a large or a small one？ a new or an old one？ So far as I know，[3] most Chinese students of English use an English-Chinese dictionary， that is，[4] a dictionary of English with Chinese explanations，[5] and I am glad to find that several good English-Chinese dictionaries have appeared[6] during the past few years. But I have to assure you that if you wish to master[7] English， you must use a dictionary with English explanations.

Why？ Because a word or a phrase often cannot be exactly explained in Chinese， and what is known as the Chinese equivalent[8] of a word or a phrase often leads one to misunderstand[9] the word or phrase. For example， do you know the real meaning of the verb “reply”？ In English-Chinese dictionaries， it has “回答” or “答复” for its equivalent， and is called both transitive and intransitive. From this it seems to be quite right to say “to reply a letter”， but it is really wrong. “Reply” as a transitive verb means to say as a reply， not to say something as a reply to. Instead of [10] “reply a letter”， we should say “reply to a letter”. I am sure that those students who use only an English-Chinese dictionary must misunderstand many words and phrases and make many mistakes in speaking and writing.

Here are two English dictionaries that I have to recommend for your use：The Concise Oxford Dictionary and The Pocket Oxford Dictionary， the price of the former[11] being about seven dollars and that of the latter[12] being about three dollars. Both are published by the Oxford University Press[13] and can be had here in China at several book-shops.[14] I have used them for many years and regard them as the two best small one-volume English dictionaries in the world. And I venture[15] to hope that if you use either of them constantly in reading and writing， you will soon be surprised to find the rapid progress you make in your study of English with the help of the dictionary.

[1]Recommended：推荐；介绍

[2]It goes without saying：不必说；当然

[3]So far as I know：据我所知

[4]that is：即是

[5]explanations：解释

[6]appeared：被出版

[7]master：精通

[8]equivalent：同等语

[9]leads one to misunderstand：使人误解

[10]instead of：代；而不是

[11]the former：前者；第一

[12]the latter：后者；第二

[13]Oxford University Press：（英国） 牛津大学出版社

[14]can be had here in China at several book-shops：在中国可在各书店买得

[15]venture：敢

HOW TO READ THE DICTIONARY

As you know very well， dictionaries are reference books[1] — books not for continuous reading but for occasional consulting.[2] But I would here advise you to read， from time to time，[3] a page or two in The Concise Oxford Dictionary or The Pocket Oxford Dictionary. Each of these two dictionaries explains and illustrates[4] fully and clearly the common words that are met with every day but are entangled[5] with other words in so many connexions[6] that the idiomatic use and right understanding of them are far from easy.[7] For example， “on” seems plain and simple enough；but few[8] Chinese students can always use and understand it correctly. When I advise you to read the dictionary， I mean such common words as the prepositions， the conjunctions， the pronouns， and simple verbs and nouns like “get” and “put”， “head” and “way”.

Now let us read the preposition “above” in The Pocket Oxford Dictionary：

“Over， higher than， up stream from， projecting from， north of， earlier in history than， （the roof a. me；head a. water；not traced a. third century）；of higher rank， position， importance， & c.， than （a. all）；out of reach of （a. suspicion）；too good & c. for （is a. meanness；a. one’s station；a. oneself， carried away by high spirits， self-esteem， & c.）.”

A few points need to be noticed. The letter “a.” here stands for[9] “above”. Before “third century” and before “reach of” the article “the” is understood.[10] “Oneself” stands for “himself”， “herself”， etc.

Let us also read a small part of the verb “call” in the same dictionary：

“Speak in tone meant to reach distant hearer （to person）， utter a summons or （esp. of bird， trumpet， & c.） a signal， pay brief visit at place， on person.”

From “（to person）” we learn that we may say “I called to her” and “They are calling to their friend”. From “pay brief visit at place， on person”， we learn that we may say “I called at the office” and “I called on him”， but not “I called on the office” and “I called at him”.

[1]reference books：参考书

[2]occasional consulting：偶然查阅

[3]from time to time：有时；不时

[4]illustrates：例解

[5]entangled：纠缠

[6]connexions：关系

[7]far from easy：极不容易的

[8]few：甚少的

[9]stands for：代表

[10]understood：省去的

GOOD PRONUNCIATION[1]

Do you think your pronunciation is good， reader？ Your friends may tell you so.[2] You speak English and they understand you. They speak English and you understand them. You have a good dictionary and you pronounce[3] every word according to[4] it. You pronounce every word and every syllable[5] distinctly.[6]

Well，[7] you are indeed very careful of your pronunciation. You should be.[8] I respect you. But do not be sure that[9] your pronunciation is good. Have you ever talked with an Englishman or an American？ If not， you have not yet found out[10] whether your pronunciation is really good. If so， I am afraid that your pronunciation is after all[11] quite different from that[12] of those to whom English is the mother tongue.[13]

Let me suppose that you talk with an Englishman or an American. He speaks rather[14] slowly and uses only common words and phrases， but somehow[15] you do not understand him fully. It seems to you that he uses several words that you do not know， and that he does not speak as your friends do. On the other hand，[16] though you take care to speak correctly and clearly， the Englishman or American fails to[17] understand you fully. Perhaps you wonder[18] whether he knows as much English as you after all.

The fact is that your pronunciation is not good. To tell the truth，[19] I have found very few Chinese students whose pronunciation is really good. That a student can talk English with his Chinese friends does not mean that his pronunciation is good.[20]

What is good pronunciation？ I mean the pronunciation of the average[21] educated Englishman or American. Englishmen and Americans do not pronounce alike. Well， I will not mention any details. In the next few articles I will deal with[22] a few points that I think you should keep in mind[23] in learning good pronunciation. I will give practical advice and some illustrations，[24] but not a full treatment[25] of English phonetics.[26] I will talk in the light of my experience and probably I shall say something that no-one else has ever said.[27]

[1]Pronunciation：读音

[2]so = that your pronunciation is good

[3]pronounce：读出……之音

[4]according to：依照

[5]syllable：音节

[6]distinctly：清晰

[7]Well：语气助词

[8]be = be careful of your pronunciation

[9]do not be sure that …：勿以为一定……

[10]found out：寻出

[11]after all：毕竟

[12]that = the pronunciation

[13]those to whom English is the mother tongue：生而用英语者（指英美人）

[14]rather：颇

[15]somehow：因某种缘故

[16]On the other hand：在另一方面

[17]fails to …：不能……

[18]wonder：不解；疑

[19]To tell the truth：老实讲

[20]That a student can talk English with his Chinese friends does not mean that his pronunciation is good：某学生能与其中国友人讲英语，不能证明彼之读音为良好

[21]average：普通的

[22]deal with：论述

[23]keep in mind：牢记

[24]illustrations：例解

[25]treatment：论述

[26]phonetics：语音学

[27]no-one else has ever said：尚未有他人说过

ENGLISH PRONUNCIATION IS ENGLISH[1]

The best way to learn good pronunciation is to study under an Englishman or American and imitate[2] him. But I have to[3] suppose that you do not study under an Englishman or American. You are studying either under a Chinese whose pronunciation you are not sure is good， or by yourself.[4]

Do not imitate anyone whose pronunciation you are not quite sure is good. Make up your mind[5] to imitate no pronunciation short of perfect.[6]

You are a Chinese. You usually speak Chinese， even a form of Chinese that is peculiar to[7] your district. Now you are learning to speak English. Do you know that English is English and Chinese is Chinese， and that English pronunciation is essentially[8] different from Chinese pronunciation？ I believe that you are not fool enough to[9] mark any English word with Chinese characters.[10] Still I am afraid that you are inclined to[11] associate certain English sounds with certain Chinese sounds.[12] That is very bad. You should treat every English sound as a sound peculiar to English， and when you read or speak English， try to forget that your mother tongue is Chinese. The sound of /eΙ/ for example， is simple enough， but it cannot be exactly represented[13] in Chinese.

As I have said in the above，[14] you usually speak a form of Chinese peculiar to your own district. Cantonese[15] and Shanghaimen[16] and Hankowmen[17] all speak Chinese quite differently. But they should not therefore speak English differently. The fact， however， is that we often can discover the native place of a Chinese from his English pronunciation. For example， if you hear a man pronounce /tʃ/ as /ts/， you know that he is a native of Fukien.[18] Now good pronunciation does not betray[19] one’s native place. If your pronunciation betrays your native place， it is not good， and you must take particular care[20] to conquer[21] the difficulties.

[1]English pronunciation is English：英语读音是英国的 （意即与中国读音不同）

[2]imitate：仿效

[3]have to …：不得不……

[4]by yourself：独自

[5]make up your mind：决意

[6]imitate no pronunciation short of perfect：勿效不甚完美之读音

[7]is peculiar to …：为……所特有

[8]essentially：在根本上

[9]are not fool enough to …：并不愚至……

[10]Chinese characters：汉字

[11]are inclined to …：有……之倾向

[12]associate certain English sounds with certain Chinese sounds：以某英语之音与某华语之音联想在一起

[13]represented：表出

[14]the above：上文

[15]Cantonese：广州人

[16]Shanghaimen：上海人

[17]Hankowmen：汉口人

[18]Fukien：福建

[19]betray：透露

[20]take particular care：特别注意

[21]conquer：克服

WHAT TO READ

Suppose[1] you have two friends， A and B， both of whom have been studying English for some years. Both are clever young men， and both are anxious to acquire[2] a good knowledge of the language. But now they have got very different results from the several years of study：A can write short letters and read easy news items[3] but cannot read any passage[4] in the classics， while B can read here and there in some classics but cannot write short letters or read easy news items. Reader， which of your two friends would you prefer to be like？[5]

I believe you would prefer to be like A rather than[6] B. You should.[7] I am sorry to find that among Chinese learners of English there seem to be more like B than like A. The trouble lies chiefly in[8] what is read.

Well， what do you read？ I mean to ask what you take as your chief reading matter.[9] Is it a novel or a volume of essays[10] written more than a hundred years ago？ If it is， my advice to you is to change it for something else. Your chief reading matter must have been written far less than a hundred years ago， a few weeks ago if possible， must have been written in simple English， and must have been written by an Englishman or American.

I am not going to give a list[11] of books here. But I think I have to make some general remarks. Your chief reading matter need not be a literary masterpiece.[12] Nor need it be written by a famous author. A volume of short pieces of narration[13] or exposition[14] is better than a novel or a long argumentative essay.[15]

You must have noted that in the above I have talked about only what your chief reading matter should be. You have a book or two for your chief reading matter. You should also read something else， which may be a little more difficult， but which still had better[16] not be a classic of more than a hundred years ago.

[1]Suppose：假定

[2]acquire：求得

[3]news items：新闻之片段

[4]passage：（一段）文字

[5]which of your two friends would you prefer to be like？：君欲如君之二友中之谁？

[6]rather than：而非

[7]should = should prefer to be like A rather than like B

[8]lies chiefly in …：主要在于……

[9]reading matter：读物

[10]essays：论文

[11]list：列表

[12]literary masterpiece：文学杰作

[13]narration：纪事，叙述

[14]exposition：说明

[15]argumentative essay：辩论文

[16]had better：以……为佳

READING ALOUD

Do you ever read aloud？ The chances are[1] that you do not now read aloud. You used to[2] read aloud when you were a small child. But you ceased to read aloud at fourteen or fifteen. If I’m not mistaken，[3] among certain boys and girls late in their teens[4] reading aloud is now a lost art.[5]

You may protest，[6] “What[7] if I were to read aloud， when I do not read aloud and yet understand？” Well， much would come of [8] reading aloud. Reading aloud helps you to learn by heart，[9] and learning by heart is essential to all who aim at writing well. Reading aloud helps you to cultivate good pronunciation and good intonation，[10] and good pronunciation and good intonation are essential to all language learners. Reading aloud helps you to discover certain beauties of language that you may fail to see in your silent reading. Unless you read aloud， you cannot learn to write naturally or to appreciate[11] literature.

And I think that it is partly because they do not read aloud that many Chinese learners of English cannot read poetry.[12] A certain English man of letters[13] has said that a poem is not a poem until it is read；and evidently by “read” he means read aloud. A poem is[14] something to be read aloud. There are many poems that you may learn to like and enjoy by reading them aloud， though you find several difficult points in them. On the other hand， you may understand a poem merely as you understand a piece of matter-of-fact prose，[15] if you do not read it aloud. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe，[16] for example， is a very beautiful poem. But its beauty depends largely upon its wonderful music. Below is its first stanza.[17] Try first to read it silently as though[18] it were a business letter[19] and then to read it aloud， and compare the two impressions.[20]

Once upon a midnight dreary，[21] while I pondered，[22] weak and weary，[23]

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore，[24]

While I nodded[25]， nearly napping，[26] suddenly there came a tapping，[27]

As of [28] some one gently rapping，[29] rapping at my chamber[30] door.

“’Tis[31] some visitor”， I muttered，[32] “tapping at my chamber door —

Only this and nothing more”.

[1]The chances are …：大约……

[2]used to …：惯常……

[3]If I’m not mistaken：倘我所见不误

[4]late in their teens：在十八九岁时

[5]lost art：不复存在之艺术

[6]protest：申辩

[7]What：有何效果

[8]come of …：由……而来

[9]learn by heart：记于心

[10]intonation：语调

[11]appreciate：欣赏

[12]poetry：诗歌

[13]man of letters：文人

[14]is：实是 （此字印作斜体，应重读。）

[15]matter-of-fact prose：乏味之散文

[16]“The Raven” of Edgar Allan Poe：埃德加·爱伦·坡所著之《乌鸦》（爱伦·坡系美国诗人，生于1809年，卒于1849年，《乌鸦》系一追念已死情妇之诗）

[17]stanza：（诗之一） 节

[18]as though：好像

[19]business letter：事务信

[20]impressions：印象

[21]midnight dreary = dreary midnight：凄凉之半夜

[22]pondered：思量

[23]weary：疲乏的

[24]many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore：许多讲述旧闻之奇书

[25]nodded：瞌睡

[26]napping：小睡

[27]tapping：轻敲声

[28]As of = like that of

[29]rapping：叩门

[30]chamber：室

[31]’Tis = it is

[32]muttered：低语

DO YOU READ THE PREFACE？[1]

When you open a new book， which part do you read first？ I read the preface first — that is， after glancing[2] at the title-page.[3] I read the preface very carefully and as a rule[4] more than once.

But several people tell me that they do not read prefaces， and I have seen it given in the short preface to a certain book in justification of its shortness that readers do not usually read prefaces.[5] I have yet to seek[6] a man or a woman who has read through the preface to Webster’s New International Dictionary[7] or even that[8] to The Concise Oxford Dictionary.

If you do not happen to[9] have the habit of reading the preface， I would advise you to read it. The preface to a book states its purpose， subject， scope，[10] etc.[11] The reading of it will show you what you may expect in the book and whether it is the kind of book you need，[12] and will thus ensure a more intelligent[13] and more respectful[14] perusal[15] or save much time that might otherwise be wasted on it.

By the way， the reading of the preface may reveal[16] the fact that the book is written by a person who has but[17] a poor knowledge of the subject’ he professes to deal with，[18] so that it is not worth reading at all.[19] I have lately[20] come across a handbook[21] of English grammar and rhetoric[22] the very first[23] sentence of whose preface contains a grammatical mistake and reads more like a Chinese sentence than an English one，[24] and also an English translation of a Chinese novel whose preface forms a good example of bad spelling， bad grammar， and bad usage.[25]

[1]Preface：序文

[2]glancing：望；视

[3]title-page：扉页

[4]as a rule：习以为常

[5]have seen it given in the short preface to a certain book in justification of its shortness that readers do not usually read prefaces：曾见某书中之短序中谓读者往往不读序文，借以证明其短为正当

[6]have yet to seek：尚须寻；尚未见过

[7]Webster’s New International Dictionary：此书系美国 G. & C. Merriam Co. 出版

[8]that = the preface

[9]happen to：适；碰巧

[10]scope：范围

[11]etc. = et cetera：等等

[12]you need = that you need

[13]intelligent：聪明的

[14]respectful：恭敬的

[15]perusal：诵读

[16]reveal：显出

[17]but = only

[18]professes to deal with：自认为论述

[19]not worth reading at all：不值一读的

[20]lately：近来

[21]handbook：小书

[22]rhetoric：修辞学

[23]very first：正是第一

[24]reads more like a Chinese sentence than an English one（= sentence）：读起来颇像中文句子而不像英文句子

[25]usage：（词之） 惯用法

CAN YOU READ ENGLISHMEN’S ENGLISH？

I have heard several people tell me that in reading English-language newspapers they find Chinese news far easier to read than foreign news， and that they are often at a loss to discover[1] the meaning of even a very short piece of news from some little town in England or America. I also feel that there are many who can read without much difficulty articles written by Chinese on Chinese subjects but cannot read those written by Englishmen on English subjects.

The trouble with such people is that while they have acquired a knowledge of the English language， they have not learnt much about the English mind，[2] the English character， the English life， the English traditions，[3] and so forth.[4] They have not got， so to speak，[5] the spirit of the language. Imagine[6] a man who knows several thousand Chinese characters[7] and a great deal of [8] Chinese syntax[9] and yet is entirely ignorant of the Chinese mind， the Chinese character， etc. Do you think this man could read even the ordinary Chinese newspaper[10] and general Chinese literature？

Reader， do you think you are among those who know English but as a rule find great difficulty in reading Englishmen’s English？ I am afraid you are. I would advise you to read as much as possible in English literature and to cultivate the habit of thinking in English.[11] I would also advise you to read some concise[12] history of England and commit to memory[13] every bit[14] of knowledge about English life and thought that you may find in reading or study.

[1]are often at a loss to discover：往往不能看出

[2]mind：心理状态

[3]traditions：传统

[4]and so forth：以及其他

[5]so to speak：可以说

[6]imagine：揣想

[7]characters：字

[8]a great deal：许多

[9]syntax：句法学

[10]paper：报纸

[11]cultivate the habit of thinking in English：养成以英语思维之习惯

[12]concise：简明的

[13]commit to memory：记入心中

[14]bit：些微

VERSE AND POETRY DISTINGUISHED

I improvised[1] the following four lines the other day：

Repulsed by kith and kin[2]

　The young man is exceeding[3] sad：

But fortunate for him，

　A former teacher[4] makes him glad.

The young man is a college graduate， who is of fine character and with literary ambitions.[5] But because he is poor， his acquaintances and relatives look down on[6] him and often try to avoid his company.[7] His only real friend is a former teacher， who is always good[8] to him and always ready to help him in his studies. This teacher is an intimate friend of mine. I wrote the lines for fun only， and my friend laughed a merry laugh over them.

These four lines have perfect poetical form. They are written in what is technically called the iambic metre；[9] thus， “Repulsed' | by kith' | and kin'”. The second and fourth lines rhyme；[10] thus， “sad” and “glad”. The first and third lines have three feet[11] each and the second and fourth four feet each.

But these lines are not poetry. They are mere verse. For metre and rhyme alone do not make poetry：they make verse only. “Verse” signifies form.[12] “Poetry” signifies content.[13] Verse is metrical composition.[14] Poetry is elevated[15] composition. What is metrical without being elevated is mere verse. What is elevated without being metrical is prose poetry.[16] By “poetry” is usually meant what is both metrical and elevated.

As you know， there are two similar adjectives “poetic” and “poetical”. It seems to me that in modern usage there is the same difference between them as between “poetry” and “verse” — “poetic” refers to[17] poetry and “poetical” to verse. What is poetic is elevated. What is poetical is metrical. Now can you tell whether my four lines are poetic or poetical？

[1]improvised：临时作成

[2]repulsed by kith and kin：被亲友所拒绝

[3]exceeding = exceedingly：极

[4]former teacher：昔日之教师

[5]ambitions：志向

[6]look down on：轻视

[7]avoid his company：不与为伍

[8]good：亲善的

[9]technically called the iambic metre：在术语上名曰抑扬格（如“repulsed”一字有二音节，第一音节轻读，第二音节重读，成为一抑一扬。）

[10]rhyme：协韵，押韵

[11]feet：音步

[12]signifies form：意指形式

[13]content：内容

[14]metrical composition：有音律之文

[15]elevated：高尚的，高雅的

[16]prose poetry：散文诗

[17]refers to：涉及；关于

A FEW TERMS OF PROSODY[1] EXPLAINED

Read the following simple poem by Mary Lamb：[2]

In Memoriam[3]

A child’s a plaything for an hour；

　Its pretty tricks we try[4]

For that[5] or for a longer space，[6] —

　Then tire， and lay it by.[7]

But I knew one[8] that to itself

　All seasons could control；[9]

That would have mock’d the sense of pain

　Out of a grieved soul.[10]

Thou straggler[11] into loving arms，

　Young climber up of knees，

When I forget thy thousand ways，

　Then life and all shall cease！ [12]

This poem consists of twelve lines， in three groups of four lines each. A line is called a verse. A group of （usually four or more） verses is called a stanza.

Read the poem aloud， and you will feel that each verse consists of three or four units of two syllables each， the first unaccented and the second accented. Such a unit is called a foot. In English prosody， there are four common kinds of feet. A foot of two syllables with the accent on the second is called an iambus， as “indeed”. A foot of two syllables with the accent on the first is called an trochee， as “lady”. A foot of three syllables with the accent on the third is called an anapaest， as “magazine”. A foot of three syllables with the accent on the first is called a dactyl， as “recently”. Of these four， the iambus is by far the commonest.

In each of the stanzas of the above poem， there is a certain identity[13] of sound between the ends of the second and fourth verses. This identity of sound is called rhyme.[14] A one-syllable rhyme is called male or masculine or single， as in “try” and “by”. A two-syllable rhyme is called female or feminine or double， as in “mother” and “brother”. There are three-syllable and four-syllable rhymes， but they are not common.

Now read the above poem again and answer these question：

1. How many verses does it consist of？

2. How many stanzas does it consist of？

3. How many feet does each verse consist of？

4. What kind of feet are they？

5. How many rhymes does this poem contain？

6.Are they male or female rhymes？

[1]Terms of Prosody：诗学名词

[2]Mary Lamb：玛丽·兰姆，英国文学家，生于1764年，卒于1847年

[3]In Memoriam：纪念死者 （系拉丁文）

[4]its pretty tricks we try = we try its pretty tricks

[5]that = an hour

[6]space：时间

[7]lay it by：置之于旁

[8]one = one child

[9]that to itself all seasons could control = that could control all seasons to itself：此儿能管理四季 （谓无论何时皆取悦于人也）

[10]would have mock’d the sense of pain out of a grieved soul：或竟能以嘲笑之法，使痛苦之念自悲哀之心灵中逃出 （意即竟能使人忘忧）

[11]straggler：走来走去而无定者

[12]When I forget thy thousand ways， then life and all shall cease：当我忘却汝之种种行动之时，生命及一切俱将停止矣 （谓我至死不肯忘也）！

[13]identity：相同

[14]rhyme：韵

ABOUT COMPOSITION “DON’TS”[1]

Books on composition contain some “don’ts” that are quite useless to Chinese students of English. For example， they advise the avoidance[2] of slang；[3] but Chinese students do not know any slang and are of course in no danger of [4] using any[5] in their composition.

But there are in such books some “don’ts” that are valuable to Chinese students， not as regards composition but as regards reading， such as the advice against the use of what is called the double negative. Both “I did not see anybody there” and “I saw nobody there” are good English， while “I did not see nobody there”， which contains a double negative， is bad English and should not be written. Well， Chinese students do not know anything about the double negative and so do not need the advice as given in many composition books. But when they read the advice， they learn something new， and they will not be at a loss when they come across a double negative in their reading. The double negative， by the way， is quite common in vulgar[6] conversation.

Reader， have you ever read a composition book？ I find that there is much advice in such books that you — I mean the average Chinese student of English — cannot profit by.[7] But， as I have said， there are some “don’ts” that will prove valuable to you as regards reading. You read readers and grammars， both of which are written in good English. But in modern drama[8] and fiction[9] there are usages outside of [10] good English. Such usages are to be avoided in composition， but are often very useful in reproducing[11] uneducated speech in drama and fiction；and of course you must understand them before you can read intelligently what contains such. Composition books pillory[12] some of such bad usages to warn you not to use them， but you， who know nothing but good English， will profit by the “don’ts” in a way not intended by the authors of these books.

[1]Composition “Don’ts”：作文上之禁忌

[2]avoidance：避免

[3]slang：俚语

[4]are of course in no danger of …：当然无……之危险

[5]any = any slang

[6]vulgar：粗俗的

[7]profit by …：得益于……

[8]drama：剧本

[9]fiction：小说

[10]outside of …：在……之外

[11]reproducing：复述，再现

[12]pillory：揭发

AN EASY SENTENCE TO STUDY

Before reading on，[1] please consider the following short sentence：

They cannot see enough of each other.[2]

What do you think this sentence means？ Well， please consider and consider before reading on.

This is a very easy sentence， indeed， and I think every English or American schoolboy or schoolgirl understands it. In fact， it occurs in a story-book[3] for children. But I have been asked to explain it by a senior middle school student，[4] who， so far as I can see，[5] has studied English earnestly for years[6] and has acquired a fair[7] knowledge of grammar and rhetoric and a fairly large vocabulary.[8]

Why， after all， does the student fail to understand this short sentence？ My answer is that it is because its way of expression[9] does not have its corresponding[10] way in the Chinese language. There are many ways of expression in English that do not have their corresponding ways in Chinese. These are puzzling[11] to most Chinese students of English.

The above-quoted sentence means that the two persons love each other so dearly that though they see each other often， they think they see each other but[12] seldom. By the way， the of in the sentence also deserves attention.[13] “See enough of each other” means see each other often enough. “See much of you” means see you often.

In your reading you will do well to pay special attention to those ways of expression for which you do not find corresponding ways in Chinese. This will help you both in reading and in writing. I am sorry to find that many Chinese students do not realize[14] the importance of doing this， with the result that[15] while they can read English by Chinese authors and write long and tolerably[16] grammatical essays， yet they may not be able to understand an Englishman’s social letter thoroughly or write a short paragraph purely idiomatic.

[1]reading on：读下去

[2]each other：互相

[3]story-book：故事集

[4]senior middle school student：高中生

[5]so far as I can see：据我所知

[6]for years：数年

[7]fair：尚好的

[8]vocabulary：词汇

[9]way of expression：语式

[10]corresponding：相当的

[11]puzzling：令人不解的

[12]but = only

[13]deserves attention：应该注意

[14]realize：知；觉

[15]with the result that …：其结果为……；以至于……

[16]tolerably：尚可

IDIOM AND SLANG[1]

Idiom and slang are often hard to distinguish.

They oft[2] so mix， the difference is too nice[3]

Where ends the virtue， or begins the vice.[4]

Theoretically，[5] idiom is standard English and slang is not. But it is not always possible to assign a certain expression to its own territory.[6] “It is slang，” some say. But others say， “It was slang， but is idiom.” And still others may say， “It may be considered both slang and idiom；for it has been slang for a long time but is getting the idiomatic franchise.”[7] The fact seems to be that most slang expressions perish，[8] but some survive[9] and become what we call idiomatic expressions or idioms. In other words，[10] slang is called slang， but when it gets established in standard English， none dare call it slang.

As you may have learnt from some composition book， slang should be avoided in writing. Quite true. But to Chinese students of English this is an unnecessary warning；for they are not liable to[11] use slang at all. They often violate[12] idiom， but they never use slang.

Some knowledge of slang， however， every Chinese student of English ought to possess. In fiction， drama， even newspapers， there is a good deal of slang， especially in dialogue.[13]

A single word may be slang；for example， “peckish”， meaning hungry. A word that is not slang in itself may have its slang sense；for example， “blooming”， meaning dammed.[14] Most slang expressions are phrases；for example， “all over the shop”， meaning everywhere.

As I have said， idiom and slang are often hard to distinguish. “All over the shop” is certainly slang， though it may cease to be slang in ten or twenty years. “At once” （meaningimmediately） is certainly an idiom， though it may have been slang a long， long time ago. “Come down with” （meaning pay） seems to me to be neither a full idiom nor a full slang phrase.

[1]Idiom and Slang：习语与俚语

[2]oft = often

[3]nice：精微的

[4]Where ends the virtue， or begins the vice：善于何处止，恶于何处起；善恶何由而分

[5]Theoretically：在理论上

[6]assign a certain expression to its own territory：归某语于其自己之地域 （意即指定某语为习语或俚语）

[7]franchise：市民权

[8]perish：消灭

[9]survive：存在

[10]In other words：换言之

[11]liable to …：易于……

[12]violate：违反

[13]dialogue：对话

[14]damned：该死

LOGIC[1] AND USAGE

What do you think is the real meaning of the often quoted[2] line from Shakespeare[3] “All that glisters is not gold”？[4] The strict sense[5] would be that glistering proves a substance[6] to be not gold. But the real sense is that glistering does not necessarily[7] prove a substance to be gold. In other words， the proverb[8] should， logically speaking，[9] be “Not all that glisters is gold”.

But Shakespeare wrote in the illogical way， and this illogical construction is not now uncommon. For example， if you hear an Englishman say “All my friends do not know Chinese”， you must not understand him to mean that all his friends are ignorant of Chinese.[10] He may really imply[11] that most of his friends can speak and write Chinese very well.

This is indeed illogical. There are Englishmen who do not use this construction and fall foul of [12] those who do.[13] Probably it will pass away in time，[14] for logic has time on its side.[15] But it is natural and idiomatic English today， and I think every student of English should know it.

There are a number of [16] other illogicalities[17] in English that are quite idiomatic. Please read the first sentence of the second paragraph of this article again. Perhaps you will think that “is not now uncommon” is not so good as “is now not uncommon” would be. According to logic， indeed， “not” ought to modify “uncommon” instead of “now”. But according to idiom “is not now uncommon” is better.

With the word “only”， illogical yet idiomatic constructions are also common. An Englishman may say “I only arrived a few days ago”， When he means that he arrived only a few days ago.

As I have said， logic has time on its side. But how many years the English language will take to become a perfectly logical speech！[18]

[1]Logic：论理；情理；逻辑

[2]quoted：引用

[3]Shakespeare：莎士比亚，即William Shakespeare，英国剧作家和诗人，生于1564年，卒于1616年

[4]“All that glisters is not gold”：灿烂之物，非皆金也。（意即外表美者，内容未必佳也。）

[5]sense：意义

[6]substance：物

[7]does not necessarily：未必；不一定

[8]proverb：格言

[9]logically speaking：按逻辑而言

[10]ignorant of Chinese：不懂中文

[11]imply：暗含

[12]fall foul of …：与……冲突

[13]do = use this construction

[14]will pass away in time：将来总须消灭

[15]has time on its side：有时间为之扶持；更经得起时间考验

[16]a number of：许多

[17]illogicalities：不合理之处

[18]But how many years will the English language take to become a perfectly logical speech！：但英语须待几何年代，始能成为一种完全合理之语言！

A SPECIAL USE OF QUOTATION-MARKS

Quotation-marks， as you must know， are used to mark quotations， as in：“Where are you going， Mary？” asked John. “I am going to my uncle’s，[1] John，” replied Mary.

There is a special use of quotation-marks， however， which I am afraid you do not know. Perhaps most Chinese students do not know it. It is not usually mentioned in grammars. It is not to be found in dictionaries. Here is an example of it：I know that “expert”[2] very well.

One who calls a man an “expert” instead of an expert means that that man is a bad expert or is not an expert at all， though he thinks himself an expert. An “expert” is the same as a so-called[3] expert. The quotation-marks applied to an expert make him feel very much despised[4] — more despised， perhaps， than if he were called a dog or a pig. If you call a man a dog or a pig， others know that he is not a dog or a pig， and that man knows that others know that he is not a dog or a pig， and that man may not feel very much despised or very much hurt.[5] But if you enclose him in quotation-marks， he will feel very much despised and very much hurt， because he knows that you do not， and cause others not to， think him what he himself thinks he is.

Quotation-marks may be applied in this way not only to nouns but also to other parts of speech. A friend of mine once wrote to me[6] that he did not like a certain girl because she was a “modern”[7] one. Do you think that girl would have liked to be called “modern” instead of modern？

[1]my uncle’s = my uncle’s home

[2]expert：专家

[3]so-called：所谓的

[4]despised：被人轻视

[5]hurt：被人触犯

[6]wrote to me：写信与我

[7]modern：现代的；摩登的

DOUBLE NEGATIVES[1] IN CURRENT[2] ENGLISH

An English editor[3] of a famous classic says in his notes[4] to the book：“Double negatives in Elizabethan[5] grammar amount， not to[6] an assertion as they do in current English， but to an emphatic negation.”

It is true that in Elizabethan literature， a double negative amounts to an emphatic negation， rather than to an assertion， as the man in the street[7] may think. Thus， “I do not want nothing” is only an emphatic form for I do not want anything or I want nothing. This sounds quite unreasonable，[8] but this is the fact.

What I wish to tell you is that this unreasonable fact is not peculiar to Elizabethan literature. It exists at present. A double negative used as an emphatic assertion may be said to be found in current English， unless by current English is meant[9] the English current among well-educated people alone.

Have you ever found such double negatives in your reading， reader？ I believe you have， if you have read a modern novel or drama or short story.[10] I do not want you to use this unreasonable construction （I want you to talk and write like a gentleman or a lady）. But I believe every student of English should know it.

There are several English usages that every student of English should know， but which many， or even most， Chinese students do not know， because they are not to be understood by means of mere logic[11] and are not to be found in ordinary grammars. The double negative is one of them.

[1]Double Negatives：双层否定语

[2]current：现在通行的

[3]editor：校注者；编辑

[4]notes：注解

[5]Elizabethan：英国女王伊丽莎白 （生于1533年，于1558年即位，卒于1603年）时代的

[6]amount to：等于；即

[7]man in the street：常人

[8]sounds quite unreasonable：似乎甚不合理

[9]by current English is meant …：所谓“current English”乃指……

[10]short story：短篇小说

[11]by means of mere logic：仅凭逻辑

WHAT DOES “WOULD OF COME” MEAN？

Once a student found the expression “would of come” in a magazine[1] and asked me to explain it.

Do you understand it， reader？ Have you ever seen such expressions as “would of come”， “should of gone”， “might of done”， “could of learnt”， “ought to of known”？

You may or may not have seen such expressions. They are not uncommon in short stories and dramas. But grammars do not usually mention them. So I am afraid that you do not understand them. You think they are simply ungrammatical.

Well， they are ungrammatical. But there are many ungrammatical expressions that are worth knowing.[2] We ought to learn to use English correctly. But we ought as well[3] to understand the incorrect expressions that are common among Englishmen or Americans. It is partly owing to their ignorance of such incorrect expressions[4] that many Chinese students can parse and analyse well without being able to read a single page in a foreign magazine.

Substitute[5] “have” for the “of” in each of the above-mentioned expressions， and you will understand what it means.

“Why is ‘of’ used instead of ‘have’？” you may ask. Well， the mistake is but[6] natural. In “would have”， “should have”， etc.， the “have” is unemphatic and is often pronounced like the unemphatic “of”. On the other hand， the “have” in “I have it” is emphatic， and such a sentence as “I of it” is never spoken or written.

Need I add[7] that “of” used instead of “have” is always wrong and that we should not use “would of”， “should of”， etc. in our own writing？ There are many mistakes that are common among Englishmen or Americans but from which we Chinese[8] are absolutely free. As I have said， we ought to understand them. But we ought not to adopt[9] them as ornaments of style.[10]

[1]magazine：杂志

[2]are worth knowing：有知之之价值

[3]as well：亦

[4]partly owing to their ignorance of such incorrect expressions：多少因彼等不知此项误语

[5]substitute …：以……代入

[6]but = only

[7]add：附言

[8]we Chinese：我们中国人

[9]adopt：采用

[10]ornaments of style：文体上之装饰品

“No！No！NO！”

A little girl in Charlotte Brontë’s Villette[1] cries “No！ No！ NO！” when a boy threatens[2] to cut a picture of a child playing with a pretty dog. “No！” is more emphatic than “No！” and “NO！” is still[3] more emphatic.

Italics[4] are often used to emphasize a word or two in the body of a roman-type passage.[5] A word printed in italics usually wants thinking over and emphatic reading to yield its full meaning.[6] For example， when you have asked a friend for the loan of a certain book[7] and have got the wrong one， you write “I have got a book”. By the use of the italicized “a”， you mean that though you have got a book from your friend， yet it is not the one you want. Below are more examples：

1. Is it written by the Masefield？

2. Should I beg his pardon？

3. I told him to stay， but he would[8] go.

4.She was[9] here， and I wonder why I cannot now find her.

“The Masefield” means the best-known[10] person of the name of Masefield；I mean John Masefield，[11] the present poet laureate of England.[12]

Capitals indicate more emphasis than italics. They are less used than italics， and are usually used to denote a higher degree of emphasis than a word in italics going before：thus， “Well？ （a pause）[13] Well？ （in a rage）[14] WELL？”， “No！ No！ NO！” Sometimes， however， a capitalized word is used without reference to[15] any italicized word；for example， “I am very happy where I am， for it is HOME”. Does this capitalized word not suggest a sweet， sweet home[16]？

In handwriting，[17] words that should be italicized in printing[18] are underlined[19] once and those that should be capitalized in printing are underlined three times.

[1]Charlotte Brontë’s Villette：夏洛蒂·勃朗特所著之《维莱特》（勃朗特系英国小说家，生于1816年，卒于1855年；维莱特为小说中之地名）

[2]threatens：恫吓

[3]still：更加

[4]italics：斜体字

[5]roman-type passage：用罗马字体印成的一段文字

[6]yield its full meaning：显出其充分意义

[7]loan of a certain book：借某书

[8]would：定欲；非要……不可

[9]was：实在；确在

[10]best-known：最著名的

[11]John Masefield：约翰·梅斯菲尔德，英国诗人，生于1878年，卒于1967年

[12]present poet laureate of England：现任英国桂冠诗人 （poet laureate系英国宫中诗官，按Masefield系1930年所任命）

[13]pause：停顿

[14]rage：大怒

[15]without reference to：无关于

[16]sweet， sweet home：极快乐之家庭

[17]handwriting：手写

[18]printing：印刷

[19]underlined：在……之下画下划线的

LANGUAGE AND IMPRESSION[1]

Some time ago a visitor in northern England asked a business friend[2] if trade was improving.[3] “Oh”， said the merchant， “let’s[4] look on the bright side of things.[5] Last year our warehouses[6] were half empty， now they’re[7] half full.”

The merchant might as well have said，[8] “Oh， things do not look any brighter.[9] Last year our warehouses were half full， now they’re half empty.” “Half empty” and “half full” really have the same meaning. But they impress one differently. Take a similar case. Suppose a friend of yours is ill and you ask his brother “How is John today？”[10] John is in fact neither better nor worse than he was yesterday. His brother may therefore answer either “He is not worse than yesterday” or “He is not better than yesterday”. But the two answers would not give you the same impression.

Often the same thing may be expressed in different ways to give different impressions. Can you form a mental picture[11] of a slender[12] girl？ The adjective suggests a comely appearance，[13] of course. But it is not impossible that a girl whom you have heard somebody describe as “slender” is both horribly lean and deadly pale.[14] On the other hand，[15] an ungracefully fat girl may derive grace from the adjective “plump”.[16]

In rhetoric there is a figure[17] called euphemism，[18] which consists in[19] the substitution of a mild or vague[20] expression for a harsh or blunt[21] one. By this figure we call a madman “queer”， and instead of saying “died” we say “passed away”. Many years ago an English statesman[22] said in a speech[23] “China is a country where you often get different accounts of the same thing”. What do you think he meant？ Obviously he meant that we Chinese are liars.[24] Well， what the statesman said does not seem to be particularly true.[25]

[1]Impression：印象

[2]business friend：商业上之朋友

[3]if trade was improving：商业是否有进步

[4]let’s = let us

[5]look on the bright side of things：看在事情之光明方面；取乐观态度

[6]warehouses：货栈

[7]they’re = they are

[8]might as well have said：亦可说

[9]things do not look any brighter：事情并无起色

[10]How is John today？：今日约翰之病状如何

[11]mental picture：意象

[12]slender：娇小的

[13]suggests a comely appearance：有状貌佳妙之意

[14]deadly pale：惨白一如死人的

[15]on the other hand：反之

[16]derive grace from the adjective “plump”：由形容词“plump”中得到秀美 （意即以“plump”一词称之，即有秀美之意；按“plump”作“肥胖”解。）

[17]figure：词藻

[18]euphemism：婉曲法

[19]consists in：在于

[20]vague：浮泛的

[21]blunt：率直的

[22]statesman：政治家

[23]speech：演说

[24]liars：说谎者

[25]does not seem to be particularly true：不似十分确实

LYING WITHOUT DECEIVING[1]

This somebody has said[2] of the rhetorical figure[3] called the hyperbole.[4] If you are very lazy and yet tell your friend that you work ten hours every day， you tell a lie and try to deceive him. But if you desire to see your friend and say in your letter to him “I am dying to have a sight of you”，[5] you tell a lie without meaning to deceive him. You simply want him to understand that you have a great desire to see him. And he is sure that you are not dying， and that you use the word “dying” for the sake not of deception， but of emphasis.

This use of exaggerated terms[6] is called the hyperbole. It seems to be more common in poetry than in prose；for example， the following stanza[7] from Alfred Tennyson’s Maud：[8]

My dust[9] would hear her and beat，

　Had I lain for a century dead；[10]

Would start and tremble under her feet，

　And blossom[11] in purple and red.

Even in ordinary conversation， however， the hyperbole sometimes occurs. You may say “I have been waiting for ages”， when you really have been waiting for one or two hours. You may say “I have told you twenty times”， when you really have done so only a few times. You may say “a thousand thanks” for a single expression of gratitude， and “a thousand apologies” for a single apology.

Hyperboles are either employed in description[12] or suggested by the warmth of passion.[13] All the examples that I have given are of the latter[14] kind. One of the most amusing hyperboles in description that I have found in English literature is in Washington Irving’s “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”.[15] Here the author said of a schoolmaster， “He was tall， but exceedingly lank，[16] with narrow shoulders， long arms and legs， hands that dangled[17] a mile out of his sleeves …”. Just imagine such a pair of hands！

[1]Lying Without Deceiving：谎而不骗

[2]This somebody has said = Somebody has said this

[3]rhetorical figure：修辞

[4]hyperbole：夸张法

[5]am dying to have a sight of you：亟欲见君

[6]exaggerated terms：过甚之辞

[7]stanza：诗之一节

[8]Alfred Tennyson’s Maud：阿尔弗雷德·丁尼生所著之《莫德》（丁尼生系英国诗人，生于1809年，卒于1892年，《莫德》系其所著长诗名）

[9]dust：遗骸

[10]Had I （= though I had） lain for a century dead：我虽已死而长眠百年

[11]blossom：开花

[12]description：描写

[13]warmth of passion：热情

[14]latter：后述的

[15]Washington Irving’s “The Legend of Sleepy Hollow”：华盛顿·欧文所著之《睡谷传奇》（欧文系美国文豪，生于1783年，卒于1859年）

[16]lank：瘦弱的

[17]dangled：悬摆

PUNS[1] AND PUNNING[2]

Perhaps you have read Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland，[3] one of the best-known nonsense stories in English. In case[4] you have not read it， I hope you will be interested in reading it — on condition that[5] you think you are yet young enough to enjoy nonsense literature. It is a short[6] book and is written in simple but good English.

The story contains an interesting conversation between Alice and a mouse. Among other things， the mouse said， sighing， “Mine[7] is a long and a sad tale！” “It is a long tail， certainly”， replied Alice， looking down with wonder[8] at the mouse’s tail， “but why do you call it sad？”

“Tale” and “tail”， as you know， have the same pronunciation. Here the author intends a play on words， technically called a pun. There are several other puns in this story. Its author， so far as I know， is very clever at punning.

A pun is not always based on the similarity[9] between different words. It is often a play on the different meanings of the same word. For instance， Charles Lamb[10] says of [11] a sick man that he changes sides in bed as frequently as a politician.[12] A politician is said to change sides when he deserts one party and joins another.[13]

Puns are usually used for purposes of wit.[14] Some Englishmen assume[15] that all puns are contemptible.[16] They describe every pun not as a pun， but as a bad pun or feeble pun. But puns are either good or bad or indifferent，[17] as sentences and essays are either good or bad or indifferent. Good puns are rare， but there are some good puns in English literature.

Among English poets I think Thomas Hood[18] is the greatest maker of puns. There is one in the following four lines from him. I leave it to you to discover it.[19]

Ben Battle[20] was a soldier bold[21]

　And used to war’s alarms[22]；

But a cannon ball[23] shot off his legs，

　So he laid down his arms.

[1]Puns：双关语

[2]Punning：作双关语

[3]Lewis Carroll’s Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland：刘易斯·卡罗尔所著之《爱丽丝漫游奇境》（Lewis Carroll原名Charles Lutwidge Dodgson，系英国小说家，生于1832年，卒于1898年）

[4]In case：倘若

[5]on condition that：倘若

[6]short：篇幅不长的

[7]Mine = my tale

[8]wonder：惊奇

[9]similarity：相似之处

[10]Charles Lamb：查尔斯·兰姆，英国文豪，生于1775年，卒于1834年

[11]of：关于

[12]politician：政客

[13]deserts one party and joins another：放弃某党而加入他党

[14]wit：风趣

[15]assume：以为

[16]contemptible：可鄙的

[17]indifferent：不佳亦不劣的；中等的

[18]Thomas Hood：托马斯·胡德，英国诗人，生于1799年，卒于1845年

[19]leave it to you to discover it：任君自己寻出之

[20]Ben Battle：本·巴特尔，人名

[21]soldier bold = bold soldier

[22]used to war’s alarms：惯于战时之恐怖

[23]cannon ball：炮弹

WHAT IS HUMOUR？

“Humour” is one of the very few words that have been translated into Chinese according to their sound and sense alike.[1] As probably you know， the translation is “幽默”. It is hardly a year old.[2] But it is not infrequently seen and heard. It has become so popular[3] that it begins to be used by some people in connexion with[4] things that have nothing at all to do with[5] humour. The other day I saw in a newspaper blankets and carpets advertised[6] as “幽默”. Just imagine the expressions “humorous blankets” and “humorous carpets”！

What is humour， after all？ According to H. W. Fowler，[7] a well-known English dictionary-maker and grammarian，[8] it is a jocose imagination[9] that has discovery for its aim or motive，[10] human nature[11] for its province，[12] observation for its means，[13] and the sympathetic[14] for its audience.[15] It is not satire，[16] nor irony，[17] nor sarcasm.[18] Nor is it the same thing as wit，[19] though these two words are often confused. It is less intellectual[20] and more sympathetic than wit， which is concerned with[21] words and ideas rather than human nature itself. A clever pun or a clever metaphor[22] is an example of wit， but not of humour. Humour consists in looking at something or somebody from an unusual point of view.[23] One who sees an interesting adventure[24] in a great inconvenience[25] is possessed of a sense of humour.

I cannot think of a Chinese term meaning exactly the same thing as “humour”. “幽默” is fashionable enough， and I wish it every success. It is indeed a coinage，[26] but then there are many other coinages， such as “赛因斯” （science）， “法西斯蒂” （fascist），[27] “狄克推多” （dictator）[28]. However， only time will tell whether “幽默” will not some day[29] cease to mean humour as it is understood in English.[30]

[1]according to their sound and sense alike：依据其音与义

[2]is hardly a year old：尚未满一年之久 （按此文系1933年5月所作）

[3]popular：普通的

[4]in connexion with：关于

[5]have nothing at all to do with …：与……无关

[6]advertised：登在广告内

[7]H. W. Fowler：H. W. 福勒，英国人，生于1858年，卒于1933年

[8]grammarian：文法家

[9]jocose imagination：诙谐之想象力

[10]motive：用意

[11]human nature：人性；人情

[12]province：范围

[13]means：方法

[14]the sympathetic：表同情之人

[15]audience：听众

[16]satire：讽刺

[17]irony：反语

[18]sarcasm：讽刺

[19]wit：风趣

[20]intellectual：属于智力的

[21]is concerned with：涉及

[22]metaphor：隐喻

[23]point of view：观点

[24]adventure：异事

[25]inconvenience：障碍

[26]coinage：杜撰之字

[27]fascist：意大利政党名

[28]dictator：独裁者

[29]some day：将来

[30]humour as it is understood in English：英文中之所谓“humour”

IRISH BULLS[1]

Well， I am not going to talk about any Irish breed[2] of male oxen. You are a language student， not a zoologist.[3] Nor do I possess any special knowledge of bull， cow， bullock， calf， or any other bovine animal.[4] The kind of bull that I am going to talk about has nothing at all to do with zoology.[5] It is of linguistic interest.[6]

A bull may be briefly defined as a statement so made as to imply a contradiction in terms；[7] for example， “It is impossible that I could have been in Nanjing and Shanghai at the same moment， unless I were a bird.” You may not discover anything ludicrous[8] in this sentence on reading it once. But on a second reading you will see how absurd it is. A human being cannot be in two places at once.[9] Nor can a bird. But the sentence implies that a bird can.

I do not know why such a statement has come to be called a bull， but only that it has been so called for several hundred years. As to[10] its connexion with “Irish”， it seems that the combination is of more recent origin. It is said that the adjective has been added because bulls are especially common among the Irish.[11] But I am not quite sure about it.

I have read of [12] several Irish bulls in English literary history， and remember reading a long article on the subject in an English newspaper several years ago. But the only example that I can now recall[13] is one that I heard with my own ears when I was a boy. I was returning home from a certain small city with several fellow passengers[14] in an old-fashioned boat. When we got midway，[15] an old man said， “We are just midway， but the past half of the distance is much shorter than the other half.” Surely you can tell why the old man’s remark[16] constitutes[17] an Irish bull.

[1]Irish Bulls：自相矛盾的说法

[2]breed：种；类

[3]zoologist：动物学家

[4]bull， cow， bullock， calf， or any other bovine animal：雄牛、雌牛、阉牛、小牛或任何其他牛类

[5]has nothing at all to do with zoology：与动物学无关

[6]is of linguistic interest：与语言有关

[7]contradiction in terms：词句上之矛盾

[8]ludicrous：可笑的

[9]at once：同时

[10]as to：至于

[11]the Irish：爱尔兰人

[12]read of：读及

[13]recall：忆及

[14]fellow passengers：同乘舟或车之旅客

[15]midway：在中途

[16]remark：话语

[17]constitutes：构成

REPARTEES[1]

Once when Oliver Goldsmith[2] was a boy， a ne’er-do-well relative[3] asked him when he meant to grow handsome.[4] After a painful[5] silence， the awkward[6] boy replied that he would do so[7] when the speaker grew good. Such a smart retort[8] is called a repartee. Goldsmith is said[9] to have sometimes startled those about him by unexpected repartees during his boyhood.

There are repartees in Chinese as well as in English. Do you know of any， reader？ I remember one similar to the above-mentioned one of Goldsmith’s. An old man said to a little boy， “You are indeed a very bright boy， but bright boys often prove to be no good[10] when grown-up[11]”. The boy answered， “Perhaps so；surely you were a very bright boy”.

I have recently been told of a repartee that I think should be read and considered by all who pretend to learning or genius.[12] A man boasted[13] that he knew more than a certain well-known scholar.[14] No sooner had he finished his speech than[15] one of his auditors[16] remarked，[17] “Quite so；you know his name while he does not know yours.”

Some people are good at[18] making repartees and others are not. I sometimes make one without intending it.[19] I am afraid that in uttering unintentional repartees I sometimes offend others without knowing it. For repartees are usually of a caustic[20] nature， and one does not like to be replied to with caustic sayings.[21]

I do not call the making of repartees a sign of literary talent，[22] though it seems that repartee makers are usually proud of their cleverness in framing such remarks. At any rate，[23] repartees are always interesting reading[24] when read in a magazine or a newspaper. I read one a few days ago. During a quarrel with his wife， a man said， “Now， I know why women are called birds.” “Oh， and why is that？” asked the wife. The husband replied， “Because you are always chirping.” The wife rejoined，[25] “I understood it was on account of [26] the worms[27] we pick up.”

[1]Repartees：锐利之对答

[2]Oliver Goldsmith：奥利弗·哥尔德斯密斯，爱尔兰文豪，生于1728年，卒于1774年

[3]ne’er-do-well relative：无用之亲戚

[4]grow handsome：变得美貌

[5]painful：难受的

[6]awkward：愚拙的

[7]do so = grow handsome

[8]retort：对答

[9]is said：据云

[10]prove to be no good：证明为无用之人

[11]when grown-up：当长成之后

[12]pretending to learning or genius：自认为有学问或天才

[13]boasted：夸言

[14]a certain well-known scholar：某著名学者

[15]No sooner … than …：一……即……

[16]auditors：听者

[17]remarked：说

[18]good at：善于

[19]without intending it：并非故意如此

[20]caustic：讽刺的

[21]sayings：语

[22]literary talent：文才

[23]at any rate：无论如何

[24]reading：读物

[25]rejoined：再答；反驳

[26]on account of：因为

[27]worms：蠕虫

DO YOU SEE THE POINT[1] OF THE JOKE？[2]

Jokes， as everybody knows， serve to excite laughter.[3] But a joke cannot make those laugh who do not see its point. Many Chinese students of English cannot enjoy jokes in English newspapers and magazines. This is because they do not know enough English to see the point of a joke.

Here is a little joke in a single sentence：“A deaf [4] farmer went out with his dog and herd.” Do you see its point， reader？ Let me help you. Look up[5] the word “herd” in your dictionary， Now say[6] the word a few times. You will thus discover the past form of a verb that denotes what the deaf [7] cannot do. Substitute that past form of a verb for the word “herd” and read the sentence again. You cannot fail to see the point of the joke.

Here is a similar joke：“A noseless fisherman caught a herring and a smelt.”[8] Can you discover the point of the joke？

In the following I will retell two jokes about smoking that I read in an English newspaper the other day. I have to use my own words simply because they are written in a dialect[9] that might make them difficult for you to read. The jokes are as follows：

1. Two fellow passengers were sitting side by side. One offered a cigarette to the other， who smoked it and asked for another. After taking the third， he said， “You will perhaps think it is queer[10] to see me taking so many cigarettes from you， but the fact is that I am trying hard to stop smoking[11] and so never carry any of my own.”

2. A sailor was smoking on a tram-car.[12] The conductor[13] said， “Can’t you see the sign ‘No Smoking’？”[14] “Sure， that’s plain enough，” replied the sailor. “But there are so many signs here. Look there one says， ‘Drink Our Beer’.[15] So I am not paying attention to any of them.”

[1]Point：要点

[2]Joke：笑话

[3]serve to excite laughter：用以引笑

[4]deaf：聋的

[5]look up：查

[6]say：读；念

[7]the deaf：聋人

[8]smelt：一种小鱼名，亦为“smell”的过去式

[9]dialect：方言

[10]queer：奇怪的

[11]am trying hard to stop smoking：正在努力戒烟

[12]tram-car：电车

[13]conductor：售票人

[14]No Smoking：禁止吸烟

[15]Drink Our Beer：饮本店之啤酒 （系酒商之广告）

CAN YOU GUESS A RIDDLE？[1]

There are riddles in English as well as in Chinese. The following little poem is a common English riddle：

Formed long ago， yet made today，

　Employed[2] while others sleep；

What few[3] would like to give away，

　Nor any wish to keep.

Perhaps this is not very difficult for an English child to guess. But I am afraid it is too much for[4] the average Chinese student of English. For there are two idiomatic points about it that he may not understand.

Let me explain. The answer is “the bed”. One of the idiomatic points lies in the word “made”：when we arrange the sheets[5] etc. of a bed， we are said to make it. The other lies in the word “keep”：one who remains in bed through illness is said to keep one’s bed. “Nor any wishes to keep” means that no-one wishes to be ill. Of course！ Who wishes to？[6]

I do not know how long ago there began to be riddles in the world. It is said that Homer[7] died of acute disappointment[8] because he could not solve a certain riddle. It is also said that Solomon[9] once won a large sum of money at a contest[10] in riddles with a king but soon lost all the money to one of the king’s subjects.[11] The oldest and best-known riddle in Western literature is perhaps that asked by the Grecian Sphinx，[12] a winged[13] she-monster[14] with the body of a lion. She sat on a rock， proposed a riddle to all who passed there， and killed all who could not guess it. The riddle is said to have been：“What creature[15] walks in the morning upon four feet， at noon upon two， and at evening upon three？” It was at length[16] solved by a man named Oedipus[17] with the answer that it was man， who as an infant crawls upon all fours，[18] in manhood goes erect on his two feet， and in old age supports his tottering legs with a staff.[19] On hearing the answer the Sphinx threw herself from the rock and died. This tale has given rise to[20] the idiom “I am no Oedipus”， which means I cannot guess what you mean.

[1]Guess a Riddle：猜谜语

[2]employed：应用

[3]few：极少之人；几无其人

[4]is too much for …：为……所不能解答

[5]sheets：被褥

[6]to = to be， ill

[7]Homer：荷马，古希腊诗人

[8]died of acute disappointment：因极端失望而死

[9]Solomon：所罗门，古国王名，以多智称

[10]contest：比赛

[11]subjects：子民

[12]Grecian Sphinx：希腊狮身女首之怪物

[13]winged：有翼的

[14]she-monster：女怪

[15]creature：动物

[16]at length：后来

[17]Oedipus：俄狄浦斯，希腊神话中的人名

[18]crawls upon all fours：以两手两足爬行

[19]staff：杖

[20]given rise to：生出；引出

THE FAMILIAR ESSAY

If you look up the word “essay” in a dictionary， you will find it has two senses：the very common sense of a kind of literary composition and the uncommon sense of an attempt. Do you think these two senses have anything to do with each other？[1]

The uncommon sense is the primary[2] one and the common sense is the secondary[3] one. The literary thing that we call an essay is so called because it is an attempt — an attempt at dealing with a given subject.[4] An essay， so to speak， deals with only part of a subject. It does not aim at completeness， still less exhaustiveness.[5] It is often long enough to instruct， to interest， to entertain， or to stimulate， but it is almost always short enough to be read at a sitting.[6]

Samuel Johnson[7] spoke of the essay as “a loose sally[8] of the mind；an irregular indigested[9] piece；not a regular and orderly composition”. This emphasizes an essential characteristic[10] of what is known as the familiar essay. This type of essay is written about familiar things in a familiar manner. The principal charm lies usually in the personality of the writer. He takes the reader into his confidence[11] and talks to him as if to an intimate friend， about this， that， and the other，[12] and everything， and often nothing. He may be humorous， may be witty， may be whimsical，[13] may be pathetic，[14] may be discursive，[15] and is always familiar.

Personally I am fond of familiar essays. Also I am of opinion[16] that by reading them one may learn to express oneself [17] with more ease and freedom. I should like to see them included in school reading.

As is said in every history of English literature， the English familiar essay has a history of several hundred years. Charles Lamb， of the nineteenth century， is recognized as the greatest English familiar essayist. But I do not think it advisable[18] for Chinese students to begin the reading of any form of writing with authors of one or two hundred years ago. At present there are quite a number of well-known English familiar essayists， of whom may be mentioned G. K. Chesterton，[19] H. Belloc，[20] and E. V. Lucas.[21]

[1]Do you think these two senses have anything to do with each other？：君以为此二义互有关系否？

[2]primary：主要的

[3]secondary：其次的

[4]dealing with a given subject：论述某题

[5]still less exhaustiveness：更不以包罗无遗为目的

[6]at a sitting：在一次坐定之时；一口气地

[7]Samuel Johnson：塞缪尔·约翰逊，英国文豪，生于1709年，卒于1784年

[8]sally：冲出；发挥

[9]indigested：条理不清的

[10]characteristic：特性

[11]takes the reader into his confidence：将读者引为知己

[12]this， that， and the other：各事各物

[13]whimsical：怪僻的；异想天开的

[14]pathetic：令人生怜的

[15]discursive：散漫的

[16]am of opinion：以为

[17]express oneself：表达己意

[18]advisable：可行的；妥善的

[19]G. K. Chesterton：即Gilbert Keith Chesterton，吉尔伯特·基思·切斯特顿，英国文学家，生于1874年，卒于1936年

[20]H. Belloc：即Hilaire Belloc，西莱尔·贝洛克，英国作家，生于1870年，卒于1953年

[21]E. V. Lucas：即Edward Verrall Lucas，爱德华·维罗尔·卢卡斯，英国作家，生于1868年，卒于1938年

HEADINGS[1] IN NEWSPAPERS

I have heard several people say that they often find it more difficult to read the heading of a news item than to read the news item itself. This is no doubt[2] due to[3] the fact that while news items are written in ordinary English， their headings usually consist of apparently incomplete and ungrammatical groups of words.[4] Below are some of the peculiarities[5] in the phrasing[6] of headings in newspapers：

1. The present tense is usually used to express a past action or state；for example， “Student Escapes from Bandits”.[7]

2. The present participle is usually used to express a present action or state；for example， “Troops Moving Northwards”.[8]

3.The infinitive is usually used to express a future action or state；for example， “A.B.C. Bank to Have New Building”.[9]

4. The articles are usually omitted；for example， “Professor Elopes with Nurse”.[10]

5. The conjunction “and” is often omitted；for example， “Li， Chang Discuss Unemployment Problem”.[11]

6.The verb to be in the passive voice is usually omitted；for example， “3000 Rendered Homeless by Flood”.[12]

7. The verb to be as a copula is usually omitted；for example， “Parents Anxious about Missing Baby”.[13]

8. The preposition “on” is usually used in the sense of speak on， writing on， or lecturing on；for example， “DrO. F. Lay on Modernization of China”.[14]

9. The conjunction “and” joining two nouns is usually used to mean that the item tells about an event concerned with the things denoted by the two nouns；for example， “Chinese Doctor and American Patient”.[15]

10.Prepositions are often omitted；for example， “Local Authorities Protest Atrocities”.[16]

[1]Headings：标题

[2]no doubt：无疑；当然

[3]due to：因

[4]apparently incomplete and ungrammatical groups of words：明显不完全且不合文法之词组

[5]peculiarities：特点

[6]phrasing：措词

[7]Student Escapes from Bandits：学生由匪徒处逃出

[8]Troops Moving Northwards：军队北进

[9]A.B.C. Bank to Have New Building：A.B.C.银行将迁入新屋

[10]Professor Elopes with Nurse：大学教授与看护妇私奔

[11]Li， Chang Discuss Unemployment Problem：李张二君讨论失业问题

[12]3000 Rendered Homeless by Flood：三千人因洪水无家可归

[13]Parents Anxious about Missing Baby：婴孩失踪，父母焦虑

[14]Dr O. F. Lay on Modernization of China：O. F. Lay 博士论中国之现代化

[15]Chinese Doctor and American Patient：中国医生与美籍病人

[16]Local Authorities Protest Atrocities：地方当局应对暴行提出抗议 （按文法在“protest”后应加“against”）

HEADINGS AND SUB-HEADINGS[1]

Besides its heading， a news item often has one or more sub-headings， which give more information about the news. For example， the heading “Night Train Derailed”[2] may be followed by the sub-heading “Fireman Killed；[3] 8 Passengers Slightly Injured”， which may be further followed by “Cause Unknown；[4] Investigation Going on”.[5]

Sub-headings， as well as headings， are usually written with great economy of expression.[6] You must have found in my article on “Headings in Newspapers” that in headings many words that are necessary to grammatical completeness are often omitted. The same is true of [7] sub-headings. Below are some examples of headings with one or more sub-headings （all fictitious）：[8]

1. New University for Women Contemplated[9]

　Dr O. C. Tah to Be President[10]

2. Alleged Art Exhibition Planned for October[11]

　30 Living Artists Reported to Be Represented[12]

3. Henry Stevenson Here from Northeast[13]

　Enjoying Excellent Health after 50 Days’ Tour；

　Noted Poet[14] Tells of Romantic Scenes

4. Aged Millionaire Killed in Air Crash[15]

　Two Friends Die Too；Plane Burnt；[16]

　Accident Occurs Early in Morning

5. Educationist on Craze for Jazz[17]

　Dancing Halls Eulogized；[18] Jazz Said to Help in Character-building；[19]

　Audience Mostly Young Men，[20] Spellbound[21] for Full 2 Hours

6. Runaway Marriage of Author and Manicure[22]

　Continued Custom[23] Leads to Romance；Essayist Discovers Literary Genius in Artiste；[24]

　Billets-doux[25] Soon to Appear in Book-form， Long Foreword by Eminent Philosopher[26]

[1]Headings and Sub-headings：标题与副标题

[2]Night Train Derailed：夜车出轨

[3]Fireman Killed：消防员丧生

[4]Cause Unknown：（起火之） 原因不明

[5]Investigation Going on：正在调查中

[6]economy of expression：简略

[7]of：对于

[8]fictitious：虚构的

[9]Contemplated：在计议中

[10]to Be President：将任校长

[11]Alleged Art Exhibition Planned for October：据闻十月将举行艺术展览会

[12]30 Living Artists Reported to Be Represented：现代艺术家之作品将陈列者闻有三十人

[13]Henry Stevenson Here from Northeast：亨利·斯蒂文森自东北回来

[14]Noted Poet：著名诗人 （即指斯蒂文森）

[15]Aged Millionaire Killed in Air Crash：百万老富翁航空陨命

[16]Plane Burnt：飞机焚毁

[17]Educationist on Craze for Jazz：教育家论爵士舞狂热

[18]Dancing Halls Eulogized：赞美舞场

[19]Character-building：人格之养成

[20]Audience Mostly Young Men：听众大半为青年

[21]Spellbound：聚精会神的

[22]Runaway Marriage of Author and Manicure：作家与修指甲女郎私奔成婚

[23]Custom：惠顾

[24]Essayist Discovers Literary Genius in Artiste：小品文作家发现技术家 （即指修指甲女郎） 有文学天才

[25]Billets-doux：情书 （系法文）

[26]Eminent Philosopher：著名哲学家

THE BEGINNING IS A SUMMARY

There are news items that consist of only one or two sentences， such as （all fictitious）：

1. It is reported on good authority[1] that an air service[2] will soon be opened between Shanghai and Hongkong.

2. According to the Chinese press，[3] Mr L. F. Chu， the well-known authority[4] on ancient Chinese history， is planning a series of lectures on his subject to be delivered at Oxford[5] early next year.

3. The baby exhibition[6] held here yesterday proved a great success.[7] Dr S. H. Parker gave a humorous speech， in which he compared the birth of a new child to the publication of a new book.

4. Contrary to general belief，[8] Miss Helen B. Yang， the local society girl，[9] has announced her engagement to Mr J. E. Ku， whom she used to refer to as a hopeless ne’er-do-well.[10] Those in close touch with[11] Mr Ku say that his recent acquisition of eighty thousand dollars from his father， who died last month， has had a great deal to do with the match.[12]

But there are also news items that consist of several paragraphs. Fortunately， it is not usually necessary to read a long news item to the very end to know what it tells about.[13] As a rule， the beginning of a long item is a summary of it. You have to read simply the first few paragraphs of a long item if you do not care to[14] have further information. For example， in reporting the death of a famous personage，[15] the time， place， and manner[16] of the death are mentioned at the beginning of the item， which may go on to say something about the life and work of the deceased；[17] it would be impossible for the item to devote several paragraphs to a biographical sketch[18] of the man and to reserve the fact of his death to the concluding paragraph or sentence.

In learning to read newspapers， I suggest that in the case of long items you read only the first few paragraphs. This will enable you to finish several things in the time that it would take for you to read a single long item through. Read the heading， the sub-heading（s），[19] and the first few paragraphs， carefully， and you will get the gist[20] of the long item.

[1]reported on good authority：据可靠报告

[2]air service：航空

[3]Chinese press：中文报纸

[4]authority：大家；权威

[5]Oxford：牛津 （英国城名），此处指牛津大学

[6]baby exhibition：婴孩比赛会

[7]success：成功；盛事

[8]Contrary to general belief：与众人所信者相反；出乎众料

[9]society girl：社交明星

[10]ne’er-do-well：无用之人

[11]in close touch with …：与……接近

[12]has had a great deal to do with the match：与此婚事颇有关系

[13]it is not usually necessary to read a long news item to the very end to know what it tells about：欲知长篇新闻之所述为何，往往不必读完全文

[14]do not care to …：不欲……

[15]personage：人物

[16]manner：情状

[17]the deceased：死者

[18]biographical sketch：略传

[19]sub-heading（s）：副标题 （将“s”置于括弧中，表示一或一以上）

[20]gist：要点

SOME COMMON EXPRESSIONS IN NEWS ITEMS

It is only by swimming that one can learn to swim. Likewise， it is only by reading English news items that one can learn to read English news items.

“There are so many words and phrases in newspapers，” I have more than once heard some students say， “that are not found in our books.” Yes， a Chinese student who reads an English newspaper for the first time is bound to[1] find many expressions that he does not know. I myself had this experience many years ago. How do you think I tried to overcome this difficulty？ By reading and reading. I used to buy a copy of a paper and read all its items carefully for ten or more days. When I had got through with[2] several copies in this way， I began to find the task much easier.

Do you care[3] to do the same， reader？ The results may be very gratifying.[4] You may in a few weeks be surprised to find that you can now read news in English without much difficulty. For most of the expressions that we regard as peculiar to newspapers occur in almost every day’s papers. When you have seen them three or four times， they will be familiar enough to you.

Below are some such expressions， given at random：[5]

1. It is reported from reliable sources[6] that ….

2. It is reported on good authority that ….

3.It is learnt in well-informed circles[7] that ….

4. It is believed here[8] that ….

5. It is understood[9] that ….

6. According to a report received from … today， …

7. According to statistics[10] published by ….

8. According to the vernacular press，[11] ….

9. An official communique[12] issued yesterday states that ….

10. Interviewed by a representative of this newspaper[13] yesterday afternoon， Mr Y. Y. Fox stated that ….

11.Considerable interest[14] has been aroused by the recent discovery of ….

12. A sensation[15] has been created in social circles[16] here over the sudden disappearance of ….

13. This journal is informed by[17] … that ….

14.Reports are beginning to come in concerning[18] ….

15. Up to the present no further information has been obtained.[19]

16. The report， however， has not yet been confirmed.[20]

17. Official circles[21] here are still non-committal[22] regarding ….

18. No further steps will be taken until new instructions are received from ….[23]

19. The text of … has just been released for publication.[24]

20. Many will learn with regret the death of Mr … on … at ….[25]

[1]is bound to …：必……

[2]got through with：读完

[3]care：肯

[4]gratifying：足以安慰的

[5]at random：随机

[6]reported from reliable sources：据可靠消息

[7]well-informed circles：消息灵通界

[8]here：本地；此地

[9]understood：闻

[10]statistics：统计

[11]vernacular press：本国报纸

[12]official communique：官报 （“communiqué”系法文）

[13]Interviewed by a representative of this newspaper：接受本报某代表的采访

[14]Considerable interest：很大兴趣

[15]sensation：轰动

[16]social circles：社交界

[17]This journal is informed by …：本报由……处得悉

[18]Reports are beginning to come in concerning …：关于……之消息，今陆续到来

[19]Up to the present no further information has been obtained：截至现在，尚未得到其他消息

[20]confirmed：证实

[21]Official circles：官场

[22]non-committal：不示确定之意见的

[23]No further steps will be taken until new instructions are received from …：在未接到……之新指示以前，不会采取进一步的措施

[24]The text of … has just been released for publication …：……之正文今已发表

[25]Many will learn with regret the death of Mr … on … at …：……君于……日在……逝世，闻者必多哀悼

LETTERS FROM CORRESPONDENTS[1]

Newspapers contain several things besides news items. That which is in nature somewhat like the news items is the letters from correspondents. For instance， a newspaper published in Shanghai may have its correspondents in London， New York， Tokyo， Hong Kong， Guangzhou， Nanchang， etc.；they write to the paper once a week or fortnight about their respective places.

Unlike a news item， such a letter is usually written in the first person， though the writer may also refer to himself as “the writer” or “your correspondent”. It is much like an ordinary letter， except that it mentions things social[2] rather than things personal， and， of course， that it does not begin with “Dear …” and end with “Yours sincerely， …”. It is often written in a more or less discursive and chatty style， and does not usually confine itself to a single topic. Below is an example （written by myself）：

X.Y.Z.，[3] July 24

After a protracted drought，[4] it rained heavily yesterday afternoon for nearly two hours， to the great delight of the farmers.[5] But the heat is lingering， and the local doctors are still busy treating[6] persons suffering from some ailment[7] or other that is believed to be due to the continued swelter.[8]

Watermelons are everywhere， sold at but moderate prices.[9] The other day I bought one weighing fifteen catties，[10] and I hear that such a big melon is very seldom met with in this city. There has been recently opened a small shop selling ice-cream and aerated waters.[11] But it does not seem to be doing much business；for， except a number of men and women who have received what they call a modern education， very few local people care to visit it；they have not got tired of their watermelons.

Last Monday， Mr Q， who returned from his tour in Europe about half a month ago， made a long speech on European culture[12] in the Popular Education Institute，[13] before an audience of at least two hundred and fifty. Among other things， he said， “I never saw a European who was not well dressed. When in Vienna，[14] I met a beggar who looked far more respectable than my grandfather.” It is whispered[15] that Mr Q is planning to divorce his wife because her eyes are not quite blue. Incidentally，[16] Mrs Q’s hair happens to be more curly than her husband’s.

No-one knows when it will become cooler. A boy of five has said in my hearing[17] that it will surely be cooler as soon as the heat goes. For my part，[18] I honour this boy as highly as any meteorologist[19] and any prophet.[20]

[1]Correspondents：通讯员

[2]things social：社会间之事

[3]X.Y.Z.：代表地名

[4]protracted drought：久旱

[5]to the great delight of the farmers：使农民大快

[6]treating：医治

[7]ailment：病

[8]swelter：闷热

[9]moderate prices：低廉之价

[10]weighing fifteen catties：重15斤

[11]aerated waters：汽水

[12]European culture：欧洲文化

[13]Popular Education Institute：民众教育馆

[14]Vienna：维也纳，奥地利首都

[15]whispered：谣传

[16]Incidentally：顺便说及

[17]in my hearing：被我听到

[18]For my part：就我而言

[19]meteorologist：气象学家

[20]prophet：预言家

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR[1]

An English newspaper usually carries a department called “Letters to the Editor” or “Correspondence”.[2] The letters printed in it are addressed by the readers to the editor， commonly beginning with “To the Editor of …”， often signed with a fictitious name，[3] and nearly always having its date given on the lower left side. They ask or give information， suggest social reforms，[4] or deal with subjects of general interest.[5] Often a series of letters from different writers on a particular subject appear from day to day till the editor puts a period to[6] the correspondence by giving his own views.[7]

The following is an example of a letter to the editor （written by myself）：

To the Editor of the

“Shanghai Morning Post”[8]

Sir：

Last Friday evening I visited the Modern Theatre[9] to see the W.W.W. Show， of which I had heard a very glowing account[10] from many friends， both Chinese and foreign. The program[11] contained eighteen items and about thirty different names of the artistes.[12] But， in fact， there were only ten items， and the number of the performers did not seem to exceed fifteen. Moreover， the curtain did not rise[13] till nearly three quarters of an hour after the schedule time，[14] and the overture[15] was altogether omitted.

I am not a theatre-frequenter[16] and do not know whether this state of things[17] ever occurs in other local theatres. It seems to me， however， that this amounts to[18] robbing each spectator[19] of about half the money he pays. Apart from[20] the question of money， it is surely very tedious to be kept waiting for nearly three quarters of an hour， which one might otherwise devote to reading， writing， shopping，[21] or some other purpose. Multiply forty-five minutes by the number of the spectators， say[22] four hundred， and you will see the waste of time entailed.[23]

Many thanks for your valuable space.

I am etc.，

Disgusted.[24]

August 2，1934.

[1]Editor：主笔

[2]Correspondence：通信

[3]fictitious name：假名

[4]social reforms：社会改革

[5]deal with subjects of general interest：论述众人所注意之问题

[6]puts a period to：制止

[7]views：意见

[8]“Shanghai Morning Post”：假设之报纸名

[9]Modern Theatre：假设之戏院名

[10]glowing account：历历如绘之记述

[11]program：节目

[12]artistes：演员

[13]the curtain did not rise：未开幕

[14]schedule time：规定之时刻

[15]overture：前奏曲

[16]theatre-frequenter：常到戏院者

[17]state of things：情形

[18]amounts to：等于

[19]spectator：观者

[20]apart from …：除……之外

[21]shopping：购物

[22]say：假定

[23]entailed：导致的

[24]Disgusted：厌恶者 （假名）

LEADERS[1] AND LEADERETTES[2]

English newspapers contain leaders， or leading articles， and leaderettes. A leader is the expression of the newspaper’s opinion on some subject of general and immediate interest，[3] usually consisting of several paragraphs printed in large type.[4] A leaderette is a similar thing that consists of only one paragraph. Not being a human being，[5] a newspaper， of course， cannot really have any opinion of its own. When I say “the newspaper’s opinion”， I mean the opinion of its editor， or rather its editorial board.[6]

In a leader or a leaderette， the first-person pronoun is “we” （“our”， “ours”， “us”）， which means this newspaper； this “we” is so common as to have the name “editorial we”.

Leaders and leaderettes， as a rule， contain long words， long sentences， and long paragraphs， so that I believe you will find them the hardest part of a newspaper；I would advise you not to try to read them till you can read news items easily.

As a leader usually consists of several paragraphs， I cannot here give an example. I can give only a leaderette （written by myself）：

Graduation and Employment[7]

It is well known to everybody at all interested in social problems that a great many new college graduates are having a very difficult time[8] seeking employment. Those may be right who say that what passes by the name of [9] college education does not quite fit in with[10] the requirements in the various callings；[11] it may also be true to a certain extent that so long as[12] favouritism[13] and nepotism[14] persist in certain circles， unemployment among well-qualified young men and young women is inevitable；and it cannot be wrong to regard the general business depression[15] as an important cause of the present state of things. What we consider to be of particular interest is what some people have to say， namely， that college graduates need not and should not be on the look-out for[16] any sort of position， since a college education， unlike a vocational one，[17] is directed to the general enlargement of the mind rather than any technical or professional training， and that those college graduates who are doing clerical or secretarial work[18] simply prove themselves to be unworthy of the education they have received.[19] We are， however， of opinion that while a college education is admittedly directed to the general enlargement of the mind， it does not follow[20] that those who have received a college education should sit idle at home and starve themselves， consoling themselves with the thought that[21] if they do nothing for others or themselves they are after all college-bred[22] people.

[1]Leaders：社论

[2]Leaderettes：短论

[3]subject of general and immediate interest：目前为大众所注意之题

[4]type：字体

[5]human being：人

[6]editorial board：编辑部

[7]Graduation and Employment：毕业与就业

[8]having a very difficult time：极感困难

[9]what passes by the name of …：所谓……者

[10]fit in with：合于

[11]callings：职业

[12]so long as …：只要

[13]favouritism：徇私

[14]nepotism：任用亲戚

[15]depression：衰落；不影气

[16]be on the look-out for：寻

[17]vocational one （ = education）：职业教育

[18]clerical or secretarial work：书记或秘书之工作

[19]simply prove themselves to be unworthy of the education they have received：适以证明其不配于其已受之教育

[20]follow：得出结论

[21]consoling themselves with the thought that …：以……之思想自慰

[22]college-bred：曾受大学教育的

THE BOOK PAGE

Many English newspapers carry a book page once every few days. It contains notices[1] or reviews of new books and little bits of literary news， and is a very useful feature[2] to the reading public. Very often a review of a novel or a play[3] gives a brief account of the story， and therefore is itself interesting reading.

The following are some bits of literary news （all fictitious）：

1. The F. F. F. Press[4] is preparing a collected edition[5] of Lucy Wilton，[6] the young poetess， and is expected to publish it at the end of the year.

2.A rare manuscript[7] of the sixteenth century， probably by some unknown talented man of letters，[8] has been recently discovered in a farmer’s cottage.

3. Mrs W. M. Thomas，[9] the author of Modern Life， is now engaged upon[10] the life of an eccentric[11] literary friend of hers， who died a few weeks ago.

4.In My School Days， which is appearing serially[12] in a local paper， Mr H. Peter[13] gives a highly vivid description of the days when a railway train was looked upon by many as a monster.[14]

Below is an example of a review （written by myself）：

LOVE AND SCANDAL.[15] — By William Johnson. X Book Company， Shanghai， $6.25.

In his latest novel， Love and Scandal， Mr William Johnson presents a picture of a time when dissatisfaction begins to be felt with convential society.[16] The story has little revolutionary in it，[17] though its heroine，[18] a young wife， is credited with[19] a number of remarks that are not generally expected of a lady of her age and social position.

Born of wealthy parents， Bessy is an ordinary girl of a rich family till late in her seventeenth year， when she met Henry Lamb，[20] a poor but ambitious artist. Friendship soon ripens into[21] love， and after negotiating[22] many difficulties， both social and domestic， they get married — purely for love， but creating a scandal far and wide.[23] Bessy is eventually reconciled to[24] her parents， but not till after several years of shame and virtual ostracism.[25]

The book is not without tedious passages， such as that about the middle of the second chapter， describing the various luxuries among which the girl is brought up.[26] But on the whole[27] it is a very delightful story told with a great deal of force， and its English is at once simple and[28] vigorous.

[1]notices：书评

[2]feature：门类

[3]play：剧本

[4]press：出版社

[5]collected edition：全集

[6]Lucy Wilton：露西·维尔顿，人名

[7]manuscript：手稿

[8]some unknown talented man of letters：不知名而有天才之某文人

[9]Thomas：托马斯，人名

[10]is now engaged upon …：现正从事……

[11]eccentric：怪僻的

[12]serially：逐期；分期

[13]Peter：彼得，人名

[14]was looked upon by many as a monster：被许多人视为怪物

[15]Love and Scandal： 《恋爱与丑行》（假设之书名）

[16]dissatisfaction begins to be felt with conventional society：开始觉得不满于传统社会

[17]has little revolutionary in it：极少革命性质

[18]heroine：女主角

[19]is credited with …：被认为有……

[20]Henry Lamb：亨利·兰姆，人名

[21]ripens into …：成熟而为……；进而为……

[22]negotiating：克服

[23]creating a scandal far and wide：丑声四播

[24]reconciled to …：与……复修旧好

[25]virtual ostracism：无异于被逐出社会

[26]is brought up：被养育长大

[27]on the whole：就大体而言

[28]at once … and …：既……又……

THE WOMAN’S PAGE

A “woman’s page” is not a necessary feature of a newspaper， but many modern English newspapers have a column[1] called “The Woman’s Page” or something like it， which appears once every few days. This column contains short articles on woman problems， household management，[2] child welfare， new fashions， etc.， and bits of news and gossip about such social affairs as balls，[3] tea-parties，[4] weddings， and engagements.[5] Such things certainly appeal to[6] women more than to men. But I believe that whether you are a boy or a girl， you will learn much pleasant and practical English from “The Woman’s Page”.

Space does not allow me to[7] give an example of a complete article. Below are some bits of news and gossip such as are usually found in “The Woman’s Page” （all fictitious）：

1. It may interest ladies and those gentlemen who have things feminine at heart[8] to learn that Miss V. P. Jones， who arrived from England yesterday， will give a talk on “Miss 1934”[9] at the Art Club[10] on September 28.

2. On Thursday evening Mr and Mrs B. B. Wang gave a large garden-party[11] at their residence in honour of Mr and Mrs J. C. Nelson.[12] The guests were entertained on the spacious lawn， where rattan chairs and tables[13] were set out. Among those present were Mr L. Sun and his fiancée，[14] Miss T. Fee Yang， who， it may be recalled， was studying English under Mr Sun not very long ago. Mr Nelson had never seen Miss Yang before， and pronounced[15] her the most Americanized girl he had ever known — despite[16] the fact that when she spoke English， he thought it was Russian or German.

3. Autumn having set in，[17] furs are beginning to be discussed. Certain local ladies say “Fur coats are both uncomfortable and ugly”， while others say “Fur coats can never go out of use or fashion as long as there are winters”. Miss D.K. Kao grew very facetious[18] the other day and said， at a friend’s house， “A lady calls everything uncomfortable and ugly that she can ill afford”.[19] Miss Kao surely had the fox and the grapes in mind.[20]

4. Readers of this page must remember the name Q. Q. Q.， who advertised last week her pamphlet[21] entitled How to Be Rosy and Plump. It has now been revealed that Q. Q. Q. herself is a cadaverous[22] lady of twenty-five. Asked several days ago by some girls why she herself had not followed the directions[23] as given in her pamphlet to make herself rosy and plump， the authoress replied that she did not think it should take a rosy and plump lady to teach others to grow rosy and plump， and added that she was preparing a little book on air navigation[24] though she had never been inside an aeroplane.[25]

[1]column：专栏

[2]household management：家政

[3]balls：舞会

[4]tea-parties：茶话会

[5]engagements：订婚

[6]appeal to …：使……感兴趣

[7]Space does not allow me to …：因篇幅有限，故我不能……

[8]have things feminine at heart：关心女界之事

[9]Miss 1934：1934年之现代女子

[10]Art Club：艺术俱乐部

[11]garden-party：园游会

[12]in honour of Mr and Mrs J. C. Nelson：招待 J. C. Nelson夫妇

[13]rattan chairs and tables：藤制椅桌

[14]fiancée：未婚妻 （系法文）

[15]pronounced：声称

[16]despite：不顾；尽管

[17]set in：开始

[18]facetious：诙谐的

[19]can ill afford：无力购买

[20]had the fox and the grapes in mind：想及狐与葡萄 （《伊索寓言》中有一故事，述一狐因不得葡萄而即谓此葡萄乃酸而不可食者。）

[21]pamphlet：小册

[22]cadaverous：苍白如尸的

[23]directions：指导

[24]air navigation：航空

[25]had never been inside an aeroplane：从未乘过飞机

DRAMAS， MOVIES，[1] ETC.

Many English newspapers have special sections for articles and notes[2] on dramas， movies， dancing， and other forms of entertainment.[3] Such articles and notes are usually written in a simple and chatty style and form very good light reading.[4] I am by no means[5] a movie fan，[6] but I enjoy reading about movies and movie stars；[7] and I believe the reading of movie stories teaches us a practical and pleasant sort of narrative[8] style.

Owing to lack of space，[9] I cannot give any long article here. I can only give some short notes （all written by myself） as follows：

1.For the first time in the history of Chinese play-acting[10] a troupe[11] of European actors and actresses[12] will appear next Monday at the Shanghai Theatre， presenting[13] a well-known historical play[14] of the Han dynasty.[15] The matinée[16] begins at 3 p.m.[17] and the evening performance at 9 p.m.

2.“Modern Artist”， now showing at the China Cinema，[18] provides many thrills[19] and much drama， and is very favourably commented upon in all the local English newspapers. Mr D. T. M. C.， who takes the chief role[20] in the picture，[21] sat out the whole performance[22] last evening and was heard to say to a friend， “I wonder how many of the spectators[23] here will dream of me tonight.”

3.Miss K. W. V.， dancer and singer， is sailing for America early next month， with her team[24] of twenty Chinese girls. Interviewed this morning at her house by this newspaper， the artiste deplored the scanty appreciation shown to genius and art here in China.[25] “Dancing and singing，” said she， “are of greater importance to a nation than anything else. And it is a shame that while all members of my team， none of whom are over twenty， can dance and sing to perfection，[26] there are still men and women in China who do not know even such names as Charleston[27] and jazz.[28] The other day I was talking about dancing as an educative influence to some people of national reputation.[29] One of them was so ignorant as to ask me whether jazz was of French origin.”[30]

4. Radio broadcasting[31] is competing with the stage[32] and the screen[33] in giving entertainment. But there is at least one form of entertainment that neither radio， nor the stage， nor the screen， can give. It is dancing. You listen in.[34] You look and see. But the important thing is to act. One of the local dancing halls says in its advertisement：“Drink， Dine， and Dance here.” Well， it seems desirable to add “For tomorrow you may Die”.[35]

[1]Movies：电影

[2]notes：短文

[3]entertainment：娱乐

[4]light reading：软性读物；轻读物

[5]by no means：决非

[6]movie fan：影迷

[7]movie stars：电影明星

[8]narrative：叙事的

[9]Owing to lack of space：因无篇幅

[10]play-acting：演剧

[11]troupe：班

[12]European actors and actresses：欧洲之男女演员

[13]presenting：演出

[14]historical play：历史剧

[15]Han dynasty：汉朝

[16]matinée：日戏

[17]p.m. = post meridiem：下午 （系拉丁文）

[18]cinema：影戏院

[19]thrills：紧张之处

[20]role：角色

[21]picture：影片

[22]sat out the whole performance：坐至剧终

[23]spectators：观众

[24]team：班

[25]deplored the scanty appreciation shown to genius and art here in China：叹惜国内对于天才及艺术之少有欣赏

[26]to perfection：完美

[27]Charleston：查尔斯顿舞

[28]jazz：爵士舞

[29]talking about dancing as an educative influence to some people of national reputation：向全国闻名之若干人谈及跳舞之为有功于教育之物

[30]was so ignorant as to ask me whether jazz was of French origin：如此无识，竟问我爵士舞是否源于法国 （按爵士舞实源于美洲黑人）

[31]radio broadcasting：无线电播音

[32]stage：戏台

[33]screen：银幕

[34]listen in：听无线电播音

[35]For tomorrow you may Die：盖明日君或将死去也 （故今日应及时行乐）

ADVERTISEMENTS

Every English newspaper carries advertising. There are various forms and styles of advertisement， and it is impossible to give any example of full-page or even half-page advertisement here. The kind of which examples can be given here is the so-called classified advertisements，[1] such as those concerning[2] “Positions Wanted”，[3] “Positions Vacant”，[4] “Apartments”，[5] “Beauty Culture”.[6] A certain amount of money is charged[7] for every word in such advertisements；therefore they are usually written in a very concise style， so concise that they do not as a rule contain any complete sentence. Below are some examples：

AVERY capable and experienced Chinese of 28 is looking for[8] a position in big foreign firm[9] as travelling sales representative.[10] A-1 reference.[11] Salary expected， $140. Address Box 304， H. T.[12]

BRITISH subject，[13] 8 years experience in banking，bookkeeping，[14] salesmanship， hard worker， good habits， excellent references；as old firm closed， open for engagement.[15] Willing to accept moderate pay.[16] Address Box 1343， B. P.

EXPERIENCED salesmen wanted for selling famous building materials.[17] Excellent terms.[18] Apply Post Office Box 2115.[19]

WANTED， help of energetic lady or man salesmen[20] to work in their spare time.[21] Only those successful in their present line need apply.[22] Large additional income possible.[23] Apply to Box 6419， P. T. P.

TO Let，[24] one small two-room flat[25] self-contained[26]with bath-room and kitchenette.[27] Apply 186 Man Road.

WELL-FURNISHED two-roomed apartment， enclosed veranda，[28] kitchen， bath. Quiet residential district.[29] 82， Sun Road.

AGOOD price will be paid for a young sporting dog：[30] either sex.[31] Need not be pure bred.[32] Address Box 728， Y. M.

SMALL， interesting library for sale， comprising approximately 100 volumes — fiction， works of art，[33] etc. Address Box 81 C.B.

MISS Wo gives general massage，[34] reduces fatness， cures headaches，[35] rheumatism，[36]from 12-8[37]

[1]classified advertisements：分类广告

[2]concerning：关于

[3]Positions Wanted：求职

[4]Positions Vacant：空着的职位，招贤纳士

[5]Apartments：房间出租

[6]Beauty Culture：美容术

[7]charged：索；取

[8]looking for：寻

[9]foreign firm：洋行；外国企业

[10]travelling sales representative：外埠售货代表

[11]A-1 reference：最佳之证明 （谓有极可靠之人证明自己之才能及品行；“A-1”系“A”与数字“1”相合而成）

[12]Address Box 304， H.T.：请投函 H. T. 报信箱第304号 （“H.T.”系假设之报名缩写；下文之“B. P.”、“P. T. P.”等亦然）

[13]British subject：英国人

[14]book-keeping：簿记；记账

[15]as old firm closed， open for engagement：因老店已闭，故拟另谋职业

[16]moderate pay：小薪水

[17]experienced salesmen wanted for selling building materials：招聘有经验之推销员销售建筑材料

[18]Excellent terms：条件甚优；酬报从丰

[19]Post Office Box 2115：邮政信箱第2115号

[20]energetic lady or man salesmen：得力之男女推销员

[21]spare time：暇时

[22]Only those successful in their present line need apply：惟在现任职业中有成绩者可自荐

[23]Large additional income possible：可得巨大之额外收益

[24]To let：出租

[25]flat：公寓

[26]self-contained：完全的

[27]kitchenette：小厨房

[28]enclosed veranda：封闭式阳台

[29]Quiet residential district：安静之住宅区

[30]sporting dog：猎犬

[31]either sex：不拘雌雄

[32]pure bred：纯种

[33]works of art：艺术品 （大抵指画）

[34]massage：按摩

[35]headaches：头痛

[36]rheumatism：风湿症

[37]from 12-8：自12点钟至8点钟

WANTED — A GUIDE[1] TO IDIOMATIC ENGLISH FOR CHINESE STUDENTS

In a manual of idiomatic English written by an Englishman for Indian students， the author says in the preface：“All teachers of youth in the East[2] should carefully warn their pupils and students against wasting their money and time and energies on books professing to[3] teach idiomatic English which are written by men whose mother tongue[4] is not English.” Do you agree with him， reader？ I do not. I believe that anyone who wishes to write perfectly idiomatic English will do well to give his days and nights to the study of works[5] written by men whose mother tongue is English， and that one who studies only English by non-English authors[6] can never be expected to write English well. But when it comes to[7] writing books designed to teach idiomatic English to those with whom English is a foreign language， I am of opinion that such books ought to be written by men whose mother tongue is not English but the language their readers are born to.[8] In the case of Chinese students， for instance， such books ought to be written by Chinese authors — I mean those who have a perfect knowledge of English.

For it is only Chinese that can really know where the shoe pinches[9] with Chinese students learning to write English. Chinese students make many errors in idiom that English and American children never make. On the other hand， an English or American author may warn Chinese students against what are known as “common errors”， which， however， they are absolutely free from. Moreover， there are many very common idiomatic turns of expression[10] that are not mentioned in dictionaries and are too common to Englishmen and Americans to engage the attention of [11] authors writing books to teach Chinese students idiomatic English， but which Chinese students do not so much as know of.[12]

It seems that not a single book written by a Chinese to teach idiomatic English to Chinese students has yet appeared. I have read several books on English composition and rhetoric by Chinese authors. But none of them touch upon[13] points of idiom that require special mention and explanation in view of [14] Chinese students’ ignorance or misunderstanding of them. Wanted — a guide to idiomatic English for Chinese students.

[1]Guide：指导书

[2]the East：东方

[3]professing to …：自以为……

[4]mother tongue：本国文字

[5]works：著作

[6]English by non-English authors：英国以外之人所作之英文

[7]when it comes to：至于；论及

[8]the language their readers are born to：其读者之本国文字

[9]where the shoe pinches：困难在何处

[10]turns of expression：语式

[11]engage the attention off …：引起……之注意

[12]do not so much as know of：竟不知；且不知

[13]touch upon：论及

[14]in view of：因

READING TO LEARN THE ART OF EXPRESSION[1]

When you read a short story， you may read it merely for pleasure. When you read a biographical sketch， you may read it merely for information.[2] But as you are a student of English， I think you should often read to learn the art of expression. And for this purpose you may read either a short story or a biographical sketch， either an essay or a news item， indeed， anything that is written in good current English.

Even from a short paragraph you may learn several forms of expression if you are observant enough. Take the following paragraph from a short story by George Gissing：[3]

It was twenty years ago， and on an evening in May. All day long[4] there had been sunshine. Owing doubtless[5] to the incident I am about to relate，[6] the light and warmth of that long-vanished[7] day live with me still；I can see[8] the great white clouds that moved across the strip of sky before my window， and feel again the spring languor[9] which troubled my solitary work in the heart[10] of London.

1. “on an evening in May”. Correct prepositions.

2. “all day long”. Idiomatic phrase.

3. “had been”. Past perfect tense， denoting what had happened before the evening in question.[11]

4. “owing to”. Idiomatic phrase；the preposition is “to.”

5. “about to relate”. “About” followed by an infinitive.

6. “long-vanished”. Compound word.

7. “live with me”. Correct preposition.

8. “troubled my solitary work”. “Work” may be “solitary”， and may also be “troubled.”

In this way you will learn the art of expression very quickly；perhaps one or two paragraphs a day will teach you hundreds of forms of expression in a month， and these forms of expression will greatly improve your writing. And if you can — I believe you can — commit to memory[12] one or two paragraphs a day that you have already read in this way， the results will be still greater.

[1]Expression：表达

[2]information：知识

[3]George Gissing：乔治·吉辛，英国小说家，生于1857年，卒于1903年

[4]all day long：全日

[5]doubtless：必然

[6]am about to relate：将述

[7]long-vanished：久已消逝的

[8]can see：能见 （谓若能见也）

[9]spring languor：春倦；春乏

[10]heart：中心

[11]in question：所述及的

[12]commit to memory：牢记

ABOUT THE STUDY OF GRAMMAR

I have been told by more than one bookseller[1] that， here in China， so far as books on English are concerned，[2] grammars sell better than[3] other kinds of books except readers[4] and dictionaries. And it seems to me that nearly every Chinese who learns English at all reads a grammar. I myself am a serious student of grammar；I have read I cannot tell how many English grammar books， by Chinese， English， American， Japanese， Danish[5] and Dutch authors， and am always on the look-out for new ones.[6]

The object of this article， however， is to advise you not to devote too much time to the study of grammar. I study grammar for grammar’s sake，[7] but I do not think every student of English should do so. You study English in order to[8] be able to[9] make practical use of it. This object is not to be attained by mere study of grammar. I do not even think I should now be able to write such simple English as that of this book if I had read nothing but grammars.

Grammar tells you some general rules， some exceptions[10] to rules， and perhaps some idioms. But the correct use of English is not a mere matter of such.[11] For example， grammar has what is called the double object， as in “He gave her a pen”；but it would be wrong to say “He introduced him a friend”， in which “him” and “friend” seem to form the double object. The fact is that “introduce” cannot take the double object；but this point is not to be learnt from grammar but only from careful reading. Many Chinese students write sentences that may be justified[12] by one grammatical rule or another but are certainly wrong.

I believe you have already read a few grammars， and probably have spent a great deal of time on the subject， though you may not now be able to write anything — say a short letter — grammatically perfect. Grammar may help you to use English， but only to a certain extent.[13] Do not look on the study of grammar as[14] all or nearly all that you have to do in order to master English. Careful reading and constant practice are far more important.

[1]bookseller：书商

[2]so far as books on English are concerned：就论述英文的书而论

[3]sell better than …：销路比……更佳

[4]readers：读本

[5]Danish：丹麦国的

[6]new ones = new grammar books

[7]study grammar for grammar’s sake：为文法而读文法

[8]in order to …：以……为目的

[9]be able to：能够

[10]exceptions：例外

[11]such = general rules， exceptions， and idioms

[12]justified：视为正当

[13]to a certain extent：到某种程度

[14]look on … as …：视……如……

KNOWING JUST ENOUGH GRAMMAR TO GO WRONG[1]

Many Chinese learners of English know just enough grammar to go wrong. “It seems[2] I have seen such an expression several times”， they say to themselves；“but surely it is not grammatical. I must alter it so as to make it grammatical.” Their narrowly grammatical conscience，[3] however， often causes them to change idiomatic English into unidiomatic English. For example， they may find “The boy acts contrary[4] to his parents’ wishes” ungrammatical， and to make the sentence grammatical change the “contrary” into “contrarily” — with the result that the sentence would not read like an English sentence to an Englishman. It is true that from a narrowly grammatical point of view， the adjective “contrary” here should be replaced with the adverb “contrarily”. But idiom has decided that the adjective is the word required here， and idiom there is no disputing.[5] （Perhaps it would be better to say that here idiom insists on the use of the adverb “contrary” instead of the adverb “contrarily”.）

There are several forms of expression that are purely idiomatic and do not admit of [6] grammatical analysis. The word “busy”， for example， may be used immediately before a gerund looking like a participle， as in “He is busy writing letters”.

In your reading， reader， take care to note down[7] those idiomatic constructions that you do not find grammatical enough. Commit them to memory and try to use them in your own writing. Above all，[8] remember that you may happen to be one of those who， as I said in the above， know just enough grammar to go wrong.

You must not think， however， that idiom and grammar are always incompatibles.[9] What is idiomatic is far more often grammatical than ungrammatical. I mean simply that not every idiomatic construction is grammatically explainable， nor is every strictly grammatical construction idiomatic.

[1]Go Wrong：错误

[2]it seems = it seems that

[3]narrowly grammatical conscience：对于文法之偏狭之观念

[4]contrary：反；违

[5]idiom there is no disputing = there is no disputing idiom：习语不容置疑

[6]admit of：可能；容

[7]note down：记下

[8]Above all：尤要者

[9]incompatibles：矛盾之物

A “FOOLISH” PRINCIPLE[1] OF COMPOSITION

Books on rhetoric may tell you many principles of composition. But the principle that I am going to explain is one[2] that I have not found in any book on rhetoric. I discovered it myself， and I acted up to[3] it as soon as I discovered it， many years ago. I have found it so helpful that[4] I believe you will do well to adopt it. The principle is that you should use no construction， no form of expression， no combination of words， that you have not seen in your reading.

It seems to me that the average Chinese learner of English has a fair knowledge of grammar and a fairly large vocabulary， and that when he writes English， he makes sentences according to his knowledge of grammar and his understanding of the meaning of words. The result is that his English often seems to be correct enough but is not really correct. For correct English is a matter of usage， not merely a matter of grammar and vocabulary. In composition correction I have often been asked why I had changed a certain word or construction to another. Well， I cannot always say why. I have substituted that word or construction simply because that is the word or construction that an Englishman would have used there.

Suppose you are on the point of [5] writing “He was rich to live on luxury”. Is this sentence correct？ “He was” is certainly correct；you have seen it many， many times. “He was rich” is also correct；you have seen it more than once. “He was rich to …” — well， you have never seen it， have you？ No， you have never seen it and therefore you should not let it pass.[6] “On luxury” — well， you have never seen this expression， and so you should not use it. Now the correct sentence is “He was rich enough to live in luxury”.

Do you think my principle very foolish？ It does look so. But I regard it as very helpful， and I hope that you will try to put it into practice.

The question may naturally[7] arise：Shall I not find it practically[8] impossible to write anything because I do not always remember whether I have ever seen a certain construction or form of expression or combination of words？ Well， you should remember. You should read carefully. You should learn the art of expression from your reading. I hope you have not forgotten my article entitled “Reading to Learn the Art of Expression”.

[1]Principle：原则

[2]one = a principle

[3]acted up to：实行

[4]so … that …：如是之……，故……

[5]are on the point of：将

[6]let it pass：任其过去

[7]naturally：当然

[8]practically：几乎

AN AID[1] TO COMPOSITION

Do you often meet with a word or phrase or construction that you understand fully without being able to translate it into readable[2] Chinese？ I believe you do；[3] I believe you have read enough English to have this experience. I myself often meet with such.[4]

You have perhaps seen such a sentence as “They will not return for many days to come”. You know that it means that they will return many days from now，[5] or that they will return only after the passage[6] of many days. But can you translate it into readable Chinese？ In the very common expression “simply cannot”， I find the word “simply” very hard to translate into Chinese. I also find it very hard to translate into Chinese the very common word “probable” as contrasted with[7] “possible”. As to such a sentence as “You cannot be too careful[8]”， I think it is even untranslatable.

All these and many other words and phrases and constructions do not seem to have what we call Chinese equivalents.[9] You understand them， but you cannot translate them into readable Chinese；that is， you cannot translate them both exactly and clearly.

I do not mean to advise you to try and translate such hard things. Do not try to translate them， I say.[10] Just commit them to memory. They will often come in useful[11] when you write. They will help you to write more idiomatic English.

By the way， “society” is a much used word among Chinese learners of English. But I have seldom seen it used by any of them in the sense of companionship， as in “The old man enjoys the society of young people”. This is because Chinese learners do not usually use an English word in a sense that cannot be easily translated into Chinese. I hope you will now profit by my hint.

[1]Aid：帮助

[2]readable：易读的；明畅的

[3]do = often meet with a word or phrase or construction that you understand fully without being able to translate it into readable Chinese

[4]such = a word or phrase or construction that I understand fully without being able to translate it into readable Chinese

[5]from now：以后

[6]passage：过去

[7]contrasted with …：与……相比；与……分别

[8]You cannot be too careful：即“愈谨慎愈佳”之意

[9]equivalents：同等语

[10]I say：我谓

[11]come in useful：有用

SOME MISTAKES TO CONSIDER

Do you， reader， find any mistake in the following sentences？

1. I study English for going abroad[1].

2. I have met him for five times.

3. Pardon me for I give you so much trouble.

4. For I am a Chinese， I love China.

If you do not find any mistake in them， you have yet a poor knowledge of English. All these sentences are wrong， and， so far as I know， are not to be found in any Englishman’s English， though I believe you may think they are quite grammatical.

Let me explain：（1） “For” expressing purpose may take a noun （as in “for pleasure”）， but not usually a gerund.（2） While “for the … time” is right， “for … times” is wrong.（3） “For” as a conjunction is very weak and cannot introduce any important reason. （4） “For” is a coordinating conjunction， not a subordinating one.

Now read the sentences as corrected：[2]

1. I study English （in order）[3] to go abroad.

2. I have met him five times.

3. Pardon me for giving you so much trouble.

4. I love China， for I am a Chinese.

Now that[4] you have been told of these four common mistakes in regard to[5] the use of the word “for”， I hope you will take care to avoid them in your own writing. Such mistakes are not usually mentioned in books on grammar and composition. But they are not uncommon among Chinese learners of English. And I find that there are similar mistakes in the use of many other common English words. I am of opinion that the discussion of such mistakes ought to form a large part of every composition book specially intended for Chinese learners， and it is a matter of regret[6] that many， many Chinese learners are studying rules and principles of grammar and rhetoric without caring a bit about[7] such mistakes.

A good English composition book remains to be written.[8] Would you like to see such a book published？

[1]going abroad：出洋

[2]corrected：改正

[3]（in order）：用括号表示此二词可省

[4]Now that：既

[5]in regard to：关于

[6]matter of regret：可恨之事

[7]without caring a bit about：毫不介意

[8]remains to be written：尚待著作

SOME MORE MISTAKES TO CONSIDER

After reading my article “Some Mistakes to Consider”， a reader wrote to ask me to give more mistakes to consider. I hope you will be interested to read the following four sentences and see what mistakes they contain：

1. May I introduce you my friend Mr Wang？

2. Please favour me an early reply.

3. I will inform you the result by and by.[1]

4. He has presented[2] me a fine gift.[3]

I think you have read about the double object in grammar. You have been told that a verb may take two objects， one called the direct and the other called the indirect. You have seen such sentences as：

1. Can you recommend[4] me a tailor？

2. Please send me an early reply.

3. I will tell you the truth by and by.

4. He has lent me a good book.

But have you ever seen sentences like those of the first group？ I have often seen them in the English written by Chinese learners of English， but never in any Englishman’s writing. In an Englishman’s writing， these sentences would read：

Now you can see that the verbs “introduce”， “favour”， “inform”， and “present” cannot take the double object， though the verbs “recommend”， “send”， “tell”， and “lend” can. Grammars mention the double object and give examples of it， but they do not tell you that only a few verbs can take the double object， nor do they mention any verbs with which this construction is impossible. It seems to me， therefore， that the four mistakes that I have just mentioned are quite common among Chinese learners， even among those[5] who have studied grammar carefully.

To tell the truth， grammar does not help you much in writing. It tells you what is right， but it does not tell you much about what is wrong. When you have seen a certain construction in your grammar， you try to make use of it in your own writing. Possibly you have made no mistake， but it is also possible that you have made a mistake.

[1]by and by：不久以后

[2]presented：赠

[3]gift：礼物

[4]recommend：介绍；荐

[5]those = those learners

MAKE THE WORD YOUR OWN

A word is not your own until you can use it correctly. You may know one or more Chinese equivalents for a word and yet you may not be able to use it correctly. I am afraid that of all the words that the average Chinese student can explain in Chinese， less than half may really be called his own.

To give a few common words at random， “wise”， “probable”， “congratulate”， “equip”， “personality”， “novel”， “nevertheless”， “meanwhile” — all these words many Chinese learners may “know” without being able to use them correctly. Do you think you can use them correctly， reader？ Please read the following sentences carefully and see whether you find any mistake in any of them. I have to tell you beforehand[1] that all the words in italics are misused， and that if you fail to find any of these wrong， that proves that that word is not yet your own.

1. The boy reads the book very well， and so he may be called a very wise boy.

2. He is probable to pass the examination.

3. Let’s congratulate her good fortune.

4. A radio has been equipped in the hall.

5. He never pays his debts；[2] his personality is bad.

6. I don’t like such novels as these short stories.

7. Nevertheless poor， the girl was neatly dressed.

8. I bought some bananas and meanwhile some apples.

How many of these italicized words are your own？ and how many are not？ Look up those that are not your own in a good dictionary in order to find out why they are wrong in these sentences， and to learn their correct uses.

Remember that not every word that you think you understand well is really your own.

[1]have to tell you beforehand：须事先告诉你

[2]debts：债

WORDS THAT ARE TOO OFTEN USED

Whenever I read a school composition， I am ready[1] to find one or more of a few words — “diligent”， “society”， “famous”， “suitable”， “strong”， “always”， and so forth， and usually I do[2] find one or more of them. I am afraid that all these are your favourite words[3] and one or more of them creep into[4] nearly everything that you write in English. Would you mind reading over some of your compositions to see whether what I have said is true？[5]

If I’m not mistaken，[6] all these words are too often used by Chinese learners of English. They are good and common words， and of course are not to be avoided.[7] But it is very bad to use the same word constantly.

It seems to be chiefly because of their very limited vocabulary that Chinese learners use certain words too often. They have only “diligent” at their disposal[8] when they have to express the idea of unremitting application[9] to work or study， and so they write “diligent”. They ought to have “industrious”， “earnest”， “painstaking”， “attentive”， “hard”， “hard-working”， etc. to choose among.

Englishmen also have their too much used words， such as “clever”， “nice”， “nasty”. To quote from Modern English Usage，[10] “a woman whose cleverness is apparent in all she does[11] will tell you that she wishes she was clever， that she cannot read clever books （meaning those of the graver kind）， and that Mr Jones must be a very clever man， for he has written a dictionary.” A good boy is a nice boy. A delicious fruit is a nice fruit. A pleasant party is a nice party. An interesting book is a nice book.

A man may have overworked[12] words of his own. Can you tell what mine are？ Among them are “usually”， “think”， “seem”， “whether”， and “if”. Don’t you think so？

[1]ready：有备的

[2]do：实在；果然

[3]favourite words：喜用之词

[4]creep into：潜入

[5]Should you mind reading over some of your compositions to see whether what I have said is true？：君肯将君所作之文中数篇翻阅一遍以知我言真假乎？

[6]If I’m not mistaken：倘我所见不误

[7]are not to be avoided：并非应避免

[8]at their disposal：供其使用

[9]unremitting application：不止之勤力

[10]Modern English Usage：书名，即A Dictionary of Modern English Usage，英国人H. W. Fowler 著，牛津大学出版社出版

[11]whose cleverness is apparent in all she does：在伊之一切行为上皆可见伊之聪慧

[12]overworked：过分多用的

METAPHORICAL[1] AND PLAIN IDIOMS

Below are some common English metaphorical idioms， given at random， that every learner of English should know：

Better half [2]　 　　　 　　Keep the wolf from the door[3]

Go to the dogs[4]　　　 　　Send to Coventry[5]

Rain cats and dogs[6]　 　　Lion’s share[7]

Greek to me[8]　　　　　　Burn the midnight oil[9]

Fair-weather friends[10]　Put two and two together[11]

I have found from experience that Chinese learners （I mean earnest ones） like such idioms very much. They copy them into their note-books and commit them to memory， and try to use them in their own writing. Such idioms， as I have said， every learner of English should know. It is also worth while[12] to learn to use them. But it seems to me that many Chinese learners are apt to use them too much， while they do not make enough use of such plain idioms as “have on”，[13] “give in”，[14] “put up with”.[15] Thus they often produce what is usually called “fine writing”[16] instead of natural and pure English.

You may use all of the ten metaphorical idioms that I have given above in a short composition， and each perfectly correctly， and yet your composition must not be a good one. It does not read naturally.[17] It looks un-English. It betrays your lack of skill.

On the other land， the use of such plain idioms as “have on”， “give in”， “put up with”， is an essential feature of natural and pure English. One has to learn to use them before one may expect to be able to write English well. I would therefore advise you to pay more attention to them than to metaphorical ones. Below are more examples， also given at random：

Take to[18]　　　　　Get over[19]　　　On account of [20]　　After all[21]

Wait on[22]　　　　　Put up[23]　　　　In short[24]

Look forward to[25]　　By the way[26]　　Over against[27]

Such plain idioms are to be met with in any piece of good modern English.

[1]Metaphorical：属于隐喻的

[2]Better half：妻

[3]Go to the dogs：堕落；衰败

[4]Rain cats and dogs：下大雨

[5]Greek to me：我所不懂的

[6]Fair-weather friends：同利不同患之友

[7]Keep the wolf from the door：免于饥饿

[8]Send to Coventry：不与相交；弃绝

[9]Lion’s share：大部分

[10]Burn the midnight oil：深夜用功；熬夜

[11]Put two and two together：推理

[12]worth while：值得的

[13]Have on：穿；戴

[14]Give in：让步

[15]Put up with：忍受；耐

[16]fine writing：装腔之文字；过分华丽之文字

[17]does not read naturally：读起来不自然

[18]Take to：从事；开始

[19]Wait on：侍奉；服事

[20]Look forward to：盼望

[21]Get over：制胜；打消

[22]Put up：寓；住

[23]By the way：顺便说及

[24]On account of：因

[25]In short：简而言之

[26]Over against：向；在……之对面

[27]After all：毕竟

ARE YOU A VOTARY[1] OF MRS MALAPROP？[2]

Quite recently I found in a returned student from America[3] a votary of Mrs Malaprop in Sheridan’s The Rivals.[4] As we are both natives of South Kiangsu，[5] we might have very well talked in Chinese. But he preferred to speak English. By the way， he spoke English as though it were with him a matter of course，[6] and he looked particularly “foreign” in his western clothing in contrast with[7] his partner in conversation， who spoke English in his Chinese gown. Now we had not talked five minutes before I found him to be a votary of Mrs Malaprop.

I remember his saying “theological”[8] when he did not mean anything relating to theology[9] at all， and saying “principality”[10] when he could not possibly have thought of any of the things this long word stands for.[11] Apparently he said “theological” in mistake for “theoretical”， and “principality” in mistake for “principle”. Is he not a votary of Mrs Malaprop？ For this queer lady used to “deck[12] her dull chat with hard words which she don’t understand”. She once protested， “Sure， if I reprehend[13] anything in the world， it is the use of my oracular[14] tongue，[15] and a nice derangement[16] of epitaphs”[17] — having vague memories of “apprehend，”[18] “vernacular”，[19] “arrangement”， and “epithets”.[20]

Mistakes like these are not uncommon in the school compositions I have ever read， though I admit that most of them do not show Mrs Malaprop’s bold originality.[21]

Are you a votary of Mrs Malaprop， reader？ I do not think you can make such heroic achievements[22] as hers， nor do I think you can load[23] a short sentence with as many such fine things as your matron saint.[24] But it is probable that your writing is not absolutely free from ludicrous[25] misuse of words. Will you please accept my advice that you ought never to attempt to deck your speaking or writing with hard words that you do not understand？

[1]Votary：信徒

[2]Mrs Malaprop：马勒普太太，以荒唐的误用词语而出名

[3]returned student from America：自美回国之留学生

[4]Sheridan’s The Rivals：谢立丹所著之戏剧《情敌》（Sheridan 即Richard Brinsley Sheridan，英国戏剧家，生于1751年，卒于1816年）

[5]South Kiangsu：江苏之南部

[6]as though it were with him a matter of course：此事于彼宛若当然之事

[7]in contrast with …：与……成对比

[8]theological：神道学上的

[9]theology：神道学

[10]principality：公国；侯国

[11]stands for：代表

[12]deck：装饰

[13]reprehend：斥责

[14]oracular：神谕的

[15]tongue：语言

[16]derangement：紊乱

[17]epitaphs：墓铭

[18]apprehend：了解

[19]vernacular：本国的

[20]epithets：（表示性质、特征等的）词语

[21]originality：创作力

[22]heroic achievements：壮举

[23]load：载

[24]your matron saint：君之女神 （指 Mrs Malaprop）

[25]ludicrous：可笑的

A WARNING REGARDING THE USE OF WORDS

Once in an essay written by a man who had studied in England for several years I saw the word “destruct”， which was evidently[1] used in the sense of “destroy”. At another time， I saw the same word， evidently used in the same sense， in an illustrated magazine[2] published in Shanghai. At still another time， I saw the word “destroyal” used in the sense of “destruction” by a man apparently well educated in English.

In fact， however， the verb is “destroy” and the noun is “destruction”， and there do not exist the words “destruct” and “destroyal”.

I do not think that the users of these non-existing words did not know the correct words. They were careless enough， though.[3] They just seized upon a combination of letters that looked like the word they wanted. It is true that these non-existing words may be understood by all who see them. But， of course， they cannot therefore justify themselves.[4]

Often in the English written by Chinese I find words that do not really exist. They use such words either because they do not know the correct words or merely because they are careless — or even because they believe they have a good knowledge of English word-building.[5] At any rate， this is a very bad fault peculiar to those who are not at home in English.[6]

I would therefore advise you to use no word that you are not sure you have seen used by standard authors， and to consult[7] your dictionary in cases of doubt.[8]

One word more[9] of warning. It is possible that you sometimes use a word that is recorded in your dictionary， but which is not in common use， and which you use not because you are sure of its existence but simply because you think it is the word you want. For instance， because you know the noun “aggression”[10] and the adjective “aggressive”[11]， you may use the verb “aggress” — which， however， is a very uncommon word.

[1]evidently：显然

[2]illustrated magazine：有插画之杂志

[3]though：但 （副词）

[4]cannot therefore justify themselves：不能因此而有存在之理由

[5]word-building：构词

[6]at home in English：精通英文

[7]consult：查

[8]doubt：怀疑

[9]One word more：尚有一言

[10]aggression：侵略

[11]aggressive：侵略的

WHAT “LITERARY ENGLISH” MEANS

Books on rhetoric and composition tell us that English may be roughly[1] classified as （1） literary English and （2） colloquial English，[2] and that literary English should， and colloquial English should not， be used in writing.

Yes， we — I mean you — should learn to write literary English. But what， after all， does “literary English” mean？ What is literary English？ I am afraid that many Chinese learners of English may think that literary English is a distinctly elegant[3] sort of English. They think that it is absolutely different from the English used in speaking， in addressing[4] a class of students， or in writing to a business house[5] to order goods.[6] They think that in literary English a face is not a face but a visage[7] and a man never goes but always repairs，[8] and that it consists mainly， if not entirely，[9] of figurative expressions.[10]

This idea is wrong， however — and this wrong idea prevents one from writing natural and pure English. Literary English， if you please，[11] does not mean English confined in its use to literature.[12] It is not a distinctly elegant sort of English. It is just the ordinary English that well-educated Englishmen and Americans use in writing — not necessarily for literary purposes， but often for practical purposes. In literary English， a face is almost always a face and very rarely a visage， and a man almost always goes and very rarely repairs.

While[13] “colloquial English” means English used in conversation， it does not follow[14] that the English used in conversation is necessarily too colloquial to be used in writing. The majority[15] of the words and idioms used by well-educated people in conversation are certainly literary English.

[1]roughly：大略；约

[2]colloquial English：谈话中所用之英语

[3]elegant：优美的；文雅的

[4]addressing …：向……演说

[5]business house：商店

[6]order goods：定货

[7]visage：面容

[8]repairs：去

[9]mainly， if not entirely：虽然非完全如是，却大部分如是

[10]figurative expressions：藻语

[11]if you please：竟然如此

[12]confined in its use to literature：仅用于文学上

[13]While：虽

[14]it does not follow …：并不因而有……之结论

[15]majority：大半

SIMPLICITY[1] AND AFFECTED[2] SIMPLICITY

As you may gather[3] from what I have said before， idiomatic and pure English does not consist in the use of hard words and phrases and involved[4] constructions. Rather does it consist in the correct and natural use of simple words and phrases and constructions. Many Chinese learners of English do not aim at simplicity， and I cannot advise them too strongly[5] to prefer simplicity as an essential quality in their writing to any sort of rhetorical or “literary” beauty that they may have found mentioned in books on style.

Simple English， however， is not necessarily natural English. There is danger of [6] a student’s aiming at simplicity to the neglect of [7] naturalness. If you please， simplicity itself may be affected. A student beginning to write English usually takes a fancy to[8] hard words and phrases and involved constructions， and produces what is known as “fine writing”. Little by little[9] he comes to realize the advisability[10] of writing simple English. But he is at this time likely to promote simplicity in an affected manner. He needs years of practice before he can learn to couple simplicity with naturalness.[11]

When I began to appreciate simple English， I made up my mind[12] to promote simplicity by writing sentences of not more than twenty words and not more than one clause. The result was that every sentence I wrote looked as if it had been crying at the top of its voice[13] “I am simplicity itself！”[14] and every paragraph read like the barking of a dog. Simple enough — and more than enough. Go to，[15] mere affectation！

Now you understand my meaning？ Aim at simplicity at all events.[16] But do not forget the equally important quality of naturalness. No sentence is bad merely because it is long， just as no sentence is good merely because it is long. Simplicity does not require that every sentence must not exceed twenty words in length or that it must consist of only one clause. True simplicity does not betray any effort made to secure it.

[1]Simplicity：简单

[2]Affected：装腔的

[3]gather：推测

[4]involved：复杂的

[5]cannot advise them too strongly：无论如何劝告彼等，决不为过甚

[6]There is danger of …：有……之危险

[7]to the neglect of …：忽略……

[8]takes a fancy to：喜欢

[9]little by little：渐渐

[10]advisability：合宜

[11]couple simplicity with naturalness：使简单与自然相合

[12]made up my mind：决意

[13]at the top of its voice：高声

[14]simplicity itself：极其简易

[15]Go to：表示轻蔑之意

[16]at all events：无论如何

LOVE OF COMMERCIALISMS[1]

“And you can write commercial English， can’t you？” — I was asked this question by a business man[2] some weeks ago. He seemed to say：“For all your literary attainments[3] you may yet know nothing about the important and time-honoured[4] speech known as ‘commercial English’.” I felt inclined to reply， though I did not， “I know that dry， trite，[5] useless， meaningless， dying， and half-dead jargon；[6] but I wish it an early natural death.”[7]

Fortunately， the jargon called “commercial English” is going out， if it has not yet gone out.[8] Many business houses are doing without[9] it. Many people are beginning to realize that it is contrary to the true interests of commercial life. Indeed， the so-called “commercial English” is objectionable[10] even in commercial contexts.[11]

Now I have found that many Chinese learners of English are only too[12] fond of using certain pure commercialisms even where nothing commercial is concerned. Their motive， it seems， is neither more nor less than[13] avoidance of the obvious.[14] They think “it” is too common to be used in “I suggest this reform[15] and hope you will consider it”；so they substitute “same”， a commercialism. Likewise， they use the commercialism “such” in “I like love romances，[16] but she does not like such”， because they think “them” is too common；and use the commercialism “as per” in “I will do it as per your request”， because they think “in accordance with” is too common.

As I have hinted at in the above， “commercial English” even as a commercial English can now hardly justify its existence.[17] Needless to say，[18] it has no right[19] to be where it never has had the right to be. The ordinary resources[20] of the English language are quite adequate[21] even to the needs of commerce. To use commercialisms in non-commercial writing cannot be too strongly condemned.[22]

[1]Commercialisms：商业用语

[2]business man：商人

[3]For all your literary attainments：虽有君之种种文学上之成就

[4]time-honoured：由来已久的

[5]trite：陈腐的

[6]jargon：行话，术语

[7]natural death：自然之死；善终

[8]is going out， if it has not yet gone out：虽未完全废去，但已渐渐废去

[9]doing without：不用

[10]objectionable：可厌的

[11]contexts：上下文

[12]only too：却甚

[13]is neither more nor less than：仅；适

[14]the obvious：明白之处

[15]reform：改良

[16]love romances：爱情小说

[17]“commercial English” even as a commercial English can now hardly justify its existence：所谓商业英语者，即作为商用英语，今亦几无存在之价值

[18]Needless to say：不必说

[19]right：权利

[20]resources：财源；材料

[21]adequate：充足的

[22]cannot be too strongly condemned：无论如何非之，必不为过；当痛非之

THE COMPOUND-PREPOSITIONAL STYLE

The following sentence is taken from The Spectator，[1] a newspaper formerly published in England：“A Resolution[2] was moved[3] and carried[4] in favour of [5] giving facilities[6] to the public vaccination officers[7] of the Metropolis[8] to enter the schools of the Board[9] for the purpose of [10] examining the arms of the children with a view to[11] advising the parents to allow their children to be vaccinated.”

This sentence is both grammatically and idiomatically perfect. It is not a good sentence， however. It reads smoothly， but does not read pleasantly. It is really quite clear， but may require a second reading before it is fully understood.

What is wrong with this sentence？[12] I think it is the use of the three compound prepositions “in favour of”， “for the purpose of”， and “with a view to”. Each of these is a useful phrase and each is correctly used here. But to use them all in a single sentence has a bad effect. The excessive[13] use of these and similar phrases is responsible for[14] much of what is flaccid，[15] diffuse，[16] and nerveless，[17] in modern writing， especially in journalism.[18]

I know a Chinese who both speaks and writes English as very few Chinese can. He is very often tedious， however， and that[19] chiefly because he uses such phrases too much. I wish he would some day[20] be aware that they tend to[21] spoil rather than improve one’s style. I am afraid that the fatal ease that they give him has already become too dear to be sacrificed.

I hope you have not yet read enough of the compound-prepositional style to fall in love with[22] it. I myself fell in love with it many years ago， but I am glad that I threw it over[23] soon after.

[1]The Spectator：此报系一周刊，于1828年创刊

[2]resolution：议案

[3]moved：提议

[4]carried：通过

[5]in favour of：赞成

[6]facilities：便利

[7]public vaccination officers：公共接种人员

[8]Metropolis：大都市 （指伦敦）

[9]Board：（教育） 部

[10]for the purpose of：以……为目的

[11]with a view to：以……为目的

[12]What is wrong with this sentence？：此句有何不是处？

[13]excessive：过分的

[14]is responsible for …：致成……

[15]flaccid：软弱的

[16]diffuse：散漫的

[17]nerveless：无力的

[18]journalism：报纸文字；新闻写作

[19]that = he is very often tedious

[20]some day：将来

[21]tend to …：有……之倾向

[22]fall in love with …：喜欢上……

[23]threw it over：放弃之

IMITATION，[1] GOOD AND BAD

Too often[2] a learner of English who has read one or two classics tries to imitate their style. The fact， however， is that style cannot be imitated. Different authors have different styles. They do not endeavour to write the way they write.[3] So the imitation of any style often results in affectation.[4]

And the result will be still worse if the style imitated is that of a work[5] written a hundred years ago or more. We are of the thirties of the twentieth century，[6] and we should not write the English of the thirties of the nineteenth century.

I would advise you not to aim at a special style. Take care to write correct， simple， idiomatic， and clear English， that’s all.[7]

But imitation is not always bad. Very often it is important to imitate something. Where personal style is out of place，[8] imitation is the only means[9] by which correctness may be secured. In writing an advertisement about something， for example， you have to imitate some such advertisement that you have read. You cannot possibly write a good one if you have never read any， though you may have read very widely in literature.

You will do well to collect a number of short advertisements， formal invitations and announcements，[10] receipts，[11] IOUs，[12] business contracts，[13] etc. When you have occasion[14] to write one of such， you have simply to do a little imitating and adapting.[15] The following is an ordinary formal invitation：

Mr and Mrs M. S. Adams request the pleasure of Mr and Mrs L. J. Williams’s company[16] at dinner on Saturday evening， May the seventeenth， at seven o’clock， 86 Star Street.

This invitation is from Mr and Mrs M. S. Adams to Mr and Mrs L. J. Williams. Surely， with this piece before you， you can write a new one. You have simply to change the names， the date， the time， and the address.

[1]Imitation：摹仿

[2]Too often：往往

[3]do not endeavour to write the way they write：彼等有何种文体，并非努力以成之也

[4]affectation：做作；不自然

[5]work：著作

[6]the thirties of the twentieth century：20 世纪第30 至第39年之十年间

[7]that is all：如是而已

[8]out of place：不适宜的；用不着的

[9]means：方法

[10]formal invitations and announcements：正式之请帖及通告

[11]receipts：收据

[12]IOUs：借条 （此字系自“I owe you”的缩写）

[13]contracts：契约

[14]have occasion：须

[15]adapting：变更

[16]company：伴

PARAPHRASE AS AN EXERCISE IN COMPOSITION

Paraphrase， according to The Concise Oxford Dictionary， is “free rendering[1] or amplification[2] of a passage， expression of its sense in other words”. For example， Wordsworth’s famous line[3] “The Child is father of the Man” may be paraphrased in any of the following ways：

1. The child lays down[4] the lines of his development.

2. The characteristics[5] of manhood are revealed in childhood.

3. The actions of a boy indicate what kind of man he is likely to become.

4. A man has the same personality and individuality[6] throughout his life.

Paraphrase is a useful exercise in composition. The thought is there. The student has only to express it. He can devote his entire attention to the choice and arrangement of words. In free composition， a student often gives up[7] a thought before he thinks enough about how to express it. In paraphrase， however， he must express the thought， and so he must think， think， think.[8]

Nor has paraphrase the disadvantage that translation offers. In translation， as in paraphrase， a student must express the thought， and so he must think， think， think. But then he often runs the risk of writing English after the Chinese pattern.[9] There is no such danger in paraphrase.

I wonder why paraphrase is even unknown in most Chinese schools where English composition is taught. It is well worth encouraging[10] as an exercise in composition.

Try to paraphrase the following short beautiful poem by Goldsmith.[11]

When lovely woman stoops to folly，[12]

And finds too late that men betray，[13] —

What charm[14] can soothe her melancholy，[15]

What art can wash her guilt away？

The only art her guilt to cover，[16]

To hide her shame from every eye，[17]

To give repentance to her lover，

And wring his bosom，[18] is — to die.[19]

[1]rendering：重述；表……之意

[2]amplification：扩大；补充

[3]Wordsworth’s famous line：华兹华斯之名句（按 Wordsworth即 William Wordsworth，威廉·华兹华斯，系英国诗人，生于1770 年，卒于1850 年，下文所引见其所著短诗，其第一行为“My heart leaps when I behold”。）

[4]lays down：奠定

[5]characteristics：特性

[6]individuality：个性

[7]gives up：放弃

[8]think， think， think：继续思考

[9]after the Chinese pattern：依中文样式

[10]encouraging：提倡

[11]Goldsmith：己见前注，下文所引见其所著小说 The Vicar of Wakefield

[12]stoops to folly：自降身份而作放浪之事

[13]men betray：男子乃引人入邪者

[14]charm：符咒；仙术

[15]soothe her melancholy：慰其忧心

[16]her guilt to cover = to cover her guilt

[17]every eye：众人之目

[18]wring his bosom：令其伤怀

[19]is — to die：惟有一死而已

COMPOSITION AND COMPOSITIONS

What do you mean when you say “I get good marks[1] for English composition”？ Of course， you mean you get good marks for writing compositions in English — and by compositions you mean short and somewhat formal pieces[2] written on given subjects， which range from kindness to little insects to[3] the aims of the League of Nations，[4] from how to keep fit[5] to how to make China the most powerful country in the world， from an account of how you spent last Sunday to a record[6] of the causes， the course，[7] and the consequences of the Great War.[8]

By composition， however， I mean something more than the writing of such compositions — school compositions. I， for one，[9] hold[10] that every student of English should learn — and be taught — to write the various types of practical English — the letter， the business contract， the IOU， the news item， the “ad”，[11] and the like，[12] It is a pity[13] that many students who get good marks for English composition cannot even write a letter ordering books or an “ad” for a position as clerk.

How long is it since you began to learn English composition？ Has it ever occurred to you[14] that composition should include something more than the writing of school compositions？

Reader， if you wish ever to make practical use of your knowledge of English， make up your mind to learn to write letters， business contracts， etc. Buy some books along these lines[15] and read them. A social or commercial letter is not half so delightful as a fairy tale[16] or a short story，[17] but it is more useful. A short “ad” for a position as clerk is far easier to write than a school composition on vocational education， but it cannot be written correctly by one who has never seen or learnt to write it — in spite of [18] the fact that one may be able to write fine composition on vocational education.

[1]marks：分数

[2]pieces：篇

[3]range from … to …：自……至……；包括……及……

[4]League of Nations：国际联盟会；国联 （成立于1920 年，以废除战争为目的，会址在瑞士日内瓦）

[5]fit：健康的

[6]record：记载

[7]course：过程

[8]Great War：第一次世界大战 （自1914年至1918年）

[9]for one：就我个人而言

[10]hold：深信；以为

[11]“ad”：广告；告白 （“advertisement”之缩写）

[12]and the like：以及其他

[13]pity：可叹之事

[14]occurred to you：为你所想到

[15]along these lines：关于此类

[16]fairy tale：神仙故事；童话

[17]short story：短篇小说

[18]in spite of：不愿

ON[1] ENGLISH LETTER-WRITING

One of my favourite books is William Cowper’s[2] Letters. I like his poems very much， but I like his letters much more. Cowper was a great English poet of the eighteenth century， but he was not the greatest English poet of that century， still less[3] of all time. He has， however， been called by more than one English scholar “the best of English letter-writers”， which means the one[4] of all English literary people[5] whose letters make the most attractive reading.

Cowper’s letters are not only attractive reading；they are masterpieces[6] of prose.[7] They are specimens of “the best words in the best order”. They are written with perfect clarity[8] and exquisite grace.[9] They are literature.[10]

If you wish to be acquainted with English letter-writing at its best，[11] you will do well to read at least part of Cowper’s letters. A good selection[12] of about five hundred pages has been published by Oxford University Press， England， with an introduction[13] by E. V. Lucas， one of the leading[14] English essayists[15] of today.

As I have said in the above， Cowper’s letters are literature. While I wish you could read them， I do not mean that you may learn English letter-writing by reading them. English letter-writing as a practical subject[16] is to be learnt， not from the literary letters of literary people， but from books specially written to teach the subject. I wrote such a book some years ago， and the Kaiming Book Company，[17] Shanghai， has published it. It is entitled A New English Letter-Writer[18] and contains chapters on the form[19] and language of letters and numerous classified[20] specimens， all specially written for Chinese students.

The best way to learn English letter-writing， however， is to correspond[21] with Englishmen or Americans. I hope my book teaches much regarding how to write to foreigners， but it would be of greater value to receive actual letters from foreigners and to read and study them.

[1]On：论及

[2]William Cowper：威廉·柯珀，英国诗人，生于1731年，卒于1800 年

[3]still less：更非；尤非

[4]the one：即此一个

[5]literary people：文人

[6]masterpieces：杰作

[7]prose：散文

[8]clarity：清澈

[9]exquisite grace：十分雅致

[10]are literature：果真是文学

[11]as its best：在其最佳之状态中

[12]selection：选本

[13]introduction：绪言；引言

[14]leading：主要的

[15]essayists：小品文学

[16]subject：科目

[17]Kaiming Book Company：开明书店

[18]A New English Letter-Writer：《新撰英文尺牍》

[19]form：形式

[20]classified：分类的

[21]correspond：通信

A FEW POINTS OF FORM IN LETTERS

The following is a letter that I wrote for a friend a few days ago （but the names and addresses have here been replaced with fictitious ones[1]）：

6489 Angel Street， Shanghai

May 2， 1934

Dr Herbert A. Cooper

Carlton Hospital

Peiping

Dear Dr Cooper：

Please accept my heartfelt thanks for the careful treatment[2] that you have given my sister， Miss Nancy S. Shen， during her recent illness. She got home this morning， and I found her in very good spirits.[3]

Yours very truly，

Francis J. Shen

This is a short and simple letter. But even in a short and simple letter there are possibilities of bad form.[4] Now let me call your attention to[5] a few points that I have often found neglected in letters from Chinese students of English.

1. “6489 Angel Street， Shanghai” is the address of the writer of the letter， and “May 2， 1934” is the date of the letter， Note[6] that the address comes first and the date comes next， and not otherwise.

2. Note that there is no comma after “May”， “May 2， 1934” may be written in other forms， such as “May 2nd， 1934”， but “May 2， 1934” is now the most popular form.

3. “Dr Herbert A. Cooper … Peiping” is called the inside address. The inside address is not usually given in friendly and familiar letters.

4. Note that there is a colon after “Dear Dr Cooper”. A comma will also do，[7] however.

5. “Yours very truly” is a common complimentary close[8] in business letters[9] and letters between slight acquaintances.[10] Note that only the first word begins with a capital letter， and that there is a comma after the phrase （the comma， however， may be omitted）.

6. “Francis J. Shen” is the full name of the writer of the letter， and is called the signature.[11] The signature may or may not be followed by a period.

[1]ones = names and addresses

[2]treatment：治疗

[3]in very good spirits：精神甚佳

[4]there are possibilities of bad form：有格式错误之可能

[5]call your attention to：使君注意

[6]note：注意

[7]will also do：亦可用

[8]complimentary close：表示敬意之结语

[9]business letters：事务信

[10]slight acquaintances：不甚相熟之人

[11]signature：签字

NEVER MIND[1] THE SHORTNESS

“I’m afraid it’s too short.” Often， when I have written or corrected a letter for a friend， he says this. My usual answer is “Never mind the shortness.”

Perhaps it is a general mistaken idea[2] among those who learn to write letters in English that a letter should not be so short as to contain only one or two sentences. Chinese letters， especially those of the older type，[3] are not usually so short. A short letter is often considered impolite. Consequently，[4] a letter in which politeness is regarded as of especial importance[5] may devote more than half of its length to words and phrases that are quite foreign to[6] its purpose. This， however， would be very bad in English letter-writing. In writing a letter in English， the important thing is to say what has to be said[7] and then stop.

Suppose you write a letter to ask a friend to come to you in the evening for a chat. Your letter may consist of only one sentence：“Will you please come over[8] for a chat this evening？”，[9] or two sentences：“I should like to have a chat with you. Can you call[10] this evening？” Short enough！ But never mind the shortness， when there is no need to be long.[11]

When you write to request a copy of a catalogue，[12] your letter may run：[13] “Please send me a copy of your catalogue.” When you contribute an article[14] to a magazine，[15] your letter may run：“I am enclosing an article entitled …， which I hope you will publish in your magazine.”

One-sentence and two-sentence letters are quite common. Below are some more examples：

1. This[16] is to inform you that I arrived here at ten o’clock this morning.

2. My father asks me to write to tell you that he will be glad to see you if you can call tomorrow afternoon.

3. I have to thank you for buying the pen for me. I have just received it and found it very good.

4. It is about three weeks since I heard from you last.[17] Are you too busy to write — even a line？

[1]Never Mind：不用过虑

[2]mistaken idea：错误之观念

[3]type：式；类

[4]Consequently：故；所以

[5]regarded as of especial importance：被视为特别重要

[6]foreign to …：无关于……

[7]what has to be said：须言之事物

[8]come over：来 （至此处）

[9]Will you please …？：君愿……否？（意即请君……也）

[10]call：访 （我）

[11]there is no need to be long：无长之必要

[12]catalogue：目录

[13]run：读如……，其词为……

[14]contribute an article：投寄一稿

[15]magazine：杂志

[16]This：此信

[17]last：上次；最近一次

THREE POPULAR SUPERSTITIONS[1]

Nearly every manual of English letter-writing that I have ever read says that a letter should not begin with the pronoun “I”. The fact， however， is that many， if not most，[2] of the letters in English that I have ever read do begin with this pronoun. I do not know who was the first man， or woman， to advise the avoidance of “I” at the beginning of a letter. Evidently the advice is based on the belief that one should not talk too much about oneself. In social intercourse[3] the too frequent use of “I” and “me” is admittedly bad. But I do not see any reason why[4] it is bad to begin a letter with “I”. And as it is very often necessary to do so， the observance[5] of the rule may result in the recasting[6] of a good sentence and the sacrifice[7] of naturalness.

So much for[8] the first popular superstition. Now let me talk about two others. These two others are perhaps peculiar to Chinese learners of English.

As you probably know， letters are often concluded with such conventional phrases[9] as “With best regards”，[10] “Thanking you for the trouble”， “Trusting[11] that you will find it convenient”. But not every letter must have one of such phrases， mind you.[12]

As you also probably know， there are some peculiar words and phrases in letters， especially in business letters， such as “favour” meaning letter， “advise” meaning inform， “herewith”，[13] “in receipt of yours”.[14] Such expressions should now be absent at least[15] from letters to persons not engaged in business. Many Chinese learners seem to have the superstition that they are indispensable[16] to good letter-writing.

[1]Superstitions：迷信

[2]if not most：纵非大半

[3]social intercourse：社交

[4]do not see any reason why …：不知何以……

[5]observance：遵守

[6]recasting：重作

[7]sacrifice：牺牲

[8]So much for …：上文乃关于……之言也

[9]conventional phrases：循例之语

[10]regards：问候

[11]trusting：相信

[12]mind you：请注意

[13]herewith：在内

[14]in receipt of yours：已收到君之信

[15]at least：至少

[16]indispensable：必要的

THE THAT-CLAUSE IN LETTERS

I wrote the following letter to Shanghai Power Company[1] for a neighbour of mine some time ago：

Address

Date

Shanghai Power Company

Nanking Road

Shanghai

Gentlemen：

I am much surprised to find in your bill[2] dated June 5 that the amount payable[3] for the current month[4] is as large as $8.35. As I have only five lamps in my house， I am inclined to suppose[5] that something is wrong with the meter，[6] and hope that you will send a man to examine it.

Yours truly，

Signature

Short as it is，[7] this letter contains three that-clauses. In letters， especially in business letters， that-clauses abound， and they form one of the distinguishing features of what we call epistolary style.[8]

If the first sentence in the above letter is rewritten as “Your bill dated June 5 shows the amount payable for the current month to be as large as $8.35， and I am much surprised to find it”， the sentence will be as correct and as clear， but will not read like a sentence in a letter. Suppose you write to a friend to announce something， you may write “I write to tell you that …”， or “I regret to inform you that …”， or “You will be interested to hear that …”， or “You will be astonished to know that …”. In beginning a reply， you may write “Replying to your letter， I am sorry to say that …”， or “I have received your letter， and in reply am glad to tell you that …”， or “Thank you for your letter， in reply to which I have only to say that …”.

Surely the that-clause is not always necessary. In making an announcement， you may often just make it without saying that you are making it；for example， you may write “I have passed the examination successfully” instead of “I hasten[9] to tell you that I have passed the examination successfully”. But the fact remains that in letters， especially in business letters， that-clauses are very common. I believe that it will help you in learning to write ordinary practical letters to commit to memory such that-clauses as those given above.

[1]Shanghai Power Company：上海电力公司

[2]bill：账单

[3]amount payable：应付之款

[4]current month：本月

[5]am inclined to suppose：疑；以为

[6]something is wrong with the meter：电表有问题

[7]Short as it is：此信虽甚短

[8]epistolary style：书信文体

[9]hasten：急；迫切

NOTES ON SOME COMMON WORDS IN LETTERS

There are a number of words especially common in letters. Below are some of those that seem to me to be often misused by Chinese learners of English， and I hope my notes on them will prove helpful to you：

1.“receive”. The action of receiving is confined to a single moment， so that a letter may have been received some time ago but may not have been received for some time. It is incorrect to say “I have received your letter for a long time”.

2.“pleasure”. It is very impolite to say “It is my pleasure to read your letter”；for this sentence implies that in reading your letter I do you a favour.[1] Say， instead， “It is a pleasure to me to read your letter”， or “I have the pleasure of reading your letter”， or “I take pleasure in reading your letter”.

3. “thank”， The verb is “thank”， and the noun is “thanks.” There are， as you must know， the adjective “thankful” and the noun “thankfulness”. But neither word should be used in letters.

4. “oblige”. To express gratitude， this verb must be used of the first person in the passive voice， as in “I shall be much obliged”. “I shall oblige” is nonsense.

5. “hope”. “I hope to see you” is correct；“I hope you will come” is also correct；but “I hope you to come” is incorrect. In plain English，[2] “hope” cannot take an object with an infinitive.

6.“introduce”. We can say “I introduce my friend Mr A to you”， but we cannot say “I introduce you my friend Mr A”. “Introduce” cannot take a double object.

7.“inquire”. This verb， unlike “ask”， cannot take a person as its object. While we may say “I ask him …”， we must say “I inquire of him …”.

8. “kindly”. “You are kindly requested to …” is a common but very bad expression. In the active voice， it would be “I kindly request you to …”. Well， I may be very kind in making the request， but I should not boast of [3] my own kindness.

9. “please”. “Please come”， “Come， please”， and “Will you please come？” are all correct， but “Please you come” is incorrect.

10. “reply”. While “answer a letter” is correct， “reply a letter” is incorrect. We should always say “reply to a letter”.

[1]do you a favour：加惠于君

[2]in plain English：明白言之

[3]boast of …：以……自夸

TWO FRIENDLY LETTERS

Some time ago I told a friend on the telephone that I would like to call on him on the following Sunday， and he promised that he would be at home. When I called however， I found that my friend was not at home. Upon my return I got a letter from him regretting his inability to see me on account of some urgent business and begging my pardon for breaking his promise.[1] I replied as follows：

Dear Mr —，

I am sorry that I did not see you when I called today， and that your letter did not come earlier.

As Englishmen say， promises are like piecrust， made to be broken.[2] Hence[3] I pardon you as requested.

Yours very sincerely，

Signature.

What do you think of my letter， reader？ Do you think it too simple？ Too short？ Too informal？[4] I don’t. I think it is just the kind that the occasion required. One should not be afraid to write simply and briefly when the occasion does not call for[5] a long letter. And between friends it is always advisable[6] to write in as informal a manner as one would talk with one’s friends.

A little wit or humour is often desirable in a friendly letter. Hence my reference to the English proverb.[7] I hope you will find something delightful in the following specimen letter[8] from my A New English Letter-Writer：

Dear —，

Once again[9] my memory， that treacherous servant，[10] fails me.[11] I simply cannot recall the house number of Mr O. Fowler， to whom I must write on Thursday at latest.[12] I am sure it is either 134 or 143， but am anything but[13] sure which. Perhaps your servant is always faithful to you？[14]

Ever your friend，

Signature

[1]breaking his promise：失其约言

[2]promises are like piecrust， made to be broken：许诺有如包子皮，制之盖为破之也 （英谚）

[3]Hence：所以

[4]informal：非正式的

[5]call for：需

[6]advisable：可行的

[7]Hence my reference to the English proverb：故我引用英谚

[8]specimen letter：书信举例

[9]Once again：又一次

[10]that treacherous servant：此不忠之仆人 （指易忘之记忆力）

[11]fails me：使我失望

[12]to whom I must write on Thursday at latest：至迟至星期四我须致函与彼

[13]anything but：大不；极不

[14]Perhaps your servant is always faithful to you？：君之仆人，或者常忠于君乎？（意即君之记忆力谅必常佳也）

ON THE EUROPEANIZATION OF THE CHINESE LANGUAGE[1]

As is well known to the general newspaper and magazine reading public，[2] the Chinese language， as employed by the “new” literary men， has during the past few years worn a European garment. Chinese words， but European grammar — gender， punctuation （dashes often extravagantly used）， lengthy sentences， long series of similar words and phrases， if- and though-clauses placed after their principal clauses — these are some of the things we find！

Those who advocate， or merely approve， the Europeanization of the Chinese language， generally regard themselves as — some of them are credited with being[3] — literary revolutionists. Revolution？ Is Europeanizing the Chinese language revolutionizing it？ I for one[4] do not doubt that it is only spoiling it.

However， I do not wish to be understood as being opposed to revolutionizing the Chinese language as it has been for centuries，[5] since wen-li[6] savours too much of classicism.[7] I am for，[8] not against，[9] a revolution， a thorough revolution， to be effected by judicious means. What are the judicious means？ This question does not concern us here， nor do I believe I am in any way prepared to discuss it. But I digress.

To return to[10] the Europeanization of the Chinese language. Why do I say spoiling？

Every language differs from every other as to[11] idiom， syntax， inflexion， and other matters of usage. As all translators and learners of translation are aware， an idiomatic phrase or a sentence form of one tongue，[12] literally translated into another，[13] will more often than not[14] sound awkward or ridiculous or even become utterly unintelligible， in which case the translation fails of its purpose.[15] With respect to[16] construction especially， so to speak，[17] what is very good English may be very bad French， and what is idiomatic in German may be far from being so[18] in Spanish. If one European language thus differs from another， so much the more[19] does the Chinese language differ from any European language.

Teachers of English （English is the most widely studied foreign language in China） often complain that their students sometimes use “Chinese English”， that is，[20] English sentences framed after Chinese patterns. As a matter of fact，[21] English is English and Chinese is Chinese， and， to the practised English eye or ear， “Chinese English” is far more abominable than slang expressions and even grammatical errors. Now， is the Chinese language English any more than the English language is Chinese？[22] Suppose here are two persons， A and B. If A does not in the least[23] look like B， is it possible that B should look very much like A？ Convinced that Chinese is no more English than English is Chinese， we need not further ask if Chinese is more French than it is English.

The Chinese language is essentially different from European languages. It follows that to Europeanize it is， speaking from the literary point of view，[24] nothing less than[25] to vitiate its original nature， to destroy its native beauty， in a word，[26] to spoil it.

Probably it will be objected[27] that the Chinese language should be Europeanized just because it is incapable of expressing Western thought. Incapable？ If Yen Fuh（严复）[28] and his followers could express Western thought in classical Chinese， there is no reason why we should not do so in modern Chinese （of course，[29] by “modern Chinese” I do not mean Europeanized Chinese）. If we cannot， it is merely because our command[30] of Chinese is not good enough. It is not the language itself， but the men who use it， that are incapable of expressing Western thought.[31] Good tools cannot make bad workers do good work.

Furthermore， even if Europeanized Chinese is [32] more capable of expressing Western thought than “Chinese Chinese”， how does the fact — if it is a fact — justify its use where nothing but Chinese thought is to be expressed？ Who on earth[33] will assert that it is also more capable of expressing Chinese thought？ Europeanized Chinese is， I dare say，[34] but a convenient invention of the third-rate[35] translators， who， either because of their poor Chinese or because they sometimes find in the Western works that they are translating such intricate and abstruse expressions as they know not what to make of，[36] still less how to turn into their mother tongue，[37] have created this linguistic anomaly[38] as an easy chair wherein they can sit， passing for[39] perfect experts in translation. It is actually less capable of expressing thought， be it Western or Chinese.[40] When one translates the sentence “A crowd is not company， and faces are but a gallery of pictures， and talking is but a tinkling cymbal， where there is no love” （from Bacon’s “Of Friendship”）[41] as “群众不是伴侣，面孔不过是一所图画陈列馆，谈话也不过是一个叮当作声的铜钹，在那没有爱情的地方”， it is doubtful whether the translator himself understands the sentence， and it is more than improbable that such a rendering[42] can ever help those who either are ignorant of English or find the original passage difficult of comprehension in getting at the central idea of the sentence.

As Europeanized Chinese is less readable than “Chinese Chinese”， so is it less read — and no wonder.[43] To say nothing of[44] the fact that whoever does not know any European language will necessarily find it， since it is， as hard to understand as it is tedious to read， there may be many who are masters of one or more European languages but who do not care[45] to read any Europeanized Chinese， for they cannot endure the jarring phrases and rambling sentences that are characteristic of the latter，[46] in which euphony， one of the most desirable qualities of all composition， is conspicuous by its absence.[47] Moreover， while not a few[48] Europeans in China can read and write Chinese， it is anything but possible[49] to find any one among them who should like， or ever be able， to read or write Europeanized Chinese.

At a time when many ambitious scholars who have the furtherance of Sino-foreign co-operation much at heart[50] are trying every means to interpret Western thought and culture to the Chinese and Chinese thought and culture to Westerners， is it not worth while[51] for them to reconsider this growing Europeanization of the Chinese language？

[1]on the Europeanization of the Chinese Language：论中国文之欧化

[2]as is well known to the general newspaper and magazine reading public：如一般阅读报纸及杂志之人所熟知者

[3]are credited with being：被人视为

[4]for one：就我个人而言

[5]I do not wish to be understood as being opposed to revolutionizing the Chinese language as it has been for centuries：我不欲被人认为反对改革数百年来之中国文

[6]wen-li：文理 （即文言文）

[7]savours too much of classicism：太多古典主义之意味

[8]for：赞成

[9]against：反对

[10]To return to：回至；再论及

[11]as to：关于

[12]tongue：文字；语言

[13]literally translated into another：直译成另一种文字

[14]more often than not：往往

[15]in which case the translation fails of its purpose：如是则翻译不能达其目的

[16]with respect to：关于

[17]so to speak：可说；未尝不可说

[18]far from being so （= idiomatic）：极不若本国文字

[19]so much the more：更

[20]that is：即

[21]As a matter of fact：在事实上

[22]is the Chinese language English any more than the English language is Chinese？ 中文之有如英文，果较甚于英文之有如中文乎？

[23]not in the least：毫不

[24]point of view：观点

[25]nothing less than：不亚于；竟为

[26]in a word：简言之

[27]objected：提出……作为反对之理由

[28]Yen Fuh （严复）：生于1854年，卒于1921年，福建人，字又陵，译书多种

[29]of course：当然

[30]command：谙习

[31]it is not the language itself， but the men who use it， that are incapable of expressing Western thought：不能表达西洋思想者，并非文字之本身，乃彼用此文字之人也

[32]is：果系；实在 （此字印作斜体，应重读）

[33]on earth：此语加重“who”之语气，无甚意义

[34]I dare say：我敢说

[35]third-rate：第三等的；劣等的

[36]such intricate and abstruse expressions as they know not what to make of：彼等所不能了解之复杂而深奥之句语

[37]still less how to turn into their mother tongue：更不知如何译入其本国文 （指中国文）

[38]linguistic anomaly：文字上之畸形物

[39]passing for：充作

[40]be it Western or Chinese：不论此思想为西洋的或中国的

[41]Bacon’s “Of Friendship”：培根所著之《论友谊》（Bacon 即Francis Bacon，英国文学家、哲学家、政治家，生于1561年，卒于1626年；所著论文58篇，每题皆以“Of ”开首，意为“论及……”也。）

[42]rendering：译语

[43]and no wonder：且亦不足怪也

[44]To say nothing of：即不言

[45]do not care：不欲

[46]the latter：指欧化之中国文

[47]conspicuous by its absence：显然无有的

[48]not a few：许多

[49]anything but possible：不可能的

[50]have the furtherance of Sino-foreign co-operation much at heart：关心于中外之合作

[51]worth while：有价值的

SOME FRAGMENTS OF PAI CHÜ-I’S POETRY CONCERNING WOMEN

Pai Chü-i（白居易）， alias[1] Pai Lo-t’ien（白乐天）， was one of the most eminent poets of the Tang dynasty.[2] He has been considered the greatest Chinese folk poet，[3] perhaps because he has appealed to the general reader[4] more than any other. His poetry， it is said， is often so easy and simple in style that even common old women， whose ignorance is of course proverbial，[5] may be expected to understand it.

Like most other poets， both Chinese and non-Chinese， ancient and modern， Pai Chü-i frequently touches upon[6] woman， probably a universal literary subject. True， most world woman poetry is neither more nor less than[7] love poetry， and Pai Chü-i has by no means[8] abstained from treating of [9] woman in connexion with things romantic.[10] But in the present article， I do not mean to refer to his pure love poetry， but rather to that part of his poetry — really only part of that part — from which we might get glimpses of his views on some points regarding woman. On the whole，[11] I am inclined to think， he did not see her — no doubt[12] at a time when the “old ethical teachings”[13] obtained[14] — very differently from the way in which we see her in this age of women’s movements.[15] He may not be appropriately called a feminist[16] in the modern sense of the word， yet he has， nevertheless， advocated the doctrine of feminism[17] in his own small way.

Now let me translate， somewhat freely， some passages from the poet into English by way of illustration.[18] Below is part of a long poem[19]：

Simply because the wife grew old，

The husband therefore too grew cold[20] —

This very fact，[21] ’twas said of yore，[22]

Saddened the ladies passing sore.[23]

* * *

Concerning you and me， alas！

Let’s see how things just come to pass[24] —

Unchanging stays my face yet now，[25]

But changing is your heart somehow.[26]

* * *

’Tis[27] better not to be， now mind，[28]

A person of the female kind；

For all her life， a woman’s fate

Depends upon her so-called mate.

The above shows Pai Chü-i’s sympathetic understanding of how a middle-aged woman will feel in the unsafe relation in which she stands with regard to her inconstant[29] husband. That the poet himself engaged to remain a lifelong equal of his life-partner may be seen in the following lines， quoted from his “To My Wife”（赠内）.[30]

“Living， we’re mates in the same room；

When dead， then dust in the same tomb” —

Thus say one friend to another may；[31]

Now you and I， so shan’t we say？

* * *

A scholar needy yet sincere，

I’ve newly married you， my dear！

We’ll keep our honour and poverty，

And age[32] together happily.

In a piece entitled “Woman’s Sorrows”（妇人苦），[33] the poet says：

After the husband is no more，[34]

The wife is widowed evermore —

As a bamboo is split by wind，[35]

So is the woman left behind.

* * *

A man， when of his wife bereaved，[36]

But temporarily feels grieved[37] —

For he is like a willow-tree

Which during spring in leaf will be.[38]

Here the similes[39] require a little explanation. By likening a widow to a bamboo that has been broken by the wind， the poet means that just as it cannot possibly become whole[40] again， so she cannot possibly enjoy happy wedded life any more — in other words[41]， she is not to marry for a second time；and by likening a widower to a willow-tree he means that just as the latter will bud once more when spring comes round， so will the widower get over[42] his grief in due time[43] and then marry again. These lines foreshadow the poet’s disapproval of the traditional custom of granting the widower but denying the widow the right of a second marriage.

With regard to the first of the notorious “seven conditions for putting away one’s wife”[44] — that of a woman’s not having borne a son after a certain period of time of marriage — Pai Chü-I expresses his disfavour as follows.[45]

After a man and woman mate，[46]

They’d[47] rather die than separate.

’Tis certainly unfortunate

　Always to be without a son，

But ’tis the duty of each mate

　To keep the union once begun.

Besides what I have translated， there is much in Pai Chü-i’s poetry that would warrant calling him a feminist-poet of the old school.[48]

[1]alias：别号

[2]Tang dynasty：唐朝

[3]folk poet：平民诗人

[4]appealed to the general reader：引起一般读者注意

[5]proverbial：人所共晓的

[6]touches upon：略论；论及

[7]is neither more nor less than：即是

[8]by no means：并不

[9]treating of：论述

[10]in connexion with things romantic：关于浪漫之事；涉及恋爱之事

[11]on the whole：就大体而论

[12]no doubt：当然

[13]old ethical teachings：旧礼教

[14]obtained：盛行

[15]women’s movements：妇女运动

[16]feminist：女权主义者

[17]feminism：女权主义

[18]by way of illustration：作为例证

[19]a long poem：按此诗名《新乐府太行路》，以下所译各句之原文为“古称色衰相弃背，当时美人犹怨悔。何况如今鸾镜中，妾颜未改君心改。……人生莫作妇人身，百年苦乐由他人。”

[20]cold：冷淡的

[21]this very fact：即此一事

[22]’twas （= it was） said of yore：古时云然

[23]passing sore：甚烈 （“passing”作“甚”字解，今惟诗中有之）

[24]how things just come to pass：现在情况若何

[25]unchanging stays my face yet now = my face stays unchanging yet now

[26]changing is your heart somehow = your heart is somehow changing

[27]’Tis = It is

[28]now mind：请君注意

[29]inconstant：不忠的；无恒的

[30]“To My Wife”：以下所译各句之原文为“生为同室亲，死为同穴尘。他人尚相勉，何况我与君？……我亦贞苦士，与君新结婚。庶保贫与素，偕老同欣欣。”

[31]thus say one friend to another may = one friend may say to another thus

[32]age：渐老

[33]“Woman’s Sorrows”：以下所译各句之原文为“妇人一丧夫，终身守孤孑，有如林中竹，忽被风吹折。……男儿若丧妇，能不暂丧情？应似门前柳，逢春易发荣。”

[34]is no more：已死

[35]wind：该词与下文“behind”压韵

[36]of his wife bereaved = bereaved of his wife

[37]but temporarily feels grieved = feels grieved but （= only） temporarily

[38]in leaf will be = will be in leaf

[39]similes：明喻

[40]whole：健全的

[41]in other words：易言之

[42]get over：不复为……所苦

[43]in due time：及时

[44]“seven conditions for putting away one’s wife”：七出之条

[45]as follows：以下所译各句见《和微之听妻弹别鹤操因为解释其义依韵加四句》一诗，各句之原文为“义重莫若妻，生离不如死。……无儿虽命薄，有妻偕老矣。”

[46]mate：结为夫妇

[47]They’d = They would

[48]old school：旧派

SOME LONGER ENGLISH LYRICS[1]

The Oxford English Dictionary[2] defines lyrics as “Short poems （whether or not intended to be sung）， usually divided into stanzas[3] or strophes，[4] and directly expressing the poet’s own thoughts and sentiments”. It seems to me that most English lyrics are of no great length，[5] and that nearly all Chinese lyrics are very short. But there are a number of famous English poems that are rather long and yet are of an essentially lyrical nature；though it may not be possible to distinguish lyrical poetry clearly from other kinds， and therefore some poems that are called lyrics by some may be called by others， with perhaps equal justice， elegies[6] or odes[7] or even ballads.[8]

The oldest longer English lyric that I have ever read is Edmund Spenser’s “Prothalamion”，[9] a nuptial poem of one hundred and eighty lines written in honour of the Ladies Elizabeth and Katherine Somerset， who were married at the same time， the title made by the author from the Greek. The subject-matter does not seem to lend itself to lyrical treatment，[10] but the poem has a personal tone and is unmistakably lyrical. It begins：

Calm was the day，[11] and through the trembling air

Sweet-breathing Zephyrus[12] did softly play —

A gentle spirit，[13] that lightly did delay

Hot Titan’s beams，[14] which then did glister fair；[15]

When I （whom sullen care，

Through discontent of my long fruitless stay

In princes’ court， and expectation vain

Of idle hopes， which still do fly away

Like empty shadows， did afflict my brain）[16]

Walk’d forth to ease my pain[17]

Along the shore of silver-streaming Thames.[18]

In mentioning “merry London， my most kindly nurse”[19] in the eighth stanza， the poet wrote：

Next whereunto there stands a stately place，[20]

Where oft I gainéd gifts and goodly grace

Of that great lord，[21] which therein wont to dwell，[22]

Whose want too well now feels my friendless case.[23]

John Milton，[24] the greatest English poet of the seventeenth century and usually regarded as the greatest non-dramatic poet England has ever had， wrote two great longer lyrics， “L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso”，[25] the former of one hundred and fifty-two lines and the latter of one hundred and seventy-six， the titles being Italian and meaning “the mirthful one” and “the serious one” respectively. Being companion poems，[26] they are almost identical in structure， and represent two complementary moods of the poet’s refined personality.

In “L’Allegro” is expressed the lighter mood of the highly cultivated person， that is， Milton himself， by a series of pictures calculated to produce a quiet pleasure. Having banished Melancholy[27] at the beginning， the poet goes on to describe Mirth， Laughter， Liberty， the song of the lark， the glory of the sunrise， and many other things. He implores the Goddess of Mirth to bring her companions in these lines：

Haste thee，[28] Nymph，[29] and bring with thee

Jest， and youthful jollity，

Quips，[30] and cranks，[31] and wanton wiles，[32]

Nods and becks，[33] and wreathéd smiles[34]

Such as hang on Hebe’s cheek，[35]

And love to live in dimple sleek，[36]

Sport that wrinkled Care derides，[37]

And Laughter holding both his sides：[38]

Come， and trip it[39] as you go

On the light fantastic toe；

And in thy right hand lead with thee

The mountain-nymph， sweet Liberty.

“Il Penseroso” expresses the pleasures of the pensive mood by a series of pictures balancing almost exactly those in “L’Allegro”. The moods of the two poems， however， are complementary rather than antagonistic.[40] The melancholy banished in “L’Allegro” is quite different from that welcomed in “Il Penseroso”， and the mirth of the former poem is quite different from the folly banished at the beginning of the latter. The poem interprets the mood of thoughtfulness， pensiveness， seriousness， rather than sadness or depression. Below are a few lines in which the poet addresses the Goddess of Melancholy：

Come， pensive Nun，[41] devout and pure，

Sober， steadfast， and demure，

And in a robe of darkest grain[42]

Flowing with majestic train，[43]

And sable stole of Cipres lawn[44]

Over thy decent shoulders drawn.[45]

Come， but keep thy wonted state.[46]

With even step，[47] and musing gait，[48]

And looks commercing with the skies，[49]

Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes.[50]

John Dryden，[51] the greatest contemporary poet of Milton， wrote a long lyric entitled “Alexander’s Feast，[52] or the Power of Music”， of one hundred and forty-one lines， which contains the oft-quoted line “None but the brave deserves the fair”.[53] The poem describes how the music of Timotheus， Theban[54] flute player， affected Alexander the Great. Its first stanza reads：

’Twas at the royal feast for Persia won

By Philip’s warlike son[55] —

Aloft in awful state

The godlike hero sate

On his imperial throne.[56]

His valiant peers[57] were placed around，

Their brows with roses and with myrtles bound，[58]

（So should desert in arms be crown’d）；[59]

The lovely Thais[60] by his side

Sate like a blooming Eastern bride

In flower of youth and beauty’s pride：[61] —

Happy， happy， happy pair！[62]

None but the brave，

None but the brave，

None but the brave deserves the fair！

Thomas Gray，[63] a great English poet of the eighteenth century， wrote several long lyrics， of which “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”[64] and “Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College”[65] appear to be the best known. As their titles indicate， one is an elegy and the other is an ode；but they are both lyrical in the sense that each turns upon a single thought， feeling， or situation.

The elegy is said to be the most popular single poem in English. It consists of thirty-two stanzas of four lines each， and a few of the stanzas are so well known as to have become household words.[66] Some of them are as follows：

The boast of heraldry， the pomp of power，

And all that beauty， all that wealth e’er gave，

Awaits alike th’ inevitable hour：[67] —

The paths of glory lead but to the grave.[68]

（9th stanza）

Can storied urn or animated bust

Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath？[69]

Can honour’s voice provoke the silent dust，

Or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death？[70]

（11th stanza）

Full many a gem of purest ray serene

The dark unfathom’d caves of ocean bear：[71]

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen，

And waste its sweetness on the desert air.[72]

（14th stanza）

“Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College”， in ten stanzas of ten lines each， is of a pessimistic tone. Its central idea is that there are many sorrows in store for[73] the happy youths at college， as can be seen in the sixth stanza：

Alas！ regardless of their doom

　The little victims play：[74]

No sense have they of ills to come

　Nor care beyond today：[75]

Yet see how all around’em wait

The ministers of human fate

And black Misfortune’s baleful train！[76]

Ah show them where in ambush stand

To seize their prey， the murderous band！[77]

　Ah，tell them they are men！[78]

The poem concludes with the now well-known epigram[79] “Where ignorance is bliss， ’tis folly to be wise”.[80] The last stanza is worth quoting：

To each his sufferings：[81] all are men，

　Condemn’d alike to groan；[82]

The tender for another’s pain，[83]

　Th’ unfeeling for his own，[84]

Yet， ah！ why should they know their fate，

Since sorrow never comes too late，

And happiness too swiftly flies？ [85]

Thought would destroy their paradise.[86]

No more；[87] — where ignorance is bliss，

　’Tis folly to be wise.

Along with Thomas Gray is often mentioned William Cowper，[88] another eminent poet of the eighteenth century. He wrote a long lyric of one hundred and twenty-one lines， called “On the Receipt of My Mother’s Picture”. The poet had lost his mother[89] at the age of six. It was not until 1790， when Cowper was nearly sixty， that Mrs Bodham， his cousin and early playmate， sent him the picture that inspired one of the most beautiful poems in English. In a letter to another cousin， he said：“I am delighted with Mrs Bodham’s kindness in giving me the only picture of my own mother that is to be found， I suppose in all the world. I had rather possess it than the richest jewel in the British crown，[90] for I loved her with an affection that her death， fifty-two years ago， has not in the least abated.”[91] The poem begins：

O that those lips had language！[92] Life has passed

With me but roughly since I heard thee last.[93]

Those lips are thine[94] — thy own sweet smile I see，[95]

The same， that oft in childhood solaced me；

Voice only fails，[96] else[97] how distinct[98] they say，

“Grieve not， my child， chase all they fears away！”[99]

The meek intelligence[100] of those dear eyes，

（Blessed be the art that can immortalize，[101]

The art that baffles Time’s tyrannic claim

To quench it，[102]） here shines on me still the same.

During the early part of the nineteenth century William Wordsworth[103] was the greatest English poet. He wrote several long lyrics， all of a speculative nature， of which I think “Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey”[104] and “Ode on Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood”[105] may be considered representative.

“Tintern Abbey” embodies in one hundred and fifty-nine lines Wordsworth’s theory of nature， his belief in the kinship between man and nature. It says that as a boy he loved nature merely for her beauty and for the joy of healthy outdoor life， but as he grew older he saw a deeper meaning in her. The following lines tell how he enjoyed nature during his boyhood：

… The sounding cataract

Haunted me like a passion；[106] the tall rock，

The mountain， and the deep and gloomy wood，

Their colours， and their forms were then to me

An appetite；a feeling and a love，

That had no need of a remoter charm，

By thought supplied，[107] nor any interest

Unborrowed from the eye.[108] …

As I have said， as the poet grew older， he saw a deeper meaning in nature：

… For I have learnt

To look on nature， not as in the hour

Of thoughtless youth；but hearing oftentimes[109]

The still， sad music of humanity，

Nor harsh nor grating，[110] though of ample power

To chasten and subdue[111] …

“Intimations of Immortality”， of two hundred and three lines， is Wordsworth’s boldest speculative poem. It treats chiefly of the happiness of innocent infancy as looked back upon[112] in later life. The first stanza is：

There was a time when meadow， grove， and stream，

The earth， and every common sight

　To me did seem

　　Apparel’d in celestial light，[113]

The glory and the freshness of a dream.

It is not now as it hath been of yore；[114] —

　Turn wheresoe’er I may，

　　By night or day，

　The things which I have seen I now can see no more.[115]

　　The rainbow comes and goes，

　　And lovely is the rose；[116]

　　The moon doth with delight

　Look round her when the heavens are bare.[117]

　　Waters on a starry night

　　Are beautiful and fair；

　The sunshine is a glorious birth；

　But yet I know， where’er I go，

That there hath passed away a glory from the earth.[118]

Of the several long lyrics by Percy Bysshe Shelley，[119] another great English poet of the early part of the nineteenth century， I like “To a Skylark”[120] and “Ode to the West Wind” best， both of which are among the few poems by which the poet is now remembered.

“To a Skylark”， in twenty-one stanzas of five lines each， is addressed to a skylark as it is singing unseen in the evening. It compares the bird to a poet， a high-born[121] maid， a golden glow-worm， and a rose. It praises the bird’s sweet and happy song， and asks what its sources are. The eighteenth and nineteenth stanzas seem to me the most beautiful part of the whole poem：

　We look before and after，

　　And pine for what is not；[122]

　Our sincerest laughter

　　With some pain is fraught；[123]

Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.

　Yet if we could scorn

　　Hate， and pride， and fear；[124]

　If we were things born

　　Not to shed a tear，[125]

I know not how thy joy we ever should come near.[126]

“Ode to the West Wind”， in five stanzas of fourteen lines each， is addressed to the West Wind as it is blowing in autumn， “a Wild Spirit， which art moving everywhere”.[127] Like many Chinese poems about autumn， it has a rather melancholy tone， as is shown in these lines：

Oh！ lift me as a wave， a leaf， a cloud！

I fall upon the thorns of life！[128] I bleed！

A heavy weight of hours has chain’d and bow’d

One too like thee — tameless， and swift， and proud.[129]

John Keats，[130] who died in 1821 at the age of twenty-five， wrote the most famous English poem about the nightingale，[131] which bird is an old and considerable subject in English poetry. His “Ode to a Nightingale” expresses the feelings aroused by the song of the nightingale in eighty lines of rare beauty and finish.[132] Listening to the song of the nightingale， the poet becomes very eager to follow the bird and forget

The weariness， the fever， and the fret

　Here，[133] where men sit and hear each other groan；[134]

Where palsy shakes a few， sad， last gray hairs，[135]

　Where youth grows pale， and spectre-thin， and dies；[136]

　　Where but to think is to be full of sorrow

　　　And leaden-eyed despairs；[137]

　Where Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes，[138]

　　Or new Love pine at them beyond tomorrow.[139]

“Already with thee！”[140] cries the poet， who imagines himself to be high up with the bird， where

… there is no light，

Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown[141]

　Through verdurous glooms and winding mossy ways.

There he thinks that

Now more than ever seems it rich[142] to die，

　To cease upon the midnight with no pain.[143]

At last， however， he comes to find that

　the fancy cannot cheat so well

As she is famed to do， deceiving elf.[144]

As the song of the nightingale fades away，[145] he asks：

Was it a vision，[146] or a waking dream？[147]

　Fled is that music：[148] — Do I wake or sleep？

The twelve longer English lyrics that I have mentioned above are all among my favourite poems. And I am of opinion[149] that they should be known and valued by every earnest student of English literature.

[1]Lyrics：抒情诗

[2]The Oxford English Dictionary：即 A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles，亦名 The Great Oxford Dictionary，英国牛津大学出版社出版

[3]stanzas：（诗中所分之） 节

[4]strophes：（诗中所分之） 节 （尤指不拘规则者）

[5]are of no great length：不甚长

[6]elegies：挽诗

[7]odes：颂诗

[8]ballads：歌谣

[9]Edmund Spenser’s “Prothalamion”：埃德蒙·斯宾塞的《婚诗》（斯宾塞系英国诗人，约生于1552年，卒于1599年）

[10]lend itself to lyrical treatment：可作抒情诗之材料

[11]Calm was the day = The day was calm：是日天朗气清

[12]Sweet-breathing Zephyrus：气息芬芳之西风神 （Zephyrus 系希腊神话中之西风神）

[13]spirit：鬼；神 （指西风神，亦即指西风）

[14]lightly did delay hot Titan’s beams：飘飘然使日光缓和（Titan 系日神名）

[15]glister fair：朗照

[16]whom sullen care， through discontent of my long fruitless stay in princes’ court， and expectation vain （= vain expectation） of idle hopes， which still do fly away like empty shadows， did afflict my brain：我久居于王者之朝廷而终不得志，空有愿望而终不得偿，愿望常消，有如泡影，以之忧伤憔悴，苦我精神。（“still”作“常”字解系古义；作者原拟以“whom”为下文动词的宾语，旋因相隔较远及音律关系复用“my brain”作“did afflict”之宾语，不合文法。）

[17]Walk’d forth to ease my pain：出游以舒我之忧

[18]silver-streaming Thames：流水如银之泰晤士河 （泰晤士河系英国之大河）

[19]“merry London， my most kindly nurse”：按斯宾塞生于伦敦，故称之为“my most kindly nurse”

[20]Next whereunto there stands a stately place：其左近有一壮丽之宅

[21]oft I gainéd gifts and goodly grace of that great lord：我恒得彼贵人之礼物与大恩 （“that great lord”指“Earl of Leicester”）

[22]which therein wont to dwell：彼昔日恒居其中 （“which”用以指人系古用法；“therein”意即“在彼壮丽之宅中”；“wont”作“惯于……”解，系诗中用字。）

[23]Whose want too well now feels my friendless case = whose want my friendless case feels too well now：斯人既逝，我孤独无友，伤感弥深

[24]John Milton：约翰·弥尔顿，英国诗人，生于1608年，卒于1674年

[25]“L’Allegro” and “Il Penseroso”：二字均来自意大利文，译为《欢乐颂》与《沉思颂》

[26]companion poems：成对之二诗；姊妹篇

[27]Melancholy：忧郁 （此字及下文之“Mirth”，“Laughter”，与“Liberty”均拟作人，故用大写字母开首）

[28]Haste thee：君其速来

[29]Nymph：山林水泽之仙女 （指快乐女神）

[30]Quips：巧语

[31]cranks：奇想

[32]Wanton wiles：妙计

[33]Nods and becks：点头与招手

[34]wreathéd smiles：盘绕之微笑

[35]Hebe’s cheek， Hebe：（希腊神话中之青春女神） 之颊

[36]dimple sleek = sleek dimple：光滑之靥

[37]Sport that wrinkled Care derides （= derides wrinkled Care）：藐视有皱纹的愁神的娱乐神 （忧愁者面上生皱纹，故云“wrinkled Care”；“wrinkled Care derides”谓“消愁”也。）

[38]Laughter holding both his sides：按住其身两旁之笑神 （大笑者不禁自按其腰，故云“holding both his sides”）

[39]trip it：作轻快之步

[40]complementary rather than antagonistic：相成而非相反

[41]pensive Nun：沉思之尼 （指忧郁女神）

[42]grain：颜色 （此义唯在诗中有之）

[43]Flowing with majestic train：飘有壮严衣裾

[44]sable stole of Cipres lawn：黑纱制之外套

[45]Over thy decent shoulders drawn = drawn over thy decent shoulders：披于君之美肩 （“decent”作“美丽”解系古义）

[46]wonted state：常有之壮严

[47]even step：平稳之脚步

[48]musing gait：作沉思状之步态

[49]looks commercing with the skies：与苍穹相交之容貌 （谓观君之貌而知君方在精神上与苍穹相交接也）

[50]Thy rapt soul sitting in thine eyes：君之狂喜之心灵，坐于君之目中 （谓观君之目而知君之心灵乃因得与苍穹相交而大乐也）

[51]John Dryden：约翰·德莱顿，英国诗人，生于1631年，卒于1700 年

[52]Alexander’s Feast：《亚历山大的宴会》（Alexander 即 Alexander the Great，古马其顿帝国国王）

[53]None but the brave deserves the fair：惟英雄应得美人

[54]Theban：古底比斯城的

[55]for Persia won by Philip’s warlike son：庆祝波斯被腓力普之好战之子所得 （波斯系亚洲西南部之王国，今名伊朗，“Philip’s warlike son”即 Alexander，按此人曾战克波斯国。）

[56]Aloft in awful state the godlike hero sate on his imperial throne：此如神之英雄 （指 Alexander） 赫然高坐于其王位之上 （“sate”系古字）

[57]peers：贵族

[58]Their brows with roses and with myrtles bound （= bound with roses and with myrtles）：诸贵族之额皆绕有玫瑰花与桃金娘

[59]So should desert in arms be crown’d：有战功者固应如是装饰也

[60]Thais：塔伊斯，古雅典之妓女，相传曾随亚历山大攻波斯，并使之焚波斯王宫

[61]In flower of youth and beauty’s pride：正在青年美貌之时

[62]happy pair：一对壁人 （指 Alexander 与 Thais）

[63]Thomas Gray：托马斯·格雷，英国诗人，生于1716年，卒于1771年

[64]Country Churchyard：乡间之教堂墓地 （此诗中所言之教堂墓地，大约指英国 Stoke Poges 村中者）

[65]Eton College：伊顿公学，英国著名学校之一

[66]household words：家常语

[67]The boast of heraldry， the pomp of power， and all that beauty， all that wealth e’er （= ever） gave， awaits alike th’（= the） inevitable hour = The inevitable hour awaits alike the boast of heraldry， the pomp of power， and all that beauty， and all that wealth ever gave：举凡门阀之夸耀，权势之煊赫，以及美貌与财富之所予，皆为不可避免之一刻所待。（谓世家权贵，美人富豪，终皆不免一死也。）

[68]The paths of glory lead but to the grave：荣誉之途，不过引人入墓耳

[69]Can storied urn or animated bust back to its mansion call the fleeting breath （= call the fleeting breath back to its mansion）？ 有铭刻之瓮与栩栩欲生之半身像，能唤飞去之气息，使之返于其室乎？（“storied urn”指贮尸骨而载有死者小传之瓮，“its mansion”指人体，全语意谓死者长已矣，虽藏其骨于瓮而为之立像，亦不能使之复生也。）

[70]Can honour’s voice provoke the silent dust， or flattery soothe the dull cold ear of death？ 荣誉之声，能呼起无声之遗骸乎？阿谀能慰死者之钝而寒之耳乎？（“honour’s voice”与“flattery”均指对死之赞词，全语意谓赞词亦不能使死者复生也。）

[71]Full many a gem of purest ray serene （= serene ray） the dark unfathom’d caves of ocean bear = The dark unfathomed caves of ocean bear full many a gem of purest serene ray：海洋中黑暗之深穴，藏有极纯粹之静明珍宝甚多（喻乡村间多湮没之人才也）

[72]Full many a flower is born to blush unseen， and waste its sweetness on the desert air：花之一现而不为人所见，且耗其芬芳于荒凉之空中者多矣 （亦喻乡村间多湮没之人才也）

[73]in store for：待

[74]regardless of their doom the little victims play：小小受害者（指群儿） 徒知嬉戏而不顾其命运 （意谓今日在校之群儿，将来必受厄运，顾彼辈不之知，唯有嬉戏而已。）

[75]No sense have they （= They have no sense） of ills to come nor care beyond today：彼辈毫不知将来之灾祸，且只知有今日，不知有明日也

[76]Yet see how all around’em （= them） wait the ministers of human fate and black Misfortune’s baleful train！ = Yet see how the ministers of human fate and black Misfortune’s baleful train wait all around them！ 但试观人生命运之诸臣与黑色恶运神之有害扈从，环伺于彼等 （指群儿） 之四周！

[77]show them where in ambush stand to seize their prey， the murderous band！ = show them where the murderous band stand in ambush to seize their prey！ 告彼等 （指群儿）以杀人党伏伺其受害人之处！（“murderous band”指世间种种恶势力）

[78]they are men：彼等乃人类 （既为人类，则终必逢厄运也）

[79]epigram：精警语

[80]Where ignorance is bliss， ’tis folly to be wise：无知为福，则智反为愚。

[81]To each his sufferings：各人有各人之灾祸

[82]Condemn’d alike to groan：命中注定皆须呻吟

[83]The tender for another’s pain：心肠柔弱者为他人之痛苦 （而呻吟）

[84]Th’ unfeeling for his own：心肠冷淡者为自己之痛苦 （而呻吟）

[85]Yet， ah！ why should they know their fate， since sorrow never comes too late， and happiness too swiftly flies？ 噫！悲哀之来也不迟，快乐之去也甚速，夫岂应如是而使彼等 （指群儿） 知其命运乎？

[86]Thought would destroy their paradise：思想将破坏其快乐世界 （谓若告彼等以将来终必受苦，则彼等将有所思虑，不复享无思无虑之快乐矣。）

[87]No more：不必多言矣

[88]William Cowper：威廉·柯珀，英国诗人，生于1731年，卒于1800 年

[89]lost his mother：丧母

[90]had rather possess it than the richest jewel in the British crown：宁愿有此而不顾得英王之冠中之最尊贵之宝玉

[91]I loved her with an affection that her death， fifty-two years ago， has not in the least abated：我爱伊 （指其母） 之情，今虽伊已死52年而未尝稍减

[92]O that those lips had language！ 但愿此双唇能说话！（像中之唇，当然不能说话。）

[93]Life has passed with me but roughly since I heard thee last：自我最后闻尔之言迄今，生活之于我，乃艰辛过去。（谓自母死后，我常在困苦中也。）

[94]Those lips are thine：此双唇乃属于尔者 （谓像中之双唇，酷似母生前之双唇也。）

[95]thy own sweet smile I see = I see thy own sweet smile：我 （在像中） 见尔之微笑

[96]Voice only fails：惟不发声 （谓像中之双唇，无异于母生前之双唇，所不同者，不能开口说话耳。）

[97]else：否则 （意即若像中之唇果能说话）

[98]distinct = distinctly

[99]Grieve not， my child， chase all thy fears away！ 儿其勿悲，一切恐怖，其悉驱之 （母亲慰儿之语）

[100]meek intelligence：柔和之会意状态

[101]Blessed be the art that can immortalize：彼能使之不朽之艺术，神其佑之。（“the art that can immortalize”指绘像，“immortalize”后省去指上文“intelligence”的“it”一词。）

[102]baffles Time’s tyrannic claim to quench it：抵抗时间之欲灭之之强求 （拟时间为人，故“Time’s”用大写字母开首；“baffles Time’s tyrannic claim to quench it”谓时间渐渐过去，则目中之光明，日见暗淡，但若将此光明绘于像中，即可不灭矣。）

[103]William Wordsworth：威廉·华兹华斯，英国诗人，生于1770 年，卒于1850 年

[104]Tintern Abbey：丁登寺，此寺在英国，建于12世纪，今已倾废

[105]Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood：回忆幼童时情景而得之心灵不朽之暗示

[106]The sounding cataract haunted me like a passion：大声之瀑布，萦绕我如热情然

[107]had no need of a remoter charm， by thought supplied（= supplied by thought）：不需由思想所供给之较远之美（谓山林已足使我大乐，不必假助于思想也。）

[108]nor any interest unborrowed from the eye：亦不需任何非假于目之兴趣 （谓只须目见山林，已得大乐矣。）

[109]oftentimes：时常

[110]Nor harsh nor grating：既不难听，亦不聒耳 （“nor … nor …”系古用法）

[111]of ample power to chasten and subdue：力能缓和而抑制（谓能使人心气和平也）

[112]looked back upon：回忆

[113]To me did seem （= did seem to me） apparel’d in celestial light：由我观之，一若围于上天之光明中也者

[114]It is not now as it hath been of yore：今则不同往昔矣

[115]The things which I have seen I now can see no more = I can now no more see the things which I have seen：往昔所见之一切，今不复能见矣

[116]lovely is the rose = the rose is lovely

[117]when the heavens are bare：当苍穹空虚之时 （意即当天空无云之时）

[118]there hath passed away a glory from the earth：世界上已失去一种光荣矣

[119]Percy Bysshe Shelley：珀西·比希·雪莱，英国诗人，生于1792年，卒于1822年

[120]Skylark：云雀

[121]high-born：出身高贵的

[122]pine for what is not：渴求不存在之事物 （于是乎苦矣）

[123]With some pain is fraught = is fraught with some pain：带有多少痛苦

[124]if we could scorn hate， pride， and fear：即使我们能不顾（意即抛弃） 种种怨恨、骄傲与恐惧

[125]Not to shed a tear：不落一滴之泪 （意即毫无悲伤之事）

[126]I know not how thy joy we ever should come near（= how we should ever come near thy joy）：我亦不知我们如何能得如尔所享之快乐也 （谓恐亦不能得如尔所享之快乐也）

[127]a Wild Spirit， which art moving everywhere：此语系原诗第13行

[128]fall upon the thorns of life：坠于人生之荆棘中 （意即生不逢辰）

[129]A heavy weight of hours has chain’d and bow’d one too like thee — tameless， and swift， and proud：重重之时刻已压倒如尔之一人，此人固亦不驯、迅速而骄傲者也。（谓我之不驯、迅速而骄傲，固正与尔同，奈因年华老大，豪气全消矣。）

[130]John Keats：约翰·济慈，英国诗人，生于1795年，卒于1821年

[131]nightingale：夜莺

[132]finish：完美；工致

[133]Here：在此世间

[134]hear each other groan：互听呻吟 （谓世人皆在困苦中也）

[135]palsy shakes a few， sad， last gray hairs：麻痹振动可怜之最后数茎灰发 （谓老人多病也）

[136]youth grows pale， and spectre-thin， and dies：青年人面色转成苍白，瘦削如鬼而死

[137]but to think is to be full of sorrow and leaden-eyed despairs：只须稍一思索，即觉悲伤群集，失望重重 （“leaden-eyed despairs”谓失望之人眼现铅色也）

[138]Beauty cannot keep her lustrous eyes：美人不能长保其明眸

[139]Or new Love pine at them beyond tomorrow：或则新爱不能思慕之逾明日 （谓美人即能保其美貌，但男子无恒，今日思慕某女，不久又移爱他女矣。）

[140]“Already with thee！” 此语见原诗第35行

[141]Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown：除被微风由天上吹来之光外

[142]seems it rich = it seems rich：此事似乎快乐

[143]To cease upon the midnight with no pain：夜半毫无痛苦而死

[144]the fancy cannot cheat so well， as she is famed to do， deceiving elf：人谓幻想系骗人之鬼怪，但亦不能令人深信也。（谓幻想自己已随夜莺飞入天空，终于自知其非真如是也。）

[145]fades away：渐渐消失

[146]vision：梦

[147]waking dream：梦想

[148]Fled is that music = That music is fled：彼音乐 （指夜莺鸣声） 已逝

[149]am of opinion：以为

HOW TO STUDY ENGLISH[1]

Ladies and Gentlemen，

I am very glad to have a chance to talk to you. I am well aware that I speak Chinese better than English. I have decided to speak English because I cannot speak Mandarin[2] and because many of you do not live in Shanghai or thereabouts and of course are not expected to understand the Shanghai dialect. I will take care to use very simple English and to speak slowly and distinctly.

My subject is “How to Study English”. This is a very large subject， and of course I cannot say much in a single lecture. I hope some of you have read a little book of mine that contains nearly all the advice that I can give on the subject. The only thing that one cannot learn from books is good pronunciation.[3] So I will devote the greater part of this lecture to some important points of pronunciation.

As you probably know， Englishmen and Americans do not pronounce English exactly alike. Personally[4] I prefer English pronunciation， I mean that used by educated people of the south of England， which may be called standard pronunciation. But I think that what Chinese learners of English ought to pay special attention to is not distinctions between English and American pronunciations but a few difficulties and mistakes peculiar to us Chinese.[5]

You must well know that words of two or more syllables have what we call accent；thus， in the word “English” the accent is on the first syllable， in the word “pronounce” the accent is on the second syllable， in the word “pronunciation” there are two accents， the primary accent on the a and the secondary accent on the nun. Accent is very important， and if you accent the wrong syllable， Englishmen or Americans will not understand what you mean；for example， if you say “Eng'lish” instead of “'English” or if you say “'pronounce” instead of “pro'nounce”， I don’t think any Englishman or American will understand you.

All this I think you know already. But it seems to me that many Chinese learners of English pronounce many common words without troubling to find out where the accent is. They are especially liable to put the accent wrongly on the second syllable；for example， they say “ar'tificial” instead of “arti'ficial”， they asy “com'plex” instead of “'complex”， they say “op'posite” instead of “'opposite”， they say “re'gister” instead of “'register”. Many more examples might be given. I think this is a very， very common fault among Chinese students， and I hope you will do your best[6] to get rid of [7] it， if you think you have it. By the way，[8] I do not think I know more than a dozen Chinese who pronounce the word “register” correctly. There are even men who have to say this word almost every day and yet mispronounce it.

Another very common fault is to pronounce many unaccented syllables too distinctly. As a matter of fact，[9] while all accented syllables must be pronounced distinctly， most unaccented syllables should be pronounced undistinctly. For example， /ə'bavt/， not /a：'bavt/， /'ri：sənt/， not /'ri：sent/， /sə'pɔ：t/， not /sʌ'pɔ：t/， the ter in “sister” is not the same as the ter in “term” because the former is unaccented.

After all，[10] you can learn good pronunciation only if you can pronounce the elementary sounds correctly. I often receive letters asking me to recommend some dictionaries that teach good pronunciation. The fact is that all dictionaries indicate correct pronunciations， but one who does not pronounce the elementary sounds correctly can learn nothing from dictionaries. They can learn marks， but of course marks are not sounds themselves.

There are perhaps many students who study phonetics[11] only by studying the phonetic marks. Of course， they cannot improve their pronunciation this way. I hope you are too clever to make this mistake.

Now I will call your attention to[12] a few sounds that seem to me to be poorly made by many Chinese students.

A. The a in such words as “bake”， “cake”， “date”， “fail”， “hate” is usually called the long a. Properly uttered， it is equal to /e/ plus /I/， /eI/. It is different from the a in “care”， “fair”， and “square”.

I. What we call the long i is /aI/. Thus， “by”， “die”， “night”， “sign”， “rice”.

O. What we call the long o is longer than as most Chinese say it. Thus， “boat”， “cold”， “hope”， “no”， “soul”， “told”.

OI. This sound is /ɔI/， not //plus/e/. Thus， “boy”， “coil”， “moist”， “oil”， “avoid”.

OU. This sound is /av/， not // plus /v/or/u：/. Thus， “about”， “bow”， “house”， “now”. Be careful to distinguish between “fond” and “found”， “don” and “down”.

L and R. These two sounds are quite different. /l/ is not trilled， that is，[13] when you make this sound， you must not turn the tip of the tongue backwards. But when you make the sound /r/， you must do it. Thus， “light”， “right”， “lead”， “read”， “lock”， “rock”.

TH. This has two sounds， one with voice and the other without voice. This you must know already. What I wish to emphasize is the fact that in making either sound you must put the tip of the tongue between the teeth. Thus， “think”， “through”， “that”， “these”.

As I have said above， if you want to acquire a good pronunciation， you must first learn to utter the elementary sounds correctly. This you cannot learn from books. When you have a chance to hear an Englishman or American talk， listen to him carefully. You may catch[14] one or two words only， but from the one or two words you may learn several elementary sounds. Of course， you cannot learn every word from foreigners. When you have learnt to make the elementary sounds correctly， then you may consult dictionaries with profit. Guess-work is dangerous；you must consult a dictionary when in doubt.

Now I will say something about reading. So far as I know， there are many， many Chinese students who read nothing but[15] literary works[16] of two or three hundred years old. The result is that they cannot even read an ordinary piece of news， nor write a short practical letter. It seems that English is the least modern subject in many schools. This is strange， but it is a fact. My advice to you is “Read present-day English， not necessarily literary works， but any and every form of present-day English”. You will learn much English from newspapers， magazines， advertisements， cinema[17] stories， public notices，[18] and many other things that are not books at all. You must not forget that your purpose is to learn the English language as it is used today，[19] not as it was used one or two hundred years ago.

Dictionaries are very important tools for students， and it is very gratifying to note that during the past ten or more years there have appeared quite a number of [20] good English-Chinese dictionaries. But I would advise you to use one or two English dictionaries， I mean English dictionaries with explanations in English， not in Chinese. Why？ Because there are many words and phrases that are very difficult to translate into Chinese exactly. I am sure that many of the so-called Chinese equivalents[21] as given in English-Chinese dictionaries are misleading；I do not mean that the compilers of the dictionaries are careless， nor that they do not have enough English；the fact is that many English words and phrases have no Chinese equivalents at all.

The best English dictionaries that I can recommend are The Concise Oxford Dictionary and The Pocket Oxford Dictionary.[22] The latest edition of these two books is that of 1934. I have used The Concise Oxford Dictionary for about fifteen years and I believe it has helped me a great deal.[23] It is but natural that when you use an English dictionary for the first time， you may find it very difficult. You must do your best to conquer this difficulty. I am sure that you will find it less difficult as you make more and more use of it.

In regard to[24] writing English， or in other words，[25] English composition， I hardly know what to say， for I really have so much to say that I cannot say all of it in this short lecture. I often receive letters asking me to recommend books on English composition. Of course there are many such books. But I am sure that such books can give very， very little help. For they teach you principles and rules of composition but the fact is that correct English is a matter of usage and not a matter of principles and rules. There are many people who have read several books on English composition， but who cannot write correct English. Well， I well remember what I wrote yesterday in a young man’s album， I mean a book of autographs；[26] I had to make a sentence on the spur of the moment，[27] and as I was thinking of the lecture I was to give today， I wrote “The most foolish way of learning English composition is by reading books on English composition”. Would you like to have this sentence in your album？

In my opinion， if you want to write correct English you must read widely and very， very carefully. You must study every word and every combination of words， and， above all，[28] you must commit complete sentences and even paragraphs to memory.[29] I believe that this is the only way to learn English composition.

There is an English proverb， “Practice makes perfect.”[30] You can never learn to write correct English if you do not practise much. I would advise you to keep a diary [31] in English， so that you may have something to say every day.

I have just spoken of the fact that many English words and phrases cannot be translated into Chinese exactly. The misunderstanding of words and phrases is the cause of many mistakes in the English written by Chinese students. So I would advise you to keep an English dictionary always with you and to consult it whenever you feel doubtful as to the meaning of a word that you are going to use. Of course， when great authors are writing， they do not refer to a dictionary continually， and I am told that many foreigners do not think favourably of Chinese clerks and secretaries who make constant use of dictionaries when writing English. But I think that there is no harm in this， and that more and more practice will eventually make it unnecessary.

I am sorry that I cannot touch upon[32] many points in this short lecture. For those of you who live in Shanghai， I shall give a series of lectures on the various aspects[33] of the study of English at the Y. M. C. A.，[34] Szechuen Road，[35] Shanghai， from July the first to July the sixth， beginning at half-past seven every evening. The lectures will be open to the public， free of charge.[36]

I think I should say talks rather than lectures， for I shall try to be friendly rather than formal. The general topics are speaking， reading， and writing， but I would be pleased to consider any question that may be raised；[37] for， after all， I am not a great man， nor a famous man but only a young man who is deeply interested in the study of English and who would like to advise and help those who need his advice and help.

Ladies and gentlemen， thank you very much for listening in.[38] Good-bye.

[1]How to Study English：此系1936年6月21日在上海亚美公司上海电台无线电广播之稿，当时所讲较此文为长

[2]Mandarin：国语

[3]pronunciation：读音

[4]Personally：就我个人而言

[5]peculiar to us Chinese：我们中国人所特有的

[6]do your best：努力

[7]get rid of：除去

[8]By the way：顺便说及

[9]As a matter of fact：在事实上

[10]After all：毕竟

[11]phonetics：语音学

[12]call your attention to：使君注意

[13]that is：即谓

[14]catch：听得

[15]nothing but …：除……外并无他物；只有……

[16]works：作品

[17]cinema：电影

[18]notices：告白

[19]the English language as it is used today：今日所用之英文

[20]quite a number of：许多

[21]equivalents：同等语；相当语

[22]The Concise Oxford Dictionary and The Pocket Oxford Dictionary：二书均系英国人H. W. Fowler与F. G. Fowler所合编，牛津大学出版社出版

[23]helped me a great deal：助我甚多

[24]In regard to：关于

[25]in other words：易言之

[26]autographs：手迹

[27]on the spur of the moment：立刻

[28]above all：尤要者

[29]commit … to memory：牢记……

[30]Practice makes perfect：熟能生巧

[31]diary：日记

[32]touch upon：谈及

[33]aspects：方面

[34]Y. M. C. A. = Young Men’s Christian Association：基督教青年会

[35]Szechuen Road：四川路

[36]free of charge：免费

[37]raised：提出

[38]listening in：听无线电广播

勤勉求真、诲人不倦的“Mr. Right”

——葛传椝先生侧影

葛公传椝，清光绪三十一年七月十七出生在今上海嘉定区马陆镇。他既非声名藉甚的留洋海归，亦非德高望重的名士夙儒，但《英语惯用法词典》[1]足以奠定他在学界的地位。

葛先生出身寒门[2]，除幼时其母家中传授《弟子规》等古代启蒙读物之外，接受学校教育仅八年半[3]（相当于现在的八年级），故戏称自己的学历“Brevity is the soul of wit[4]”。1922年，先生考入北洋政府上海电报传习所当报务生，工作之余，在商务印书馆函授学社学习英文，也是在那里，他第一次在同学手中看到了英国著名辞典编纂家 H. W. Fowler 与其兄长 F. G. Fowler 合编的The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English[5]，后来，他将该辞典中不少常用词逐一通读，此成其英吉利文字精进的“秘方”。1926年底，他通过自荐进入当时人才济济的商务印书馆英文部，初为人师，须不厌其烦地解答学员提出的各式问题，除了勤查《牛津英语大词典》，周越然[6]对其工作亦助益良多。后胡哲谋接任部长，安排他用汉语注解 Charles Cowden-Clarke 与 Mary Cowden-Clarke 兄妹合著的Tales from Chaucer[7]，这是葛出版的第一册详注本。在商务做编辑期间，他注释过的作品很多，从托马斯·卡莱尔、简·奥斯丁到奥利弗·哥德史密斯、埃德加·爱伦·坡，皆因“一·二八”[8]而付之一炬，不免遗憾，国难后，他转入世界书局工作。在商务的五年，他答疑解惑、广泛阅读，在编辑原清华大学 Frank A. Lombard 所注《皆大欢喜》（ As you like it）的过程中积累了丰富的素材，尤其是详细阅读了 H. W. Fowler 之A Dictionary of Modern English Usage[9]，这为他日后从事英语语法、惯用法研究奠定了基础[10]。

民国时期的英汉辞典，大多由上海商务印书馆出版，包括当时盛行的《（求解作文两用）英汉模范字典》（1929）和收词达到16万的《综合英汉大辞典》（1928）[11]。直到1936年，上海世界书局出版的《英汉求解作文文法辨义四用辞典》（A Daily Use English-Chinese Dictionary）才打破了商务“一家独大”的局面，蔡元培于扉页题字“择精语详”。据主编詹文浒前言，该书主要以《简明牛津辞典》为蓝本，历时五载，因释义精当，例证丰富而享誉海内外，印数甚众，葛是五位编者之一，其双语辞书编纂即始于《文法作文两用》[12]和《四用》[13]，自民国十八年以来，由葛注释、校订、出版的卷帙超过二十五种[14]，其中《怎样读通英文》（1935）与著名语言学家吕叔湘的《中国人学英文》（开明书店，1947）是当时最主要的两本英语入门读物。1941年秋，葛于上海大同大学[15]执教，继续在浩瀚的语言中遨游，细致入微地观察常用词的确义和用法的变化，享受蝇头小字所带来的乐趣。

1958年[16]，《英语惯用法词典》出版，这是葛先生在《英文用法大字典》之后潜心十六年，专为中国人学习英语而编写的词典，也是半个多世纪以来，国人解决各种“疑难杂症”的金针，甚至一度被奉为“圣经”。[17]十年文革，百废待兴，而葛主持的《新英汉词典》（A New English-Chinese Dictionary，1975，初版词目八万余） 却在“红色浪潮”中横空出世，编者中沪上英语名家齐聚一堂，而这本收录了大量英语新词新义的“私活儿”也取代之前流行的两本英汉词典[18]，成为新中国成立后，“洛阳纸贵”的中型英汉词典，惠泽几代学人和莘莘学子，当时《纽约时报》还报道了此事。其实早在六十年代初，他就决意编纂一部《英汉大词典》，且是独立研编而非以往编译自某部国外词典的做法[19]，终因教务冗繁，人手稀缺而止。多年后，葛见到陆谷孙先生之《英汉大词典》（上海译文出版社，1989），不禁提笔感慨。时代的局限使得《新英汉》有很多地方不尽人意，如序言所说“在《新英汉词典》编写中，我们注意收入反映我国社会主义革命和社会主义建设，特别是反映无产阶级文化大革命以来新生事物的词语、例句……”，编者之一吴莹亦撰文称“……词典编写组内当时所参考的词典也都比较旧，参考书刊则主要是国内出版的《北京周报》和《北京建设》等。”[20]，但《新英汉》的经验得失也为日后英汉词典的编纂提供了重要依据。

也许是对字句的痴迷，1963年始，先生在《英语学习》[21]上专辟“问答栏”，到《英语世界》[22]上的“识途篇”，再到1978年由复旦大学外文系主办的《现代英语研究》，他提携后学，时常点石成金，幽默又不失严谨 （虽有时吹毛求疵），他曾以I can only plead meticulous accuracy[23]为题指出英国前首相丘吉尔之《各尽所能》（Every Man to His Post）一文中的语法错误：

原文：‘… I thought it improbable that the enemy’s air attack in September be more than three times as great as it was in August， …’

葛评：‘Grammatically the “it” after “as great as” refers to “the enemy’s air attack in September”， but could “the enemy’s attack in September” ever have been in August”？ …’

而咬文嚼字、指谬析疑则更是葛的老本行，笔者从其《漫谈英语的准确表达》[24]中摘录一段可见一斑：

All the books are not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 （有的是我的，有的不是我的）。

Both （the） books are not mine.

这两本书并不都是我的 （一本是我的，一本不是我的）。

Every one of the books is not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 （有的是我的，有的不是我的）。

这三句都很浅易，英语民族的人们一般决不会误解。可是我们汉语民族的人，很可能会有人用了汉语的逻辑，想当然地把上面三句分别理解为“这些书都不是我的”，“这两本书都不是我的”和“这些书每本都不是我的”。

葛先生随时记录，随时比较，数十年如一日，他晚年寂寞，心里却不忘增订自己的《惯用法词典》，可惜《英语惯用法词典增编》直到1986年《现代英语研究》停刊为止，也只写到 Catch条[25]。

葛早年对Fowler兄弟的两本书[26]质疑指谬而名声大噪，后来“连美国人编惯用法词典都要写信过来向他请教”，此误传邓大任先生已补正[27]，但葛先生曾复信指出《简明牛津英语辞典》（COD）和《袖珍牛津英语辞典》（POD）的疏漏乃事实确凿，手中的《文集》即为佐证之一，另外，《葛传椝英文通讯集》（上海竞文，1939）中的一段文字也很清楚[28]：

Below are some omissions in COD；I should like you to see if the same omissions do not occur in ODME.[29]

Block. The sense of a building， as in “a block of flats”；this sense seems to be English rather than American …

Per capila（or “per caput”）， POD has it.[30]

又见1938年8月28日信笺：

college. This word unlike “university”， is often used in the abstract sense， as in “he did not like college：he preferred to stay at home”. I wonder if this use is not more American than English.

谈到英文写作，葛觉得“affected simplicity”（刻意简洁）不好，“simplicity”还是好的，要“与其繁也宁简”，还说以前有位年长他二十来岁、英译《老残游记》的朋友，动笔就写“in the course of the month of February”这样的长句，为什么不写“in February”呢？[31]葛先生“从简”，在《文集》以及《英语写作》中也是这么身体力行的。他在《英文刍言》（1939）里指出，中国的英语学习者有两个误区：

One is that of trusting to so-called Chinese equivalents as given in English-Chinese dictionaries， the other is that of studying explanations in articles on synonymous but neglecting the illustrative examples.

葛建议大家多读“用英文写”的书，少读“研究英文”的书：

I would advise all learners of English to devote more time to reading books in and less time to reading books on English … This is due to their ignorance of the fact that without wide and careful reading the mastery of English is impossible.

1992年7月29日，与词典打了一辈子交道的葛先生于上海华东医院病逝。[32]

《葛传椝英文文集》原分三集，1937年由上海中华书局出版，其中大部分文章曾在当时商务印书馆主办的《中华英文周报》、《英文周刊》上登过，第一集除了两篇专文，余皆为信札（有八篇是写给 A. J. Fowler 的，可见其治学之勤），第二集为随笔，第三集是英语杂谈和阅读体会。葛氏生前好友苏兆龙[33]序言：‘……君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊……’，此次上海译文出版社分别以《学习法》《随笔》《书信序言选编》重刊，读者幸甚。驹光如驶，鱼雁绝影，唯葛氏文风犹存，辄深神往。重执旧卷如遇故人，不胜今昔之感云。

郭奕

乙未年立秋于播州飘飞阁

[1]原名《英文用法大字典》，开始连载于《竞文英文杂志》（1937年创刊，1939年停刊），1942年由上海竞文书局集结初版，1948年增订再版，1958年重排再修订由时代出版社 （后并入商务印书馆） 出版，亦有台湾大东书局和香港商务印书馆 （1973） 版本，上海译文出版社后来又两次重印“简体字重排本”。

[2]据李荫华《永不知倦的酿蜜者——记英汉辞典编纂家葛传椝先生》（《辞书研究》，1983）。

[3]见葛传椝《我学习英语的点滴回忆（一）》（《外语界》，1986）。

[4]意为“言以简为贵”，语出莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》。

[5]一般略作COD，是最大、最权威的英语辞典——《牛津英语大词典》（Oxford English Dictionary，即 OED） 的重要补充，1911年初版，2011年8月出百年纪念第12版。

[6]当时的英文科科长。

[7]即《乔氏坎城旅谈本事》，1929年由上海商务印书馆出版。

[8]即1932年1月28日爆发的上海淞沪抗战，商务印书馆编译所毁于一旦。

[9]即《现代英语惯用法辞典》，1926年初版，2015年第4版。据《老生偶谈》（二）（《山东外语教学》，1984），葛第一次接触到这本英语用法鸿著是在1927年。

[10]葛第一本专论英文法的著作《英文文法精义》（1931）在开明书店出版。

[11]更早的如《英华合解辞汇》（1915，有增订本）以及《英汉双解韦氏大学字典》（Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary with Chinese Translation，1923），亦由上海商务印书馆出版。

[12]詹文浒、葛传椝、苏兆龙、朱生豪四人所著《英文文法作文两用辞典》（A Dictionary of English grammar and Composition，世界书局，1934） 早于《英汉四用》。

[13]以香港世界书局《四用》增订版（1966）cut 条为例，共收短语33条，例证多达65条。

[14]除《英文致友人书》（中华书局，1934） 外，《英文报读法入门》（1935），《英文学生日记》（1936），《英文改作详解》（1936），《全句注音英文会话》（1937），《中国故事英译详解》（1939），《现代英文选注》（第一、二集，1939），《英文尺牍全书》（1940），《日用英文习语》（1941），《短篇英文百篇》（与桂绍盱合著，1946），初中、高中、大学英文选三辑九册（1947–1948），《英文作文模范》（1947），《英文新字辞典》（1947），《（作文应用）正则英文简明字典》（1947），《中学英文名著选》（1948）等相继在上海竞文书局出版。

[15]当时有“北南开，南大同”的说法，1952年全国院系调整后，其文学院并入华东师范大学。

[16]一年后，新修订本出版，凡720 页，笔者抽查了 p.15–p.35共20 页的词条数，取平均数后估算出《惯用法词典》的词目约3480 个。

[17]见严锋“回忆《英语学习》”。1960 年，北京大学西语系英语专业的《英语常用词用法词典》（商务印书馆）出版，但影响远不如葛。

[18]即张其春、蔡文萦的《简明英汉词典》（1963）和郑易理、曹成修的《英华大词典》（1950）。至1979年，《新英汉》的发行量已达六、七十万册。

[19]见《英汉大词典》编辑细则（草案）（《外语教学与翻译》1960 年第1期）。

[20]见吴莹的“试评《新英汉词典》”（《辞书研究》，1979）。

[21]1958年在北京外国语学院创刊，是新中国成立后的第一本英语杂志。

[22]1981年创刊，中英对照本。

[23]原载《英语世界》（1987年第2期）。

[24]原载《现代外语》（1984年第4期）。

[25]上海译文1993年出版了葛《简明英语惯用法》（原名《正则英文用法字典》），但与《英语惯用法词典》不是一本书。

[26]即 A Dictionary of Modern English Usage 和 The King’s English。

[27]见《万象》，2005年11月号。

[28]葛于1937年4月24日给 A. J. Fowler 回信，A. J .Fowler 是 H. W. Fowler 的二弟，详见拙文《H.勒梅热勒阁下致葛传椝的信》（《英语世界》，2013年8月号）。实际上，与葛书信往来的远不止一位英语界人士，包括英国著名语言学家、辞典编纂家、The Universal English Dictionary 的编者 Henry Cecil Wyld 教授，葛在《英语写作》（原名《英文作文教本》）（1941）中特别提到过这本辞典。

[29]即 A. J. Fowler 当时正在编写的《牛津现代英语辞典》，因编者去世而未出版。

[30]《袖珍牛津英语辞典》有这个词，但《简明牛津英语辞典》却失收。

[31]见《改文杂谈》，原载《外国语》（1982）。

[32]《英汉袖珍词典》（江西教育出版社，1986）是目前能见到的最后一本主编署名葛传椝的英汉小词典。

[33]曾任上海商务印书馆英文编辑，著有《英汉汉英翻译举例》、《活用英文翻译法》等多种。

版权信息

书名：葛传椝向学习英语者讲话

作者：葛传椝

ISBN：9787532768790

关注微博：@数字译文

微信公众号：数字译文

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作者序

这本选集是从我自己的三本书——《葛传椝英文集(Ma nand Student)》(1937年)，《英文刍言(A Word to the Wise)》(1939年)和《英文作文教本(A Textbook of English Composition)》(1941年）——中选出论述学习英语的三十七篇文章编成的。每篇揭示一个或两个问题，大都是英语语法书和英语修辞学书所不曾讲到的。内容谈到什么读物是初学者需要读的和什么是不宜读的；怎样才能读得精细；说、读和写的关系；掌握常用词汇，选用语词和写的关系；以及拘泥语法条条，一概类推所造成的错误等问题。

各篇文字，重新校订了一遍，作了一些更动，并加汉译和注解。

葛传椝

一九八○年

序

康南海诗云：“译才并世数严林，百部虞初救世心。”洎今视之，几道、琴南蔚为两宗，而余独推几道为真救世者，盖其出文章之学，入经济之功也。

夫师夷者，师其道以自强。文之不明，其道安载？徒事华辞，何裨于时？然汉英两系，隔阻海山，交通声气，近世始然。窃谓语言者，质论之，分别品类，拟象万端也。凡人物事理、静躁实虚，莫不形诸声文，纳诸规式。民族既殊，类式迥别。其常也，我正而彼侧；其极也，彼亡而我存。吾邦之人多昧乎英文，固习之不同，非关愚智。然则强为拟对，何异将我之权衡，作彼之规矩乎？是故英文之道，讵可外索而他求耶？

昔余负笈龙门书院，初闻练川葛公之盛名，访其著作不得，聊窥豹于《新英汉词典》。旋得《英语写作》于福州路坊肆间，三年竟之。辛巳，同窗阜宁梁君赠余《英语惯用法词典》，不期月而毕，如梦久忽觉，尽弃曩之所学。因知葛公自成法度，澄湛朴素，显奥表里，在在见极。非霞客孤旅，历折逆，攀巉岩，念道途之多艰，接引后来，不能为也。微此遗书，余其懵然蒙昧句读间，自诩得之而去真愈远矣！

戊午兴化，重启国门，西向而学者亿兆。然于英文一科，或不求甚解，逞意为谈，斯大谬也！或困囿一隅，唯玄是务，斯大惑也！或妄传淫巧，贻误初学，斯大恶也！

如是，则译文社重梓葛公文集，匡弊害，扶风气，前承南海嘱望，复振侯官烈徽，必有造于吾邦之日新也。

乙未四月广陵后学朱绩崧顿首谨序

1 What to Read

Suppose you have two friends, A and B, both of whom have been learning English for some years. Both are clever young men, and both are anxious to acquire a good knowledge of the language. But now they have got very different results from the several years of study: A can write short letters and read easy news items but cannot read any passage¹ in the classics, while B can read here and there in some classics but cannot write short letters or read easy news items. Reader, which of your two friends would you prefer to be like?

I believe you would prefer to be like A rather than² B. You should³. I am sorry to find that among Chinese learners of English there seem to be more like B than like A. The trouble lies chiefly in⁴ what is read.

Well, what do you read? I mean to ask what you take as your chief reading matter. Is it a novel or a volume of essays written more than a hundred years ago? If it is, my advice to you is to change it for something else. Your chief reading matter must have been written far less than a hundred years ago, a few weeks ago if possible, must have been written in simple English, and must have been written by an Englishman or an American.

I am not going to give a list of books here. But I think I have to make some general remarks. Your chief reading matter need not be a literary masterpiece⁵. Nor need it be written by a famous author. A volume of short pieces of narration or exposition is better than a novel or some long argumentative essays⁶.

You must have noted that in the above I have talked about only what your chief reading matter should be. You have a book or two for your chief reading matter. You should also read something else, which may be a little more difficult, but which still had better not⁷ be a classic of more than a hundred years ago.

NOTES

1.passage (一段)文字

2.rather than 而非

3.should=should prefer to be like A rather than B.

4.lie chiefly in … 主要在于……

5.literary masterpiece 文学著作

6.argumentative essays 议论文

7.had better not … 最好不……

2 Reading Aloud

Do you ever read aloud? The chances are¹ that you do not now read aloud. You used to read aloud when you were a small child. But you ceased to read aloud at fourteen or fifteen. If I’m not mistaken, among certain boys and girls late in their teens² reading aloud is now a lost art³.

You may protest, “What⁴ if I were to read aloud, when I do not read aloud and yet understand?” Well, much would come of⁵ reading aloud. Reading aloud helps you to learn by heart, and learning by heart is essential to all who aim at writing well. Reading aloud helps you to cultivate good pronunciation and good intonation, and good pronunciation and good intonation are essential to all language learners. Reading aloud helps you to discover certain beauties of language that you may fail to see in your silent reading. Unless you read aloud, you cannot learn to write naturally or to appreciate literature.

And I think that it is partly because they do not read aloud that many Chinese learners of English cannot read poetry. A certain English man of letters⁶ has said that a poem is not a poem until it is read; and evidently by “read” he means read aloud. A poem is⁷ something to read aloud. There are many poems that you may learn to like and enjoy by reading them aloud, though you find several difficult points in them. On the other hand, you may understand a poem merely as you understand a piece of matter-of-fact prose⁸, if you do not read it aloud. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe⁹, for example, is a very beautiful poem. But its beauty depends largely upon its wonderful music. Below is its first stanza. Try first to read it silently as though it were a business letter¹⁰ and then to read it aloud, and compare the two impressions.

“Once upon a midnight dreary¹¹, while I pondered, weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore¹²,

While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping

As of¹³ someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door.

“Tis¹⁴ some visitor”, I muttered, “tapping at my chamber door:

Only this and nothing more.”

NOTES

1.The chances are … 大约……

2.their teens 从十三到十九岁时

3.lost art 不复存在的艺术

4.What 有何效果

5.come of … 由……而来

6.man of letters 文人

7.is 实在是

8.matter-of-fact prose 乏味的散文

9.“The Raven” of Edgar Allan Poe 埃德加·爱伦·坡(1809–1849，美国诗人)的《乌鸦》。raven指“乌鸦”，“The Raven”是追念已死情人的诗。

10.business letter 事务信

11.midnight dreary=dreary midnight 凄凉的半夜

12.many a quaint and curious volume of forgotton lore 许多讲述旧闻的奇书

13.As of=like that of

14.Tis=It is

3 Can You Read Englishmen’s English?

I have heard several people tell me that in reading English-language newspapers they find Chinese news far easier to read than foreign news, and that they are often at a loss to discover¹ the meaning of even a very short piece of news from some little town in England or America. I also feel that there are many who can read without much difficulty articles written by Chinese on Chinese subjects but cannot read those written by Englishmen on English subjects.

The trouble with such people is that while they have acquired a knowledge of the English language, they have not learnt much about the English mind², the English character³, the English life, the English traditions, and so forth. They have not got, so to speak⁴, the spirit of the language. Imagine a man who knows several thousand Han characters⁵ and a great deal of Han syntax and yet is entirely ignorant of the Chinese mind, the Chinese character, etc. Do you think this man could read even the ordinary Han-language newspaper and general literature in Han?

Reader, do you think you are among those who know English but as a rule find great difficulty in reading Englishmen’s English? I am afraid you are. I would advise you to read as much as possible in general English literature and to cultivate the habit of thinking in English.⁶ I would also advise you to read some concise history of England and commit to memory⁷ every bit of knowledge about English life and thought that you may find in reading or study.

NOTES

1.are often at a loss to discover 往往不能看出

2.mind 心理状态

3.English character 英国的民族性格

4.so to speak 可以这样说

5.Han characters 汉字

6.cultivate the habit of thinking in English 养成以英语思维的习惯

7.commit to memory 记入心中

4 What Kind of English?

There are English English, American English, Scotch English, Irish English, and other kinds of English. Examples: “half past three” is English English, “half after three” is American English, “bairn”¹ is Scotch English, “I am after having my dinner”² is Irish English, “nor gold nor silver”³ is archaic English, “Thank you for same”⁴ is business English,⁵ and “I don’t know nobody here”⁶ is vulgar English.

Advanced learners of English ought to pay attention to such details, and I think they will find it very interesting to go into the subject⁷. But every learner of English is not an advanced one⁸. I call it foolish of one to⁹ attempt the subject before one has acquired the ability to speak, read, and write English as it is used by the average educated Englishman or American of today. One has yet much to learn before one can be properly called an advanced learner of English so long as one cannot read the news¹⁰ or cannot express oneself¹¹ intelligibly to Englishmen or Americans in speaking and writing.

By “English as it is used by the average educated Englishman or American” I mean¹² everyday idiomatic English. It is practical, if that means actually used, but not if that means specially adapted to Chinese psychology¹³. I have to mention this because it seems that many Chinese students have the mistaken idea¹⁴ that while what is written about things Chinese¹⁵ is practical. What is written about things foreign¹⁶ is not practical. The fact is, however, that one cannot master English—that is, what I call practical English—by reading about things Chinese only. I would advise those who are in the habit of¹⁷ confining themselves to¹⁸ Chinese news when reading newspapers in English, to give up¹⁹ the habit.

NOTES

1.bairn: child

2.I am after having my dinner. 我刚吃完饭。

3.nor gold nor silver 既无金，又无银

4.same=the same 此物

5.business English 商业英语

6.I don’t know nobody here=I don’t know anybody here=I know nobody here.

7.go into the subject 研究这个问题

8.every student of English is not an advanced one=not every student of English is an advanced one.

9.call it foolish of one to … 认为……是愚蠢的事

10.the news 每天的新闻

11.express oneself 表达自己的意思

12.By “English as it is used by the average educated Englishman or American” I mean … 我所说“一般受过教育的英国人或美国人所用的英语”就是……

13.specially adapted to Chinese psychology 特别合于中国人的心理

14.mistaken idea 错误的观念

15.things Chinese 中国的事物

16.things foreign 外国的事物

17.in the habit of 有……的习惯

18.confining themselves to 自限于

19.give up 放弃

5 The Question of Background

If your reading in English is not confined to¹ things written by Chinese about Chinese life—I hope it is not²—you must often meet with difficulties quite apart from³ the meanings of words and phrases. These difficulties arise from what I call for want of a better term⁴ the background⁵ of English, which I believe deserves the attention of ⁶ all learners of English—all⁷ but those who do not care to⁸ read anything in English that is not written by Chinese writers on Chinese subjects.

By the background of English I mean⁹ the sum total¹⁰ of all points other than¹¹ linguistic that are quite natural to those born to the language and brought up on it¹². For example, the name Grub Street—a London street (now called Milton Street) formerly much inhabited by¹³ writers of small histories, dictionaries, and temporary poems and so giving rise to¹⁴ its use as an epithet referring to¹⁵ literary hackwork.

The subject is indeed a very large one. It includes history, geography, mythology, the Bible, characters and facts in fiction, proverbs, customs, games and sports, superstitions, and other things. And in order to understand fully the works of any author, one needs to possess as much knowledge of these things as he does. This is practically impossible¹⁶ with the average Chinese learner of English.

What I think must be considered carefully¹⁷ is what parts of the background of English are more important and how they may be made available to Chinese learners so as to enable them to read general literature in English. Would you like to acquire such a knowledge?

NOTES

1.is not confined to 并不限于

2.not=not confined to things written by Chinese about Chinese life.

3.apart from 与……无关的

4.for want of a better term 因为没有更好的名称

5.background 这是“call”的补语

6.deserves the attention of 值得……的注意

7.all=all students of English.

8.do not care to … 不想……，不喜欢……

9.By the background of English I mean … 我所说的英语的背景就是……

10.sum total 总量

11.other than 不是

12.those born to the language and brought up on it 那些生来就用英语并在成长过程中使用英语的人们

13.inhabited by 被……居住的

14.giving rise to 致成

15.referring to 关于

16.practically impossible 几乎不可能的

17.What I think must be considered carefully 我认为必须仔细考虑的

6 Books on English and Books in English

“On” and “in”—well, there is often a wide difference between these two little words. A book on English is one that deals with the English language; a book in English is one that is written in the English language. The former may be written in Han, French, German, or any other language; the latter may deal with any subject under the sun¹.

Books on English are intended for learners of the language²; and it is very gratifying to note that far more such books are now available than fifty years ago or more. I myself have written several, and am glad to say that I often receive letters telling of their usefulness to learners of English.

But I must give a word of warning here. Language is not an exect science, nor a mere matter of principles, rules, exceptions, definitions, formulas, and diagrams. Books on English are helpful, but no one can master English by reading such books only. Perhaps the very fact of³ there being so many such books today accounts for the frequency with which we meet with people who can talk and write about English without being able to talk and write it⁴. This is due to their ignorance of the fact that without wide and careful reading the mastery of English is impossible.

I would advise all learners of English to devote more time to reading books in English and less time to reading books on English. What book in English are you reading? Is it a book of stories or essays or travel sketches? Or is it a biography or a diary or merely a textbook of history or geography? Well, if you happen to spend your days and nights on books on English, it is time you acted on my warning⁵.

NOTES

1.under the sun 在天下

2.the language=the English language

3.the very fact of 恰恰是……这个事实

4.account for the frequency with which we meet with people who can talk and write about English without being able to talk and write it. 就是我们时常碰到能在谈话和写作中讲述英语但(他们自己却)不能讲英语和写英语的原因。

5.it is time you acted on my warning 现在你该实行我的警告了 (注意“it is time…”中动词用过去式)

7 An Easy Sentence to Study

Before reading on¹, please consider the following short sentence: “They cannot see enough of each other”.

What do you think this sentence means? Well, please consider and consider before reading on.

This is a very easy sentence, indeed, and I think every English or American schoolboy or schoolgirl understands it. In fact, it occurs in a story-book for children. But I have been asked to explain it by a young man who, so far as I can see², has been learning English earnestly for years and has acquired a fair knowledge of grammar and a fairly large vocabulary.

Why, after all, did the young man fail to understand this short sentence? My answer is that it is because its way of expression³ does not have its corresponding way in our own language. There are many ways of expression in English that have no corresponding ways in Han. These are puzzling to most Chinese learners of English.

The above-quoted sentence means that the two persons love each other so dearly that though they see each other often, they think they see each other but⁴ seldom. By the way, the of in the sentence also deserves attention.⁵ “See enough of each other” means see each other often enough. “See much of you” means see you often.

In your reading you will do well to pay special attention to those ways of expression for which you do not find corresponding ways in Han. This will help you both in reading and in writing. I am sorry to find that many Chinese learners do not realize the importance of doing this, with the result that⁶ while they can read English by Chinese authors and write long and tolerably grammatical essays, yet they may not be able to understand an Englishman’s social letter thoroughly or write a short paragraph in purely idiomatic English.

NOTES

1.reading on 读下去

2.so far as I can see 据我所知

3.way of expression 表达方式

4.but=only

5.deserves attention 应该注意

6.with the result that … 结果是……；以至于……

8 What Does “Would of Come” Mean?

Once a young man found the expression “would of come” in a magazine and asked me to explain it.

Do you understand it, reader? Have you ever seen such expressions as “would of come”, “should of gone”, “might of done”, “could of learnt”, “ought to of known”?

You may or may not have seen such expressions. They are not uncommon in short stories and dramas. But grammars do not usually mention them. So I am afraid that you do not understand them. You think they are simply ungrammatical.

Well, they are ungrammatical; but there are many ungrammatical expressions that are worth knowing¹. You ought to learn to use English correctly. But you ought as well² to learn to understand the incorrect expressions that are common among Englishmen or Americans. It is partly owing to their ignorance of such incorrect expressions³ that many Chinese learners can parse and analyse well without being able to read a single page in an English-language magazine published in England or America.

Substitute⁴ “have” for the “of” in each of the abovementioned expressions, and you will understand what it means.

“Why is ‘of’ used instead of ‘have’?” you may ask. Well, the mistake is but⁵ natural. In “would have”, “should have”, etc., the “have” is unemphatic and is often pronounced like the unemphatic “of”. On the other hand, the “have” in “I have it” is emphatic, and such a sentence as “I of it” is never spoken or written.

Need I add that “of” used instead of “have” is always wrong and that you should not use “would of”, “should of”, etc. in your own writing. There are many mistakes that are common among Englishmen or Americans but from which we Chinese are absolutely free. As I have said, you ought to understand them, but you ought not to adopt them as ornaments of style⁶.

NOTES

1.are worth knowing 有知道的价值

2.as well 也

3.partly owing to their ignorance of such incorrect expressions 一部分因为他们不知道这种不正确的表达方式。

4.Substitute … 以……代入

substitute “have” for the “of” 以“have”代这个“of”

5.but=only

6.ornaments of style 文体上的装饰品

9 “More Presently”

A friend of mine called my attention to¹ what he called a mistake in a biographical sketch² of a literary man: the name of a person followed by “of whom more presently”. In fact, there is no mistake at all in the expression. “More presently” is elliptical³ for “more will be said presently”. My friend did not know this idiomatic ellipsis, having apparently taken “more” to be the adverb modifying “presently” and thought a subject and verb ought to have been supplied so as to make a complete clause.

Equipped with⁴ a knowledge of grammar, Chinese learners of English are apt to think they are quite able to read general literature without much difficulty so long as they have a good dictionary within reach⁵. What is more⁶, they are too ready to⁷ dismiss as wrong⁸ any combination of words that does not seem to him to be capable of grammatical analysis⁹.

Important as grammar is¹⁰, there are many turns of expression¹¹ that are generally considered blameless English though they are not quite defensible¹² from a narrowly grammatical point of view¹³. So that¹⁴ the mastery of English grammar in its narrow sense does not enable one so much as¹⁵ to read English intelligently.

When you come across¹⁶ in good writing any construction that you do not find grammatical, I would advise you to note it down instead of¹⁷ calling it a mistake, and to see if ¹⁸ you will meet with a similar one¹⁹ in your reading. You will²⁰ very soon, perhaps, and then you will most likely understand the construction.

NOTES

1.called my attention to 使我注意

2.biographical sketch 传略

3.elliptical 省略语的

4.Equipped with 备着……；有了……

5.within reach 在附近的；可以取用的

6.What is more 而且

7.too ready to … 太易于……的

8.dismiss as wrong 把……看作错误而置于不顾

9.capable of grammatical analysis 可能在语法上分析的

10.Important as grammar is 虽然语法是重要的

11.turns of expression 结构；说法

12.defensible 可被辩护的

13.narrowly grammatical point of view 狭隘的语法观点

14.So that 因而

15.so much as 即使

16.come across 碰到

17.instead of 而不

18.if=whether

19.one=construction

20.will=will meet with a similar one in your reading

10 Double Negatives¹ in Current English

An English editor of a famous classic says in his notes to the book: “Double negatives in Elizabethan² grammar amount, not to an assertion as they do³ in current English, but to⁴ an emphatic negation”.

It is true that in Elizabethan literature, a double negative amounts to an emphatic negation, rather than to an assertion, as the man in the street⁵ may think. Thus, “I don’t want nothing” is only an emphatic form for I don’t want anything or I want nothing. This sounds⁶ quite unreasonable, but it is the fact.

What I wish to tell you is that this unreasonable fact is not peculiar to⁷ Elizabethan literature. It exists at present. Double negatives used as an emphatic assertion may be said to be found in current English, unless by current English is meant English current among educated people alone⁸.

Have you ever found such double negatives in your reading, reader? I believe you have, if you have read a modern novel or drama or short story. I do not want you to use this unreasonable construction (I want you to talk and write like an educated person). But I believe every learner of English should know it.

There are several English usages that every learner of English should know, but which many, or even most, Chinese learners do not know, because these are not to be understood by means of mere logic⁹ and are not to be found in ordinary grammars¹⁰. The double negative is one of them.

NOTES

1.Double Negatives 双重否定。

2.Elizabethan 英国女王伊丽莎白一世(1533—1603)时代的。(现在英国女王的名字也是伊丽莎白，一般称作伊丽莎白二世(1926 — )。

3.do=amount to

4.amount, not to …, but to … 不等于……而等于……

5.man in the street 一般人

6.sounds 听来似乎

7.peculiar to ……所独有的

8.by current English is meant English current among educated people alone 所说的当代英语就是指只通行于受过教育的人们中间的英语

9.are not to be understood by means of mere logic 并非只靠逻辑就能被理解

11 About the Study of Grammar

I have been told by more than one bookseller that, here in China, so far as books on English are concerned¹, grammars sell better than other kinds of books except readers² and dictionaries. And it seems to me that nearly every Chinese who learns English at all reads a grammar. I myself am a serious student of grammar; I have read I cannot tell how many English grammar books, by Chinese, English, American, Japanese, Danish and Dutch authors, and am always on the look-out for new ones³.

The object of this article, however, is to advise you not to devote too much time to the study of grammar. I study grammar for grammar’s sake⁴, but I do not think every student of English should do so. You study English in order to be able to make practical use of it. This object is not to be attained by mere study of grammar. I do not even think I should now be able to write such simple English as that of this book if I had read nothing but grammars.

Grammar tells you some general rules, some exceptions to rules, and perhaps some idioms. But the correct use of English is not a mere matter of such⁵. For example, grammar has what is called the double object, as in “He gave her a pen”; but it would be wrong to say “He introduced her a friend”, in which “her” and “friend” seem to form the double object. The fact is that “introduce” cannot take the double object; but this point is not to be learnt from grammar but only from careful reading. Many Chinese students write sentences that might be justified⁶ by one grammatical rule or another but are certainly wrong.

I believe you have already read a few grammars, and probably have spent a great deal of time on the subject, though you may not now be able to write anything—say⁷ a short letter—grammatically perfect. Grammar may help you to use English, but only to a certain extent⁸. Do not look on the study of grammar as⁹ all or nearly all that you have to do in order to master English. Careful reading and constant practice are far more important.

NOTES

1.as far as books on English are concerned 就论述英语的书而论

2.readers 读本

3.new ones=new grammar books

4.study grammar for grammar’s sake 为语法而读语法

5.such=general rules, exceptions, and idioms.

6.justified 视为正当

7.say 例如

8.to a certain extent 到某种程度

9.look on … as … 把……看作……

12 Knowing Just Enough Grammar to Go Wrong¹

Many Chinese learners of English know just enough grammar to go wrong. “It seems² I have seen such an expression several times”, they say to themselves³, “but surely it is not grammatical. I must alter it so as to make it grammatical.” Their narrowly grammatical conscience⁴, however, often causes them to change idiomatic English into unidiomatic English. For example, they may find “The boy acts contrary to his parents’ wishes” ungrammatical, and to make the sentence grammatical change the “contrary” into “contrarily”—with the result that⁵ the sentence would not read like an English sentence to an Englishman. It is true that from a narrowly grammatical point of view, the adjective “contrary” here should be replaced with the adverb “contrarily”. But idiom has decided that the adjective is the word required here, and idiom there is no disputing⁶. (Perhaps it would be better to say that here idiom insists on the use of the adverb “contrary” instead of the adverb “contrarily”.)

There are several forms of expression that are purely idiomatic and do not admit of⁷ grammatical analysis. The word “busy”, for example, may be used immediately before a gerund looking like a participle, as in “He is busy writing letters”.

In your reading, reader, take care to note down⁸ those idiomatic constructions that you do not find grammatical enough. Commit them to memory and try to use them in your writing. Above all⁹, remember that you may happen to be one of those who, as I said in the above, know just enough grammar to go wrong.

You must not think, however, that idiom and grammar are always incompetibles. What is idiomatic is far more often grammatical than ungrammatical. I mean simply that not every idiomatic construction is grammatically explainable, nor is every strictly grammatical construction idiomatic.

NOTES

1.Go Wrong 错误

2.It seems=It seems that

3.say to themselves 想

4.narrowly grammatical conscience 对于语法的狭隘的观念

5.with the result that … 结果是……；以至于……

6.idiom there is no disputing=there is no disputing idiom 不能反对习语

7.admit of 可能；容许

8.note down 记下

9.Above all 尤要者

13 The Language Is the Main Thing

When you read a story in English, do you read it for the story or for the English? This is a question that is not so foolish as it may seem¹. For I find that many learners of English pay far more attention to the story than to the English. They read and enjoy and for a long time afterwards remember the story, but do not care to² study the use of words and phrases in it. For instance, they keep in the memory³ how the mystery of the eternal triangle⁴ is solved, but do not remember a single sentence in the story and cannot tell⁵ what preposition is used before or after a certain word in the speech of a certain character.

Of course, it is all right to read and enjoy and remember a story, and so long as one wants to know the story only, one needs not bother about⁶ the language. But the case⁷ is quite different with⁸ a learner of English, I mean a student of English as distinguished from⁹ a student of stories or what is called the general reader.

Whatever a learner of English reads, he should, in my opinion, regard the language as the main thing. For instance, on reading this preceding sentence, besides¹⁰ understanding its meaning, he should notice such points as the concessive use of “whatever”, “in my opinion”, “regard … as …” and “the main thing”. In this way, he does learn some English¹¹ though what he reads may happen to be otherwise¹² uninteresting or uninstructive. It may safely be said that this is a far better way of learning English composition than to read and consider the so-called principles of the subject¹³.

Incidentally¹⁴, I would advise teachers of English to question their pupils on points of diction¹⁵ and construction as well as on facts and thoughts.

NOTES

1.is not so foolish as it may seem 并不像它表面的那样愚笨

2.do not care to … 不肯……

3.keep in the memory 继续牢记

4.eternal triangle 三角恋爱

5.cannot tell 说不出

6.bother about 关心于；因……而费心

7.case 情况

8.with 关于

9.as distinguished from 跟……分别的

10.besides 除了……以外

11.does learn some English 确实学到些英语

12.otherwise 在别的方面(指在文字以外的方面)

13.subject 科目(指英语作文)

14.Incidentally 顺便说一句

15.diction 语词的选用

14 Logic and Usage

What do you think is the real meaning of the often quoted line from Shakespeare¹ “All that glisters is not gold”?² The strict sense would be that glistering proves a substance to be not gold. But the real sense is that glistering does not necessarily³ prove a substance to be gold. In other words, the proverb should, logically speaking⁴, be “Not all that glisters is gold”.

But Shakespeare wrote in the illogical way, and this illogical construction is not now uncommon. For example, if you hear an Englishman say “All my friends do not know the Han language”, you must not understand him to mean that all his friends are ignorant of ⁵ Han. He may very well imply that most of his friends can speak and write it very well.

This is indeed illogical. There are Englishmen who do not use this construction and fall foul of⁶ those who do⁷, Probably it will pass away in time⁸, for logic has time on its side⁹. But it is natural and idiomatic English today, and I think every learner of English should know it.

There are a number of other illogicalities in English that are quite idiomatic. Please read the first sentence of the second paragraph of this article again. Perhaps you will think that “is not now uncommon” is not so good as “is now not uncommon” would be. According to logic, indeed, “not” ought to modify “uncommon” instead of “now”. But according to idiom “is not now uncommon” is more usual.

With the word “only”, illogical and idiomatic constructions are also common. An Englishman may say “I only arrived a few days ago”, when he means that he arrived only a few days ago.

As I have said, logic has time on its side. But how many years the English language will take to become a perfectly logical speech¹⁰!

NOTES

1.Shakespeare 指William Shakespeare (1564 —1616)莎士比亚，英国剧作家和诗人

2.“All that glisters is not gold” 一切闪光的东西不都是金子

3.does not necessarily 未必；不一定

4.logically speaking 按照逻辑讲

5.ignorant of the Han language 不懂汉语

6.fall foul of … 与……争吵

7.do=use this construction

8.will pass away in time 将来总须消灭

9.has time on its side 有时间为它支持；日后它必将胜利

10.But how many years the English language will take to become a perfectly logical speech! 但英语要经过多少年才能成为一种完全合于逻辑的语言！

15 Something Unnatural

H.G. Wells¹ calls Sinclair Lewis’s Babbitt² “one of the greatest novels I have read for a long time”. I do not think Wells has ever believed it possible for his remark to be misunderstood³. Indeed, it is very simple and very clear, and perhaps no Englishman or American would ever think it capable of a meaning other than⁴ the real one⁵. But a Chinese learner of English, who reads and writes English carefully enough, has recently told me of his imperfect understanding of that remark. “Why ‘for a long time’?” he said. “I simply cannot⁶ understand what Wells thinks the greatness of a novel has to do with⁷ the length of the time he has spent reading it.”

The learner misunderstood Wells’s remark. As a matter of fact, the critic does not mean to say how much time he has ever devoted to reading any novel. The remark might be paraphrased⁸ as: “For a long time past⁹ I have read many novels, some of them being great ones. Babbitt is one of the greatest.”

The learner, being a careful one, doubted whether he was somehow twisting¹⁰ Wells’s words. I should fancy¹¹ that he would have eventually got the right meaning even if he had not asked me.

Chinese learners of English often misunderstand or fail to understand a group of simple words put together in a simple way. My advice is to stop to think again¹² when you find something unnatural in an expression. That something is perhaps not in the expression itself but in your interpretation of it.

NOTES

1.H. G. Wells 指Herbert George Wells (1866 —1946)，英国文学家

2.Sinclair Lewis’s Babbitt Sinclair Lewis (1885 —1951)是美国文学家，Babbitt是章回小说

3.believed it possible for his remark to be misunderstood 以为他的话有被人误解的可能

4.other than ……以外的；非……的

5.one=meaning

6.simply cannot 竟然不能

7.what Wells thinks the greatness of a has to do with … Wells 以为一本章回小说的伟大跟……有什么关系

8.paraphrased 解释

9.for a long time past 在过去的长时期以内

10.twisting 曲解

11.fancy 认为

12.stop to think again 停下来再想

16 A Good Knowledge of Bad English

So many books and persons profess to¹ teach good English! But none profess to teach bad English. I am almost sure that anyone who should advertise lessons in bad English would be called crazy and would get no pupils at all. Nor do I think you have ever thought of learning it. Perhaps you think that bad English is not worth learning, and that the English of the average Chinese learner of the language² is bed enough without his ever making any effort to learn to be bad. Well, please read the following story:

An old Negro approached a white man in a Southern town and asked: “Marse Tom³, you ain’t⁴ seed⁵ anything of dat⁶ ole⁷ mule of mine, is you?”⁸

“Why⁹ no, Henry, I haven’t seen that mule. Have you lost it?”

“Well, Ah¹⁰ doan¹¹ know ef ¹² Ah’ve¹³ lost him or not, but he is shore¹⁴ “nuff¹⁵ gone.”

“Henry, I think the best way you can find that mule would be to put a want ad in the paper¹⁶ for him.”

“Shucks!¹⁷ Dat wouldn’t do no good¹⁸, Marse Tom.”

“Why not?”

“Why, Marse Tom, you all know puffickly¹⁹ well dat dat mule cain’t²⁰ read.”

Do you understand the Negro’s speech without the help of my notes? If not²¹, you have not got much knowledge of bad English, and I hope you realize²² that as a student of English you ought to get more of it.

By bad English I mean²³ English as used²⁴ by English-speaking persons who somehow do not use good English. It may be called illiterate²⁵ or uncultured English. It is not found in formal writing, but is very common in modern fiction and drama and in the writing and speech of uneducated English-speaking persons. It is quite different from your English, which, if it is bad, is bad in the Chinese way, so the speak²⁶.

Bad English means bad grammar, bad spelling, bad usage, and bad pronunciation. All these things form²⁷ an interesting and useful study. Without a good knowledge of these one will miss much in modern literature and will fail to understand any uneducated Englishman or American one man has occasion to²⁸ have anything to do with.

NOTES

1.profess to … 自称为……

2.the language 指英语

3.Marse Tom=Master Tom. Tom先生

4.ain’t=haven’t=have not

5.seed=seen

6.dat=that

7.ole=old

8.is you?=have you?

9.Why 语助词

10.Ah=I

11.doan=don’t=do not

12.ef=if=whether

13.Ah’ve=I’ve=I have

14.shore=sure

15.nuff=enough

16.put a want ad in the paper 在报纸上登征求广告

(“want”是noun，ad=advertisement)

17.Shucks! 瞎说！；呸！

18.wouldn’t do no good=would not do any good=would do no good 没有用

19.puffickly=perfectly

20.cain’t=can’t=cannot

21.If not=If you do not understand the Negro’s speech without the help of my notes.

22.realize 认识到

23.By bad English I mean … 我所说的不好的英语就是……

24.as used=as it is used

25.illiterate 不识字的

26.so to speak 可以这样说

27.form 构成

28.has occasion to … 有……的必要

17 Reading Dictionaries

At the very sight of ¹ this title you would perhaps say to yourself², “Only fools would do that. I know better³.” But I have read of⁴ several famous men who did⁵ read dictionaries. They gloried in⁶ dictionaries and read them with the delight that some travellers find in guidebooks and timetables. Robert Browning⁷, the English poet, when he determined to make poetry his career⁸, read every word in Johnson’s dictionary⁹. John Ruskin¹⁰, the English author, wrote to the editor of the Great Oxford Dictionary¹¹ that he had read and studied every word in its first volume. Henry Thomas Buckle¹², the English historian, once solemnly stated¹³ that a certain dictionary was “one of the few dictionaries I have read through with pleasure”.¹⁴

These men were not fools! I can hardly say¹⁵ that they could not have been the masters of English they were¹⁶ had they not been dictionary readers, but I am sure that reading dictionaries is, after all, not so foolish as you might think.

I myself have never read any dictionary through; no, not¹⁷ even those¹⁸ that bear my name¹⁹ on the title-page. But, I used many years ago to read through many articles on common words in the Concise Oxford Dictionary. I found that very helpful in the mastery of common words and phrases.

Such common words and phrases can by very easily picked up²⁰ by English-speaking boys and girls. But they are not likely to be acquired by Chinese students without any special effort in this respect²¹. The reading of articles on common words in dictionaries is no doubt²² a great aid.

NOTES

1.At the very sight of 一见到

2.say to yourself 想

3.know better 是聪明些(而不做那个)

4.read of 读及

5.did… 确实曾经……

6.gloried in 把……当作可乐的

7.Robert Browning (1812—1889) 英国诗人

8.make poetry his career 把诗歌作为他的事业

9.Johnson’s Dictionary Johnson指Samuel Johnson (1709—1784)，英国文学家，他编过一本大词典

10.John Ruskin (1819 —1900) 英国文学家

11.Great Oxford Dictiouary即An English Dictionary on Historical Principles.

12.Henry Thomas Buckle (1821—1862) 英国历史家

13.solemnly stated 郑重地说

14.one of the few dictionaries I have read through with pleasure 我所曾经快活地读完过的若干词典中的一本

15.can hardly say (几乎)不能说

16.could not have been the masters of English they were 不会是他们那样精通英语的人

17.not=I myself have never read through

18.those=those dictionaries

19.bear my name 有我的名字

20.picked up 随时学得

21.in this respect 在这一方面

22.no doubt 无疑

18 Make Your Own Dictionary

I must thank very sincerely the many readers who have written to inquire about my Dictionary of English Usage¹. It was always going to² be published, and it has not yet been published. This is partly because of my occupation with³ other literary matters; in fact⁴, I work on⁵ the book only off and on⁶. But the chief reason is that being a conscientious⁷ learner of English I am always careful to avoid slipshod⁸ or perfunctory⁹ work. I take notes¹⁰ for the book almost every day—both from reading and from the questions about usage that I am asked by persons interested in the subject¹¹. Very often a seemingly simple question reminds me of¹² some important point that I might not otherwise¹³ think of. I hope that the delay in publication will be compensated for¹⁴ by the richer and better contents of the book.

Now I think that every learner could make his own dictionary of usage. He could keep a notebook in which to record, in alphabetical¹⁵ order, such points of usage as he might find of particular interest to him. Such a book would serve him¹⁶ as a constant companion to composition, though many things in it might seem quite dull or useless to others.

And I think that every learner could make his dictionary of usage as large as the sum total¹⁷ of the books he reads. I mean that he might make a usage index¹⁸, so to speak, to those books. For a particular point he would have to record only the book, the page, and the line concerned.¹⁹ He would some day²⁰ be able to point to his library and say “This is my dictionary of English usage”. What a great work!²¹

Indeed, I wish I could²² find time to do this. And I believe that I could thus lay the foundation of ²³ a live²⁴ and original²⁵ dictionary—quite different from those²⁶ based on nothing but²⁷ one or more dictionaries.

NOTES

1.written to inquire about my Dictionary of English Usage 给我写信，问到我的《英语惯用法词典》(这篇短文是一九三八年写的，当时我的《英语惯用法词典》正在编著中)

2.going to … 将要……

3.occupation with 忙于；从事于

4.in fact 在事实上

5.work on 著作

6.off and on 时作时辍地；断断续续地

7.conscientious 认真的

8.slipshod 精心的；不精细的

9.perfunctory 敷衍了事的

10.take notes 作札记；作笔记

11.interested in the subject 关注这件事的

12.remind me of 使我想起

13.otherwise 否则(就是说“要是没有人提醒我”)

14.compensated for 补偿

15.alphabetical 依照字母次序的

16.him 这个字印作斜体，该重读

17.sum total 总量

18.usage index 惯用法索引

19.concerned 有关的

20.some day 在将来的某天

21.work 著作

22.I wish I could 我但愿我能；我恨不能

23.lay the foundation of 立……的基础

24.live 活的

25.original 创作的

26.those=dictionaries

27.nothing but … 只有……；在……以外没有什么

19 Make Another Dictionary of Your Own

Some time ago I suggested that every learner of English could make his own dictionary of usage. I have since thought of another kind of dictionary that every student of English could make for his own use. For want of a better name¹, I think we may as well² call it a topic³ dictionary. I mean a dictionary in which a certain number of topics are arranged in alphabetical order and useful phrases and sentences about each topic are grouped together. For instance, under the topic “books” may be grouped phrases and sentences having to do with⁴ books but not necessarily containing the word “book(s)”.

This can be done by reading and making notes. It is not necessary to copy the phrases and sentences. It is enough to jot down⁵ the page number and the line number, and give one or two words as a hint. In this way, any book may be turned into a topic dictionary by merely providing it with a topic index. And several such dictionaries may be turned into a fairly complete topic dictionary.

What I call a topic dictionary does not seem ever to have appeared in this country before. I wonder why nobody has even thought of compiling one. It would be of great use to all who write English. For we are often at a loss for⁶ the right expression about a certain topic, and an ordinary dictionary cannot meet our need.

I wish I could have time to carry out my own suggestion!

NOTES

1.For want of a better name 因为没有一个更好的名称

2.may as well 不妨

3.topic 题目

4.having to do with 跟……有关系的

5.jot down 录下

6.at a loss for 想不着……的；想不起来……的

20 More about What to Read

Since it is with a view to¹ learning composition that you read, and since it is in present-day English prose that you ought to learn to express yourself, what you read must be present-day English prose. Expressions in common use a hundred years ago may not be so at the present day. Likewise, expressions in common use in verse² may not be so in prose.

The term “present-day English prose”, however, requires qualification³ here. Since it is in standard English that you ought to learn to express yourself, what you read must not contain too much slang, whatever significance one may attach to the word. Again, since it is things in everday life that you ought to learn to write about, what you read must not be of a technical character⁴.

One limitation more⁵. What you read must be fairly easy⁶ for you; too much time and energy spent in reading between the lines⁷ and finding out all kinds of references and allusions⁸ would very likely distract your mind from your purpose⁹, which is to learn English composition.

NOTES

1.with a view to 以……为目的(后面通常接动名词)

2.verse 诗歌体

3.qualification 限制

4.of a technical character 一种专门性的

5.One limitation more 还有一个限制

6.fairly easy 相当容易的

7.reading between the lines 揣摩言外之意

8.references and allusions 出处和引典

9.distract your mind from your purpose 使你从你的目的中分心

21 Reading to Learn the Art of Expression

When you read a short story, you may read it merely for pleasure. When you read a biographical sketch, you may read it merely for information. But as you are a learner of English, I think you should often read to learn the art of expression. And for this purpose you may read either a short story or a biographical sketch, either an essay or a news item, indeed, anything that is written in good current English.

Even from a short paragraph you may learn several forms of expression if you are observant enough. Try to read the following paragraphs from BBC Modern English¹ and notice the points of usage listed below:

Over 100 years ago she opened the first British hospital for women. There are still very few of these hospitals in England. This hospital is in Euston Road in London. Its situation means that women from all over England can reach it quite easily.

Her aim when she opened the hospital was to provide a place where women could go and receive treatment from female doctors and nurses. She also wanted the hospital to provide jobs for female doctors at a time when it was very difficult for them to find work. Recently the authorities have tried to close the hospital. They say that it is old-fashioned and wastes a lot of money. However, the Government has decided that the hospital will stay open. Many people feel very glad that the valuable service offered by this hospital will continue.

1.“Over” More than.

2.“in Euston Road” “in … Road”.

3.“means that …” “Means” takes an object clause introduced by “that”.

4.“from all over England” “all over England” “from all over England”.

5.“receive treatment”. Patients receive treatment.

6.“wanted the hospital to provide …”

“We want them to do it”.

7.“at a time when …” “at a time when …”

8.“Recently the authorities have tried.”

The present perfect is here used with “recently”.

9.“the Government has” “the Government” can be considered singular.

10.“decided that …” “Decide(d)” takes an object clause introduced by “that”.

11.“stay open”. “Stay” can be a copulative verb.

In this way you will learn the art of expression very quickly; perhaps one or two paragraphs a day will teach you hundreds of forms of expression in a month, and these forms of expression will greatly improve your writing. And if you can—I believe you can—commit to memory² one or two paragraphs a day that you have already read in this way, the results will be still greater.

NOTES

1.BBC Modern English 英国杂志名(BBC=British Broadcasting Corporation)

2.commit to memory 把……牢记

22 Learning English Conversation by Imitation

I know some people who once studied in England or America and yet do not speak English correctly; they make mistakes in grammar, idiom, and pronunciation. But the other day I met a Chinese woman who spoke perfect English¹. She does not seem to be very well up in English², but I believe she speaks it more like an English person than I do³. Upon inquiry I was given to know⁴ that she had never even been to college but had been taught English by English teachers only. She does not speak English as a foreign language. She speaks it in the way she does⁵, not because she thinks it is the right way but because she knows no other⁶. She is free from⁷, and probably ignorant of, the thousand and one⁸ mistakes peculiar to Chinese students of English.

This woman learnt to speak English by imitating unconsciously. It is no doubt⁹ the best way. But not all Chinese learners have the chance of learning in this way. Well, there is the second best¹⁰ way; I mean learning by imitating consciously. If there are people who spent years in England or America but who do not speak English correctly, it is because they did not do much conscious imitating when abroad¹¹. They have carried their mistakes over and then carried them back, though they ought to have left them there.

I am perhaps in danger of being understood to mean¹² that all who go to England or America ought to do so for the sole purpose of learning English conversation. No, I simply mean that by careful imitation one can very well¹³ learn it—and that¹⁴ not only in countries where English is the mother tongue but also in some places in China. Nor do I mean that one’s object in learning English is simply to speak it. But it needs to be generally realized¹⁵ among Chinese learners of English that good speaking leads to good writing and that language is essentially something spoken.

NOTES

1.a Chinese woman who spoke perfect English 一个讲完美英语的中国女子

2.very well up in English 英语水平很高

3.do=speak it

4.was given to know 被告知

5.does=speaks it

6.other=other way

7.free from 没有

8.thousand and one 无数的

9.no doubt 无疑

10.second best 不得已而求其次的

11.when abroad=when they were abroad

12.in danger of being understood to mean 有被人以为有……的意思的危险

13.well 容易

14.that=one can very well learn it.

15.needs to be generally realized 必须被大众认识

23 Imitation, Good and Bad

Too often a learner of English who has read one or two classics tries to imitate their style. The fact, however, is that style cannot be imitated. Different authors have different styles. They do not endeavour to write the way they write¹. So the imitation of any style often results in² affectation.

And the result will be till worse if the style imitated is that of a work written a hundred years ago or more. We are of the eighties³ of the twentieth century, and we should not write the English of the eighties of the nineteenth century.

I would advise you not to aim at a special style. Take care to write correct, simple, idiomatic, and clear English, that’s all⁴.

But imitation is not always bad. Very often it is important to imitate something. Where personal style is out of place⁵, imitation is the only means by which correctness may be secured. In writing an advertisement about something, for example, you have to imitate some such advertisement that you have read. You cannot possibly⁶ write a good one if you have never read any, though you may have read very widely in general literature.

You will do well to⁷ collect a number of⁸ short advertisements, formal invitations⁹ and announcements, receipts, IOU’s¹⁰, business contracts¹¹, etc. When you have occasion to¹² write one of such, you have simply to do a little imitating and adapting¹³. The following is an ordinary formal invitation:

Mr and Mrs M. S. Adams request the pleasure of Mr and Mrs L. J. Williams’s company¹⁴ at dinner on Saturday evening, May the seventeenth, at seven o’clock, 86 Star Street.

This invitation is from Mr and Mrs M. S. Adams to Mr and Mrs L. J. Williams. Surely, with this piece before you¹⁵, you can write a new one. You have simply to change the names, the day, the date¹⁶, the time, and the address.

NOTES

1.the way they write=the way in which they write

2.results in 结果导致

3.the eighties 八十年代

4.that’s all 只有那样，别无它法

5.out of place 不适宜的

6.cannot possibly 必不可能

7.will do well to … 这样干是有益的

8.a number of 若干

9.formal invitations 请帖

10.IOU=I owe you 欠款凭证；借据

11.contracts 合同

12.have occasion to … 有……的必要

13.do a little imitating and adapting 做一些模仿和改变

14.request the pleasure of …’s company 请……光临

15.before you 放在你的面前

16.the day, the date 星期几，几月几日

24 Tongue and Pen

“Do you speak English?” This is far more commonly asked by Englishmen and Americans of the Chinese with whom they come into contact¹ than “Do you write English?” They would perhaps laugh at the idea of² having studied English for years without being able to speak it.

In fact, language is essentially a spoken thing. To study English without trying to speak it is not advisable. And it is absurd to read a conversation book in just the same manner as to read a grammar.

Besides, as ordinary written English is not quite different from ordinary spoken English, to learn to speak is a very good way to learn to write. One who speaks good English writes good English too. The pen cannot go wrong where the tongue goes right³. Many everyday phrases and everyday constructions come natural to⁴ one who uses them in speaking. For example, one who says “in fact” and “as a matter of fact” cannot possibly write the non-existent phrases “in a fact”, “as a fact”, and “as a matter of the fact”. And if the surest sign of those⁵ whose English is not perfect is their misuse of prepositions, good speaking is of great help in learning the idiomatic use of those little tricky words⁶. One who says “sick of”⁷, “interested in”, “prefer … to …”⁸ will write the same right prepositions in right places without any conscious effort.

I think it would be a very good method of learning writing as well as⁹ learning speaking for a pupil to talk to his teacher in English about whatever subject the former¹⁰ is interested in and to have himself corrected¹¹ whenever he makes a mistake. I am only sorry that I do not think it practicable in a classroom where there are many pupils.

NOTES

1.with whom they come into contact 他们所遇到的

2.laugh at the idea of 听到……的话而笑

3.The pen cannot go wrong when the tongue goes right. 在说得不错的场合，决不会写错。

4.come natural to 对于……是自然的

5.those 那些人

6.those little tricky words 那些难用的小词(指所有介词)

7.sick of 对于……厌倦的

8.prefer … to … 比起……更喜欢……

9.as well as 不但……；加在……上

10.the former 指那“pupil”

11.have himself corrected 使他自己受到(那教师的)指正

25 Simply Didn’t Know

You have a fairly good knowledge of grammar. You have a vocabulary of three or four thousand words. You know one or two thousand idioms. You are rather careful about usage. You ought to be able to write fairly well.

But are you¹? If you are not², why not³? One of your troubles, I think, is that you often cannot express what you want to say. You cannot⁴, but when you have seen your meaning expressed by someone who can express it, you will most probably say to yourself⁵ “That seems easy enough. I simply didn’t know.”

You are right. You simply didn’t know. Just a few common words arranged in a simple grammatical order by someone who is at home in⁶ English. That expresses your meaning, and yet you simply didn’t know which common words to choose and how to arrange them.

This is a very common trouble with Chinese learners of English. It is due to the fact that they do not read widely enough, nor carefully enough. There are thousands of useful expressions that are not generally considered idioms. They are so easy to understand that they are apt to be neglected⁷. But those who neglect them will forget them, and fail to use them when they need them.

You cannot learn to write with much freedom of expression⁸ till you have laid in⁹ a stock of useful phrases and sentences, and you cannot do it without reading widely and carefully.

NOTES

1.But are you?=But are you able to write fairly well?

2.not=not able to write well

3.why not?=why are you not able to write fairly well?

4.cannot=cannot express what you want to say

5.say to yourself 想

6.at home in 精通

7.are apt to be neglected 易于被人忽略

8.freedom of expression 表达的自由；写作自如

9.laid in 储藏

26 So Many Points

Having read much of what I have said about points of usage, some readers have given me to understand¹ that they think it simply impossible to remember so many points, about which there seem to be no rules at all. They wonder whether all who² write correct English know them all by heart³ and pay regard to them whenever they write, and whether it is at all possible for one to learn to write English fairly well without bothering about⁴ these tiny points.

Yes, most of the points seem to be tiny ones⁵. But it is just these points that show whether one is really at home in⁶ English or not. Occasional errors in grammar, which should of course be avoided by all means⁷, may most probably be due to mere carelessness and not at all peculiar to⁸ those whose English is imperfect. But lapses in idiom always betray⁹ one’s unfamiliarity with¹⁰ correct English. It follows that¹¹ the seemingly trifling¹² points of usage are well worthy of the attention of¹³ all who wish to write English corretcly.

As to knowing them by heart, those who are born to the language¹⁴ may not need to make any conscious effort. They learn correct usage by intuition, so to speak¹⁵. They speak English every day, and the use of many idiomatic expressions and constructions are second nature¹⁶ with them, so that when they write they cannot possibly be¹⁷ incorrect where they are correct when speaking¹⁸.

The case is certainly different with¹⁹ Chinese learners of English, who are most of them English-reading rather than English-speaking. They must take care to master many points of usage that are quite natural to those whose mother tongue is English.

What I call points of usage, however, are not so formidable²⁰ an enemy as they may seem to you. Close attention to them helps to conquer them. Besides, what English-speaking persons get from speaking you may get from reading aloud²¹, which will help you in the same way as speaking would²², though perhaps less quickly. And there is an advantage in reading aloud over speaking²³ in the fact that in reading good written English you are not in danger of²⁴ getting those common solecisms, barbarisms, and improprieties in the speech of persons of limited culture.²⁵

NOTES

1.given me to understand 使我知道

2.all who … 所有……的人

3.know them all by heart 牢记它们全部

4.bothering about 因……而操心

5.ones=points

6.at home in 精通……的

7.by all means 必然

8.peculiar to ……所特有的

9.betray 暴露

10.unfamiliarity with 对于……的不熟悉

11.It follows that … 因而有……的结论；所以……

12.seemingly trifling 似乎不重要的

13.well worth of the attention of 很值得……注意的

14.are born to the language 生出来就用这语言；把这语言用作本族语言

15.so to speak 可以这样说

16.second nature 第二天性；习惯

17.cannot possibly be 绝不会

18.when speaking=when they are speaking

19.with 关于

20.formidable 难以对付的

21.what English-speaking … reading aloud=you may get from reading aloud what English-speaking persons get from speaking

22.would=would help you

23.advantage in reading aloud over speaking 朗读胜于谈话的地方

24.in danger of 有……的危险

25.of limited culture 所受教育不多的

27 How to Say It

Your question is not what to say but how to say it. You may often have an idea or a thought that you do not know how to express. For instance, you may not be able to express the idea of the glass tube measuring temperature¹ if you do not happen to know the word “thermometer”. To take another example, suppose you wish to apply for a position² that requires the applicants to apply in written English, but you feel you cannot do so. Now suppose you ask a friend to write the letter for you, and he writes it. You read it and understand it all right. You come to realize that³ you did not think of arranging those simple words in that simple order. You did have something to say, but you did not know how to say it! Hence the importance of studying composition⁴.

As a matter of fact⁵, many of the ideas and thoughts you often have occasion to express⁶ have already been expressed by others before you. Read any page in any book carefully, and you will perhaps find some expressions that will help you to say things. Many such expressions may seem to you to be too simple to deserve much attention, but the fact is that you cannot invent them, nor can you use them unless you have noted them⁷. There appear to be many Chinese learners of English who have read a number of books on grammar and composition and done many exercises in correcting and improving sentences and yet cannot write even tolerable⁸ English. The trouble is that they may either not have read widely enough or not have read carefully enough or not have committed to memorize enough words, phrases and sentences that they may have found too easy to understand to be worth remembering.

NOTES

1.the glass tube measuring temperature 即thermometer(温度计)的一种解释说法

2.apply for a position 申请工作岗位

3.you come to realize that … 你开始认识到

4.Hence the importance of studying composition 所以有研究作文的重要性

5.As a matter of fact 其实

6.have occasion to express 有表达的需要

7.unless you have noted them 除非你已经注意它们

8.tolerable 过得去的

28 A “Foolish” Principle of Composition

Books on rhetoric may tell you many principles of composition. But the principle that I am going to explain is one¹ that I have not found in any book on rhetoric. I discovered it myself, and I acted up to² it as soon as I discovered it, many years ago. I have found it so helpful that I believe you will do well to adopt it. The principle is that you should use no construction, no form of expression, and no combination of words, that you have not seen in your reading.

It seems to me that the average Chinese learner of English has a fair knowledge of grammar and a fairly large vocabulary, and that when he writes English, he makes sentences according to his knowledge of grammar and his understanding of the meaning of words. The result is that his English often seems to be correct enough but is not really correct. For correct English is a matter of usage, not merely a matter of grammar and vocabulary. In composition correction I have often been asked why I had changed a certain word or construction to another. Well, I cannot always say why. I have substituted that word or construction simply because that is the word or construction that an Englishman would have used there.

Suppose you are on the point of ³ writing “He was rich to live on luxury”. Is this sentence correct? “He was” is certainly correct; you have seen it many, many times. “He was rich” is also correct; you have seen it more than once. “He was rich to …”—well, you have never seen it, have you? No, you have never seen it, and therefore you should not let it pass.⁴ “On luxury”—well, you have never seen this expression, and so you should not use it. Now, the correct sentence is “He was rich enough to live in luxury”.

Do you think my principle very foolish? It does look so. But I regard it as very helpful, and I hope that you will try to put it into practice.

The question may naturally arise: Shall I not find it practically⁵ impossible to write anything because I do not always remember whether I have ever seen a certain construction or form of expression or combination of words? Well, you should remember. You should read carefully. You should learn the art of expression from your reading. I hope you have not forgotten my article entitled “Reading to Learn the Art of Expression”.

NOTES

1.one=a principle

2.acted up to 实行

3.are on the point of 将

4.let it pass 任它过去

5.practically 几乎

29 An Aid to Composition

Do you often meet with a word or phrase or construction that you understand fully without being able to translate it into readable Han? I believe you do1; I believe you have read enough English to have this experience. I myself often meet with such2.

You have perhaps seen such a sentence as “They will not return for many days to come”. You know that it means that they will return many days from now, or that they will return only after the passage3 of many days. But can you translate it into readable Han? In the very common expression “simply cannot”, I find the word “simply” very hard to translate into Han. I also find it very hard to translate into Han the very common word “probable” as contrasted with4 “possible”. As to such a sentence as “You cannot be too careful”5, I think it is even untranslatable.

All these and many other words and phrases and constructions do not seem to have what we call Han equivalents. You understand them, but you cannot translate them into readable Han; that is, you cannot translate them both exactly and clearly.

I do not mean to advise you to try and translate such hard things. Do not try to translate them, I say⁶. Just commit them to memory.⁷ They will often come in useful⁸ when you write. They will help you to write more idiomatic English.

By the way, “society” is a much used word among Chinese learners of English. But I have seldom seen it used by any of them in the sense of companionship, as in “The old man enjoys the society of young people”. This is because Chinese learners do not usually use an English word in a sense that cannot be easily translated into Han. I hope you will now profit by⁹ my hint.

NOTES

1.do=often meet a word or phrase or construction that you understand fully without being able to translate it into readable Han

2.such=a word or phrase or construction that I understand fully without being able to translate it into readable Han

3.passage 过去

4.contrasted with … 与……相比；与……区别

5.You cannot be too careful 即“愈谨慎愈好”的意思

6.I say 注意我的话

7.commit them to memory 把它们牢记

8.come in useful 变成有用

9.profit by 得益于

30 Some Mistakes to Consider

Do you , reader, find any mistakes in the following sentences?

1.He is studying for serving the people.

2.I have met him for five times.

3.Pardon me for I give you so much trouble.

4.For I am a Chinese, I love China.

If you do not find any mistakes in them, you have yet a poor knowledge of English. All these sentences are wrong, and, so far as I know, are not to be found in any Englishman’s English, though I believe you may think they are quite grammatical.

Let me explain: (1) “For” expressing purpose may take a noun (as in “for pleasure”), but not usually a gerund. (2) While “for the … time” is right, “for …times” is wrong. (3) “For” as a conjunction is very weak and cannot introduce any important reason. (4) “For” is a coordinating conjunction, not a subordinating one.

Now read the sentences as corrected:

1.He is studying (in order) to serve the people.

2.I have met him five times.

3.Pardon me for giving you so much trouble.

4.I love China, for I am a Chinese.

Now that¹ you have been told of these four common mistakes in regard to² the use of the word “for”, I hope you will take care to avoid them in your own writing. Such mistakes are not usually mentioned in books on grammar and composition. But they are not uncommon among Chinese learners of English. And I find that there are similar mistakes in the use of many other common English words. I am of opinion that³ discussion of such mistakes ought to form a large part of every composition book specially intended for Chinese learners, and it is a matter of regret⁴ that many, many Chinese learners are studying rules and principles of grammar and rhetoric without caring a bit about⁵ such mistakes.

A good English composition book remains to be written⁶. Would you like to see such a book published?

NOTES

1.Now that 既然

2.in regard to 关于

3.am of opinion that … 认为……

4.matter of regret 可惜的事

5.without caring a bit about 毫不介意

6.remains to be written 尚待著作

31 Some More Mistakes to Consider

After reading my article “Some Mistakes to consider”, a reader wrote to ask me to give more mistakes to consider. I hope you will be interested to read the following four sentences and see what mistakes they contain:

1.May I introduce you my brother?

2.Please favour me an early reply.

3.I will inform you the result by and by¹.

4.He has presented me a book.

I think you have read about the double object in grammar. You have been told that a verb may take two objects, one called the direct and the other called the indirect. You have seen such sentences as:

1.Can you recommend me a tailor?

2.Please send me an early reply.

3.I will tell you the truth by and by.

4.He has lent me a book.

But have you ever seen sentences like those in the first group? I have often seen them in the English written by Chinese learners of English, but never in any Englishman’s writing. In an Englishman’s writing, these sentences would read:

1.May I introduce my brother to you?

2.Please favour me with an early reply.

3.I will inform you of the result by and by.

4.He has presented a book to me.

He has presented me with a book.

Now you can see that the verbs “introduce”, “favour”, “inform”, and “present” cannot take the double object, though the verbs “recommend”, “send”, “tell”, and “lend” can. Grammars mention the double object and give examples of it, but they do not tell you that only a few verbs can take the double object, nor do they mention any verbs with which this construction is impossible. It seems to me, therefore, that the four mistakes that I have just mentioned are quite common among Chinese learners, even among those² who have studied grammar carefully.

To tell the truth³, grammar does not help you much in writing. It tells you what is right, but it does not tell you much about what is wrong. When you have seen a certain construction in your grammar, you try to make use of⁴ it in your own writing. Possibly you have made no mistake, but it is also possible that you have made a mistake.

NOTES

1.by and by 不久以后

2.those=learners

3.To tell the truth 老实说

4.make use of 利用

32 Better Short Than Long

Once I read an essay by Hilaire Belloc¹ in which the author says “I cannot refrain from remarking² that all the discussions of the silly critics as to whether sentences in English should be long or short are mere spoiling of paper”³.

I fully agree with him. A sentence is not good or bad merely because it is long or short. Length is a false test of a sentence. It is wrong to think that a series of long sentences is a proof of one’s good command of English⁴. It is equally wrong to think that simple and clear English requires every sentence to contain a certain number or words at most⁵.

I remember that I myself formerly acted on⁶ these wrong opinions one after the other. For some time I tried to use as many words in a sentence as grammar and sense could justify⁷. The result was an obtrusively dignified style⁸. Then followed a period⁹ in which I tried to make every sentence a grammatically simple one¹⁰ and as easy to understand as those¹¹ in first books¹² for beginners. The result was affected¹³ simplicity.

However, while I would warn all learners of English composition against these two mistakes, I think that that¹⁴ of writing long sentences is the commoner one¹⁵. And learners ought to take more care to avoid it, not merely because in the hands of those who¹⁶ have not had much practice in the use of words and phrases and idiomatic constructions, long sentences are much harder to manage than short ones¹⁷. It must not for a moment¹⁸ be supposed that an error in grammar or idiom embedded in a long sentence can easily escape detection¹⁹.

NOTES

1.Helaire Belloc (1870 —1953) 英语文学家

2.remarking 说

3.spoiling of paper 白费纸张

4.one’s good command of English 某人对英语的精通

5.at most 至多

6.acted on 实行

7.use as many words in a sentence as grammar and sense could justify 就语法和意思所允许的范围内在一句里尽量多用词

8.obtrusively dignified style 过分庄严的文体

9.followed a period=a period followed

10.one=sentence

11.those=sentences

12.first books 入门书

13.affected 做作的；不自然的

14.that=the mistake

15.one=mistake

16.those who … 那……的人们

17.ones=sentences

18.must not for a moment 决不可

19.escape detection 不被发现

33 Something More Important Than Enlarging One’s Vocabulary

“How to enlarge my vocabulary”—this is one of the commonest questions that I have been asked. True, the average Chinese learner of English has a very limited vocabulary, but¹ I think he has something more important to do about his limited vocabulary than to enlarge it². He has yet to know many more words before he can master English³. Nor can he master English till he has acquired a better understanding of most of the words that are⁴ in his vocabulary.

For he may think he knows a word when he does not really know it. By knowing a word I mean⁵ knowing its true sense or senses instead of merely knowing one or more of what we call its Han equivalents⁶. Take⁷ the word “student”. Very often it is misused and misunderstood by us Chinese. It is misused and misunderstood by those who call all schoolchild students and take offence at⁸ being called students of English simply because they are no longer⁹ at school. As a matter of fact, a schoolchild is not a student, but one who studies English is a student of English though he may be an old man and may have already written many books on it.

We are apt to neglect common words. Apart from the possibility of misuse and misunderstanding we are apt to neglect their various senses, or rather idiomatic uses. Take the word “read”, which you of course think you know very well. But do you know all the senses (or uses) as illustrated below?

Can your read dreams?¹⁰

The baby cannot read the clock.¹¹

He is reading her thoughts.¹²

The sentence reads like a paraphrase.¹³

Don’t read too much into the text.¹⁴

The thermometer reads 68°.¹⁵

If not, you can hardly yet be said to know the word “read”.

NOTES

1.True … but 的确……，可是……

2.has something more important to do about his limited vocabulary than to enlarge it 对于他有限的词汇，有比使它增加更为重要的事要做

3.has yet to know many more words before he can master English 尚需多识许多词，然后才能精通英语

4.are 实在；确然

5.By knowing a word I mean 我所说的认识一个词，是……

6.what we call its Han equivalents 我们所说那个词的汉语对应语

7.Take 举……为例

8.take offence at 因……而不悦

9.no longer 不再

10.read dreams 解梦

11.read the clock 看得懂钟

12.reading her thoughts 猜度她的思想

13.like a paraphrase 像一个解说

14.Don’t read too much into the text 不要将文中没有的意义附会上去

15.The thermometer reads 68°. 这个温度计指出六十八度。

34 Make the Word Your Own

A word is not your own until you can use it correctly. You may know one or more Han equivalents for a word and yet you may not be able to use it correctly. I am afraid that of all the English words that the average Chinese learner can translate into Han, less than half may really be called his own.

To give a few common words at random¹, “wise”, “probable”, “congratulate”, “equip”, “personality”, “novel”, “nevertheless”, “meanwhile”—all these words many Chinese learners may “know” without being able to use them correctly. Do you think you can use them correctly, reader? Please read the following sentences carefully and see whether you find any mistake in any of them. I have to tell you beforehand² that all the words in italics³ are misused, and that if you fail to find any one of these wrong, that proves that that word is not yet your own.

1.The boy reads the book very well, and so he may be called a very wise boy.

2.He is probable to pass the examination.

3.Let’s congratulate her success.

4.A radio has been equipped in the hall.

5.He never pays his debts; his personality is bad.

6.I don’t like such novels as these short stories.

7.Nevertheless poor, the girl was neatly dressed.

8.I bought some bananas and meanwhile some apples.

How many of these italicized words are your own? And how many are not? Look up⁴ those that are not your own in a good dictionary in order to find out why they are wrong in these sentences, and to learn their correct uses.

Remember that not every word that you think you understand well is really your own.

NOTES

1.at random 随机地

2.have to tell you beforehand 必须事先告诉你

3.in italics 用斜体

4.look up 查出

35 A Warning Regarding the Use of Words

Once in an essay written by a man who had studied in England for several years I saw the word “destruct”, which was evidently used in the sense of “destroy”. At another time, I saw the same word, evidently used in the same sense, in an illustrated magazine¹ published in Shanghai. At still another time I saw the word “destroyal” used in the sense of “destruction” by a man apparently well educated in English.

In fact, however, the verb is “destroy” and the noun is “destruction”, and there do not exist the words “destruct” and “destroyal.”

I do not think that the users of these non-existing words did not know the correct words. They were careless enough, though². They just seized upon a combination of letters that looked like the word they wanted. It is true that these non-existing words may be understood by all who see them. But, of course, they cannot therefore justify themselves³.

Often in the English written by Chinese I find words that do not really exist. They use such words either because they do not know the correct words or merely because they are careless—or even because they believe they have a good knowledge of English word-building⁴. At any rate⁵, this is a very bad fault peculiar to those who are not at home in English⁶.

I would therefore advise you to use no word that you are not sure you have seen used by standard authors, and to consult your dictionary in cases of doubt.

One word more⁷ of warning. It is possible that you sometimes use a word that is recorded in your dictionary, but which is not in common use, and which you use not because you are sure of its existence but simply because you think it is the word you want. For instance, because you know the noun “aggression” and the adjective “aggressive”, you may use the verb “aggress”—which, however, is a very uncommon word.

NOTES

1.illustrated magazine 有图画的杂志

2.though 但(副词)

3.cannot therefore justify themselves 不能因此而有存在的理由

4.word-building 词的构造

5.at any rate 无论如何

6.at home in English 精通英语的

7.One word more 尚有一言 (上文所举“destruct”，现在偶尔见到；但用法有限，不可随意取代“destroy”)

36 The Word

In doing a piece of translation the other day¹, I experimented with² several words before I got the word that expresses the shade of meaning intended³. The word was “admonish”, and the words I had experimented with were “advise”, “counsel”, “warn”, “exhort”, “reprove”, “rebuke”, and “reprimand”. “Admonish”, roughly speaking⁴, means “exhort” or “reprove”, but it carries the implication of kindness or gentleness coupled with⁵ seriousness, and also of warning and counsel.

Sometimes I fail to get the exact word in spite of much thinking and weighing⁶. In such cases I have to content myself with⁷ using the word that I regard as being nearest to the meaning I want to express. This is a common experience with writers of English, and is one⁸ they ought to feel sorry for.

The study of synonyms is no doubt⁹ very helpful in the careful choice of words, which is essential to precision, one of the qualities of good writing. But there are two mistakes against which I think learners ought to be warned. One is that¹⁰ of trusting to the so-called Han equivalents as given in English-Han dictionaries. The other is that¹¹ of studying the explanations in articles on synonyms but neglecting the illustrative examples¹².

Correct English, however, is largely a matter of the use of common words, the correct use of which depends not so much upon their “meanings” as upon¹³ what is known as¹⁴ usage. For instance, a writer of correct English may not be able to tell you in detail how “for” and “to” differ from each other, but he never fails to use the right one instead of the other. He uses the word¹⁵ as a matter of habit rather than¹⁶ as a result of¹⁷ the careful choice of words. The study of synonyms is of no help in this matter. One can improve only by the careful reading of idiomatic English—which no amount of word study can supplant¹⁸.

NOTES

1.the other day 不久前的几天

2.experimented with 把……试验

3.the shade of meaning intended 要表达的那个细微的意义

4.roughly speaking 大体说来

5.coupled with 和……合并

6.in spite of much thinking and weighing 虽然想了许多和斟酌了许多

7.content myself with 使自己把……当作满意

8.one=an experience

9.no doubt 无疑

10.that=the mistake

11.that=the mistake

12.illustrative examples 例证

13.depends not so much upon … as upon … 靠着……的少而……的多

14.is known as 被叫做

15.the word 准确的那个词

16.rather than 而不是

17.as a result of 作为……的结果

18.no amount of word study can supplant 不论怎样多的词的研究也不能代替

37 What “Literary English” Means

Books on rhetoric and composition tell us that English may be roughly classified as (1) literary English and (2) colloquial English¹, and that literary English should, and colloquial English should not, be used in writing.

Yes, we—I mean you—should learn to write literary English. But what, after all, does “literary English” mean? What is literary English? I am afraid that many Chinese learners of English may think that literary English is a distinctly elegant sort of English. They think that it is absolutely different from English used in speaking, in addressing² a class of students, or in writing to a business house³ to order goods.⁴ They think that in literary English a face is not a face but a visage⁵ and a man never goes but always repairs⁶, and that it consists mainly, if not entirely⁷, of figurative expressions⁸.

The idea is wrong, however—and this wrong idea prevents one from writing natural and pure English. Literary English, if you please⁹, does not mean English confined in its use to literature¹⁰. It is not a distinctly elegant sort of English. It is just the ordinary English that well-educated Englishmen and Americans use in writing—not necessarily for literary purposes, but often for practical purposes. In literary English, a face is almost always a face and very rarely a visage, and a man almost always goes and very rarely repairs.

While¹¹ “colloquial English” means English used in conversation, it does not follow¹² that English used in conversation is necessarily too colloquial to be used in writing. The majority of the words and idioms used by well-educated English and American people in conversation are certainly literary English.

NOTES

1.colloquial English 口语

2.addressing … 向……演说

3.business house 商店

4.order goods 定货

5.visage 面容

6.repairs 去

7.mainly, if not entirely 虽然非完全如此，却大部分如此

8.figurative expressions 藻语

9.if you please 竟然如此

10.confined in its use to literature 仅用于文学上

11.While 虽然

12.it does not follow … 并不因而有……的结论

1 该读什么

假定你有两个朋友，甲和乙，两人在过去几年中都一直在学习英语。两个都是聪明的男青年，都急切地希望获得这个语言的知识。可是现从这些年的研习中得到了很不相同的结果。甲能够写短信和读简易的新闻条目，但读不懂古典作品中的任何一段文字；乙能够在古典作品中这里或那里读一些，但不能写短信或读简易的新闻条目。读者，你想像这两个朋友中的哪一个？

我认为你想要像甲而不像乙，也的确应该这样。我很遗憾地看到在中国的英语学习者中似乎像乙的比像甲的多些。症结主要在于他们读的是什么。

你读什么？我要问的是你把什么当作你的主要读物。是一百多年前的一本章回小说或是一本文选？如果是这样，我对你的劝告是：把它换掉。你的主要读物必须是远少于一百年前写的，可能的话，最好是几个星期前写的，必须是用简单的英语写的，必须是英国人或美国人写的。

我并不想在这里开个书单。但是我想我该讲些总的言论。你的主要读物不必是文学著作，也不必是名家作品。一本短篇纪事文或说明文选集比一本章回小说或几篇长篇议论文要好。

你一定已经注意到我在上文讲的只是关于你的主要读物该是什么。你有一两本书作为主要读物。你也该读些别的东西，可以难一些，但最好不是一百多年前的经典作品。

2 朗读

你有时朗读吗？大概你现在不朗读了。你小时候习惯朗读，但在十四五岁时就停止了。要是我没看错的话，在有些十八九岁的孩子中间，现在朗读是一门丢失了的艺术。

你可能抗议说：“既然我不朗读也能理解，朗读又有什么用呢？”朗读的效果可多着呢。朗读帮助你记入心中，而记入心中对于志在写得好的所有人是必需的。朗读帮助你养成好的发音和语调，而好的发音和语调对于所有语言学习者是必需的。朗读帮助你发现某些在你默读时可能见不到的语言优点。假使你不朗读，就不能学到如何写得自然或如何欣赏文学。

而且我认为许多中国的英语学习者不能读懂诗歌，在一定程度上正是因为他们不朗读。某个英国文人说过一首诗只有被读了才算是诗；他所说的“读”显然是指朗读。诗歌的确是让人朗读的。有许多诗你可能朗读了就会喜欢并爱好起来，即使你发现其中还有一些难点。从另一方面讲，假使你不朗诵它，可能会像理解一篇平淡无奇的散文一样来理解它。举例来说，埃德加·爱伦·坡的《乌鸦》是一首很美的诗。但是它的美在很大程度上仰仗它奇妙的音律。下面是它的第一节。你可以先把它像一封事务信一般默读一下，然后朗读，再把两个印象比较起来。（下面的汉语翻译目的在于帮助读者理解原诗。不论默读还是朗读，指的都是原诗。）

有一次在一个凄凉的半夜，当我，衰弱而疲倦，思考着一本本讲述旧闻的奇书时，

当我在打盹，几乎要睡去了时，忽然来了一阵轻拍声，

好像是有人在轻轻地叩着，叩着我的房门。

“这是某个来访者”，我咕哝着，“轻叩我的房门：仅仅是这样，并没有什么别的。”

3 你能读懂英国人的英语吗？

我曾经听到一些人对我说，在阅读英语报纸时，他们觉得读懂中国新闻比读懂外国新闻要容易得多；即使是一段很短的来自英国或美国某个小镇的新闻，他们往往也看不出它的意思。我也觉得有许多人对于中国人写的关于中国题材的文章读起来没有多大困难，但读不懂英国人写的关于英国题材的文章。

这些人的困难是：虽然他们习得了英国语言方面的一些知识，但他们不太知道英国人的心理、英国人的性格、英国人的生活、英国人的传统等等。可以这样说，他们没有抓到英语的精神。设想一个人识了几千个汉字和大量的汉语句法，但是完全不知道中国人的心理、中国人的性格等等。你认为这个人能够读懂即使是普通的汉语报纸和用汉语写的一般读物吗？

读者，你认为你属于这一类人——就是懂得英语，但在读英国人写的英语时通常困难重重吗？恐怕你是。我想劝你尽量多读一般英语读物，并养成用英语思维的习惯。我也想劝你读一些简明的英国史，把在阅读和学习中可能找到的关于英国人生活和英国人思想的每一点知识都记入心中。

4 什么样的英语？

英语可以分为英国英语、美国英语、苏格兰英语、爱尔兰英语以及别种英语。举例来说：“half past three”是英国英语，“half after three”是美国英语，“bairn”是苏格兰英语，“I am after having my dinner”是爱尔兰英语，“nor gold nor silver”是古老的英语，“Thank you for same”是商业英语，“I don’t know nobody here”是粗俗的英语。

高级别的英语学习者应该注意这种细微之处，我认为他们会感到深入研究这个问题是很有趣味的。但并不是每个学习者都是高级别的。一个人连现在一般受过教育的英国人或美国人所用的英语都不会讲、不会读、不会写就去搞这个课题，我认为是愚蠢的。一个人还不能读懂每天的新闻，或者在讲话和写作中向英国人或美国人表达自己的意思，他就还得学习许多东西才能算作一个高级别的学习者。

我所说的“一般受过教育的英国人或美国人所用的英语”就是日常用的合于习惯的英语。它是实用的，“实用的”的意思是“确实被用的”，而不是“特别合于中国人的心理的”。我不得不提这一点，因为似乎有许多中国的英语学习者有这种错误的想法，认为谈到中国事物而写的英语才是实用的，谈到外国事物而写的英语是不实用的。可事实却是这样的：一个人不可能只靠读讲到中国事物的文章来精通英语——即我所说的实用英语。我要劝习惯于在读英语报纸时自限于读中国新闻的人们放弃这个习惯。

5 背景问题

要是你的英语读物不限于中国人写的谈到中国人生活的东西——我希望不是——你一定时常碰到跟单词和短语的意义无关的种种困难。这种困难源起于英语的背景（由于我没有更好的名称估且这样称呼）。除了对于那些只想读中国作者写的关于中国题材东西的人们以外，我相信对于所有的英语学习者来说，英语背景是值得注意的。

我所说的英语背景，就是指语言点以外的那些对于生来就用英语并在成长过程中使用英语的人们看来是十分自然的所有各点的总量。举例来说，“Grub Street”这个名称——一条伦敦的街道（现在叫Milton Street），从前住着简易历史书、词典和应时诗歌的作者们，因而这个词被用来指代平庸的文学作品。

这确然是一个大题目。它包括历史、地理、神话、基督教圣经、小说中的人物和事迹、谚语、风俗、游戏、运动、迷信以及其他。而且要充分理解任何作者的著作，一个人必须对于上述种种有着像作家本人一样多的知识。这对于一般学习英语的中国人来说是几乎不可能的。

我认为必须仔细考虑的问题是英语背景的哪些部分是更加重要的，中国学习者怎样才能接触到这些部分从而能够读懂一般的英语读物。你想得到这种知识吗？

6 论述英语的书和用英语写的书

“on”和“in”——这两个小小的词往往有大大的不同。“a book on English”是“一本论述英语的书”；“a book in English”是“一本用英语写的书”。前者可能是用汉语、德语、法语或者任何别的语言写的，后者可能论述天下的任何题目。

论述英语的书是为了这一语言的学习者写的；现在这种书比五十多年前多得多，这是令人满意的。我自己写过几本，可喜的是我时常收到来信说起它们对于英语学习者是有用的。

但是我必须在这里发出警告。语言并不是一门精确的科学，也不仅是一条原则、规则、例外、定义、公式和图解。论述英语的书是有助益的，但是没有人能够只读这种书而精通英语。也许正因为现在这种书这么多，所以我们时常碰到有人能够在谈话和写作中讲述英语但自己却不能讲英语和写英语。这是因为他们不知道这一事实：没有广泛而仔细的阅读，精通英语是不可能的。

我要劝告所有的英语学习者花较多的时间读用英语写的书而花较少的时间读论述英语的书。你正在读什么用英语写的书？它是一本小说、杂文或游记吗？还是一本传记、日记或仅仅是历史或地理课本？要是你恰巧在日夜攻读论述英语的书，你就该根据我的劝告行事了。

7 供研究的一个简易的句子

在读下文前请考虑下面这一短句：“They cannot see enough of each other.”

你认为这句是什么意思？请读下去以前考虑再考虑。

这的确是一个很简易的句子，我想每个英国或美国的男女学生都理解。事实上，它出现在一本给儿童读的故事书中。可是曾经有一个青年请我解释它，据我所知，这个青年已经认真地学习英语好几年，并且习得了不少语法知识和相当大量的词汇。

究竟为什么这个青年不懂这个短句呢？我的回答是因为在我们自己的语言中没有与之相当的表达方式。英语中有许多表达方法在汉语中找不到能与之相应的。这令大多数学习英语的中国人十分费解。

上文所引用句子的意思是：这两个人相互喜爱，以至于虽然他们时常相见，但总觉得相见太少。顺便说一说，这句中的“of”也值得注意。“see enough of each other”的意思是“相见得够多”。“see much of you”的意思是“时常见到你”。

在你的阅读中，如果你特别注意在汉语中没有与之相应的那些表达方式将受益非浅。这样做在读和写中对你都有帮助。我很遗憾地见到有许多中国的学习者没体会到这样做的重要性，结果是他们虽然能够读懂中国作者写的英语，而且能够写出篇幅长且语法上还算可以的文章，却也许不能彻底理解英国人写的社交信或用纯粹合于习语的英语写的一段短文。

8 “Would of Come”是什么意思？

有一次一个青年在一本杂志中见到“would of come”这一表达，请我解释一下。

读者，你懂吗？你见过“would of come”、“should of gone”、“might of done”、“could of learnt”、“ought to of known”这类表达方式吗？

你可能见过或没有见过这类表达方式。它们在短篇小说和剧本中十分普遍。但是语法书中通常不会提及。所以恐怕你不知道它们，认为它们简直是不合语法的。

的确，它们是不合语法的。可是有许多值得知道却不合语法的表达方式。你应该学会正确地使用英语。但是你也应该学会理解在英国人和美国人中通用的那些不正确的表达方式。许多中国学习者能够描述好单词和分析好句子，却不能在英国或美国出版的杂志中读懂一页，其部分原因是他们不知道这种不正确的表达方式。

在上文提及的几个表达方式中用“have”代替“of”，你就懂得它的意思了。

你也许会问为什么“of”被用来代替“have”呢？这个错误再自然不过。在“would have”、“should have”等中的“have”是不加重语气的，发音往往好似不加重语气的“of”。与此相反，“I have it”中的“have”是加重语气的，所以人们不说也不写“I of it”这种句子。

我还必须补充一句：用“of”来代替“have”是错误的，你在自己的写作中不应用“would of”、“should of”等表达方式。有许多错误在英国人和美国人中间是普通的，但我们中国人是绝对不会犯的。正像我刚才说过的那样，你应理解它们，可是你不该采用它们来作为文体上的装饰品。

9 “More Presently”

一个朋友要我注意在一篇文人传略中他认为的一个错误：在人名后面接了“of whom more presently”。事实上这个表达方式并没有错。“more presently”是“more will be said presently”的省略形式。我的朋友不曾知道这个合于习惯的省略，显然把“more”看成了修饰“presently”的副词，因而认为该补入主语和动词来做成一个完整的从句。

具备了一些语法知识，中国的英语学习者易于认为只要手头有一本好词典，他们完全能够没有多大困难地读懂一般的英语读物。更有甚者，他们轻而易举地把自身看来似乎不能作语法分析的词组看作是错误的而置于不顾。

语法固然是重要的，可是确有许多结构，虽然从狭隘的语法观点来看是不可加以辩护的，但是通常被人们看作是无可非议的英语。所以精通了从狭义上所说的语法并不使人能读懂一般的英语读物。

当你在良好的写作中碰到看来不合语法的任何结构时，我劝你把它记下来，别叫它错误，看看是否在阅读中会碰到相似的结构。也许，你不久就会碰到的，那时候你很可能已经了解这个结构了。

10 当代英语中的双重否定

一本著名经典著作的英国校订人在他为这本书作的注解中说道：“在伊丽莎白时代的语法中双重否定并不像当代英语中那样等于一个肯定，而是等于一个加重语气的否定”。

的确如此，在伊丽莎白时代的文学中，一个双重否定等于一个加重语气的否定，并非像一般人认为的那样等于一个肯定。例如“I don’t want nothing”只是“I don’t want anything”或“I want nothing”的着重式而已。这点听来十分不合理，但这是事实。

我要告诉你的是：这个不合理的事实并不仅限于伊丽莎白时代的文学。它现在也存在。只要所说的当代英语不是指只通行于受过教育的人们中间的英语，那么被用作加重语气否定的双重否定在当代英语中也是见得到的。

读者，你在阅读中曾经见到过这种双重否定吗？假使你读过现代的章回小说、剧本或者短篇小说，我想你是见到过的。我不要你使用这个不合理的结构（我要你讲得和写得像一个受过教育的人）。但是我相信每个英语学习者都应该知道它。

有一些英语习惯用法，每个英语学习者都该知道，可是有许多，或者竟然可以说大多数，中国学习者并不知道，因为它们并非只靠逻辑就能被理解，而且在一般语法中是见不到的。双重否定就是其中的一个。

11 关于语法的学习

我曾被不止一个书商告知过：在我们中国，就论述英语的书而言，除了读本和词典以外，语法书的销路比别的书好。而且似乎每个学习英语的人都读过一本语法书。我自己是一个认真学习语法的人。我读过多少本语法书自己也说不上来，其中有中国人、英国人、美国人、日本人、丹麦人和荷兰人写的，而且我会时常注意找新出版的语法书。

可是这篇文章的目的是劝你不要花太多的时间在学习语法上。我为语法而读语法，但我认为并不是每一个英语学习者都该这样做。你学习英语的目的在于学会实际使用英语。这个目的是不可能从只读语法来达到的。我甚至认为要是我以前只读语法书而不读别的东西，现在也不能够写出像本书中这样简易的英语。

语法告诉你一些规则、一些例外，也许还有一些习语。可是英语的正确使用不仅仅关于这些东西。举例来说，语法中有叫作双宾语的东西，例如在“He gave her a pen.”这句中；但是如果说“He introduced her a friend.”（这句中“her”和“friend”好像构成双宾语）就错了。事实是这样的：“introduce”不能带双宾语；但是这一点不能从语法中学到，只能从仔细的阅读中学到。许多中国的学习者写出可能被某条语法规则证明为对的，但事实上肯定是错的句子。

我相信你已经读了些语法书，而且很可能花了许多时间在这上面，虽然你现在也许还不能把任何东西（例如一封短信）写得在语法上完美无缺。语法可能帮助你使用英语，但也只有在一定程度上。别把语法的学习看作你为了精通英语而必须干的全部（或者几乎全部）的工作。仔细阅读和反复练习比学习语法更为重要。

12 只知道足够的语法从而犯错误

许多中国的英语学习者只知道足够的语法从而犯了错误。他们想：“似乎我见过这样一个表达方式好几次，可是它当然是不合语法的。我必须把它改成合于语法的。”可是这种狭隘的语法观念往往使他们把合于习语的英语改成不合习语的英语。举例来说，他们可能把“The boy acts contrary to his parents’wishes.”看作不合语法，要使这句变成合于语法，就把“contrary”改作“contrarily”——结果是这句话对于英国人读起来就不像一句英语句子。的确，从狭隘的语法观点来看，这里的形容词“contrary”应该换作副词“contrarily”。可是习语已经决定这里需要的是这个形容词，而习语是不能被反对的。（或者这样说更好：在这里习语坚持要用副词“contrary”而不用副词“contrarily”。）

有许多纯粹合于习语却不可能用语法来分析的表达方式。例如“busy”这个词可以直接用在看来像分词的动名词前，例如在“He is busy writing letters.”中。

读者，在你的阅读中，记下合于习语但在你看来不够合于语法的那些结构。把它们记入心中，并设法用在你的写作中。尤其重要的是：你可能恰巧像我在上文中说过的只知道足够的语法从而犯错的人们中的一个。

可是你不可以认为习语和语法总是不相容的。合于习语的东西，合于语法的大大多于不合语法的。我的意思只是：并非每个合于习语结构的都是可以用语法来解释的，也不是每个严格合于语法结构的都是合于习语的。

13 语言是主要的东西

当你读一篇用英语写的故事时，你是为了故事还是为了英语而读它？这是一个不像它表面看来那样愚笨的问题。因为我见到有许多学习英语的人们注意故事多于英语。他们读了故事，非常欣赏，在之后的很长一段时间里记住它，但不肯研究里面的词和短语的用法。举例来说，他们牢记着三角恋爱的秘密是怎样被解开的，但是故事中的句子连一句也不记得，也说不出在某个人物的谈话中什么介词用在某个词的前面或后面。

当然读了故事、欣赏它、记住它是好事；如果一个人只要知道那个故事，他就不必关心语言。但是语言学习者的情况就不同了。我的意思是英语学习者跟故事学习者或所谓一般读者应有所区别。

不论一个英语学习者读什么东西，我认为他该把语言看作主要的东西。举例来说，读了前面这一句（“Whatever a learner of English reads，he should，in my opinion，regard the language as the main thing.”），除了了解它的意思以外，应该注意到“whatever”的让步用法、“in my opinion”、“regard …as…”和“the main thing”。这样，他的确学到一些英语，虽然他所读的东西在别的方面也许恰巧既没有趣味又没有教益。可以可靠地说，这种学习作文的方法比读而思考作文的原则要好得多。

顺便说一句，我要劝告英语教师们不仅要向他们的学生提问关于选词和结构方面的要点，而且也要提问关于事实和思想方面的要点。

14 逻辑和惯用法

时常被人引用的莎士比亚诗句“All that glisters is not gold”是什么意思？严格的意思可能是“闪耀证明一个物质不是金子”。可是真实的意思是“闪耀未必证明一个物质是金子”。换句话说，按照逻辑，这个谚语应该改成“Not all that glisters is gold”。

可是莎士比亚写得不合逻辑，而这个不合逻辑的结构现在也普遍存在。举例来说，假使你听到一个英国人说“All my friends do not know the Han language”，你一定不能认为他在说他的朋友们都不懂汉语。他很可能在暗示他的大多数朋友讲和写汉语都很好。

这个确实是不合逻辑的。也有英国人不用这个结构而且很不赞成用这个结构。这个结构将来总会消失，因为时间久了逻辑必将胜利。可是今天它是自然而合于习语的英语，我认为每个英语学习者都应该知道它。

英语中还有不少别的不合逻辑却完全合于习语的东西。请再读一遍本文第二段第一句（“…and this illogical construction is not now uncommon.”）。也许你会认为“is not now uncommon”不及“is now not uncommon”好。依照逻辑，“not”的确该是修饰“uncommon”而不是修饰“now”。但是依照习语，“is not now uncommon”比较普遍。

关于“only”这个词，不合于逻辑而合于习语的结构也是普遍的。一个英国人可能说：“I only arrived a few days ago”，而他的意思其实是他“arrived only a few days ago”。

正像我刚才说过的，逻辑日后必将胜利。可是英语要经过多少年才能成为一种完全合于逻辑的语言啊！

15 不自然的地方

H·G·韦尔斯把辛克莱·刘易斯的Babbitt称作“我在长久以来读过的最伟大的章回小说之一”。我认为韦尔斯不曾想到他的（原）话可能会被人误解。的确，这句话很简单也很明白，也许没有哪个英国人或美国人会想到除了它的真实意思外的其他意思。可是有一个中国的英语学习者，他读英语和写英语都非常仔细，最近告诉我他对那句话不太理解。他说：“为什么说‘for a long time’？我简直不懂韦尔斯认为一本章回小说的伟大跟他在阅读它时花了多少时间有什么关系。”

这个学习者误解了韦尔斯的话。事实上，这个评论家的意思并不是说他曾经花了多少时间来读章回小说。那句话可以解释为：“一长段时间以来我读过许多章回小说，其中有些是伟大的。Babbitt是最伟大的中间的一本。”

那个学习者是仔细的，怀疑他自己是否曲解了韦尔斯的话。我认为即使他不曾问我，最后也会得到那个真正的意思。

中国的英语学习者时常会误解或不明白由几个简单词简单组合在一起形成的一个词组。我的劝告是当你在一个表达方式中碰到有不自然的地方时停下来再想一想。也许不是表达方式有误而是你对它的理解有偏差。

16 关于坏英语的好知识

有这么多的书和人自称能教授好英语！但是没有自称会教授坏英语的。我几乎可以肯定，要是有任何人刊登广告说教授坏英语课程，将会被人认为是个疯子，连一个学生也招不到。而且我也认为你从来不曾想要学习坏英语。大概你认为坏英语是不值得学的，而且认为一般中国的英语学习者，他不作任何努力去学坏的就已经够坏了。好吧，请读下面的故事：（下面的译文只能表达原文的意思，并不表达原文的好坏。）

一个年老的黑人到（美国）南方的一个镇上去看一个白人，问道：“汤姆先生，你没见过我的那头驴，对吗？”

“并没有，亨利，我没见过那头驴。你丢了它吗？”

“喂，我不知道我丢了它没有，可是它确实不见了。”

“亨利，我想你能够找到那头驴的最好方法是在报纸上登一个寻物启事。”

“呸！那是没有用的，汤姆先生。”

“为什么没有用？”

“哎呀，汤姆先生，你完全知道那头驴是不会阅读的。”

如果没有我的注解帮助，你会明白这个黑人的话吗？要是不，你还没有得到关于坏英语的多少知识，我希望你认识到作为一个英语学习者你该得到更多关于坏英语的知识。

我所说的坏英语，就是那些用英语讲话且为了某种原因不用好英语的人们所用的英语。它可以叫作不识字的或没有文化的人们用的英语。它在正式的写作中找不到，但在现代小说、戏剧和未受过教育而用英语讲话的人们的写作和语言中都很普遍。它跟你的英语大大不同；你的英语，要是它坏，可以说是中国式的坏。

坏英语意味着坏的语法、坏的拼写、坏的用法和坏的发音。这一切构成一个有趣而有用的研究对象。没有关于坏英语的好知识，一个人将错过现代文学中的许多东西，而且将不能理解他可能有必要接触到的任何未受过教育的英国人或美国人的话。

17 读词典

一见到这个题目，你也许会想：“只有笨蛋才会干那事。我很聪明不可能干那个。”可是我在阅读中知道有好几个确实曾经读过词典的名人。他们在词典中得到大乐，把它读得津津有味，正像有些旅行家在旅行指南和公共交通时刻表中得到乐趣一样。当英国诗人罗伯特·布朗宁决意把诗歌作为他的事业时，他把约翰逊词典中的每一个词都读了。英国作家约翰·拉斯金写信给《大牛津词典》的编者说，他读过而且研究了这本词典第一卷中的每一个词。英国历史家亨利·托马斯·巴克尔有一次郑重地说某本词典是“我曾经快乐地读完过的几本词典中的一本”。

这些人并不是笨蛋！我几乎不能说要是他们不曾读过词典，就不可能成为那样精通英语的人，但是我相信读词典毕竟不像你可能想的那样愚笨。

我从来不曾读完过任何词典；不，即使在书名页上载有我名字的词典我也不曾读完过。但是我在许多年以前惯常读完过《简明牛津词典》中的许多常用词的词条。我觉得那样做对于精通常用词和短语是很有帮助的。

这种常用词和短语可能很容易被以英语为母语的男女孩子们随时学到。可是它们不大会被不在这方面作出特别努力的中国学习者学到。读词典中常用词的词条无疑是一个大大的助益。

18 编写你自己的词典

我必须很诚恳地对曾经写信来问起我的《英语惯用法词典》的许多读者表示感谢。它总是即将出版，而事实上尚未出版。这一部分是因为我正忙于别的写作事宜；事实上我对于这本书的工作只是断断续续在做。但是主要的原因是：我是一个认真的英语学习者，我总是注意到避免粗心的或敷衍了事的工作。我几乎每天为了这本书作些笔记——这些笔记既从阅读中来，也从关心惯用法这件事的人们向我提出的问题中来。往往一个似乎简单的问题使我想起有某个重要的点，要是没有人提醒我，我可能不会想到。我希望出版的推迟将被这本书较多和较好的内容所补偿。

现在我想每个学习者可以编写他自己的惯用法词典。他可以准备一本笔记簿，把他认为有特殊兴趣的惯用法各点按照字母次序记入其中。这样的一本书将为他服务，作为一个写作良伴，虽然里面有许多东西在别人看来可能是乏味或没用的。

而且我想每个学习者可能使他的惯用法词典大到他所读的一切书的总量。我的意思是他可能为他所读的书做一个可以称作惯用法索引的东西。关于每个点，他只须记下有关的书、页和行。将来有一天他将能够指着他的藏书说：“这是我的英语惯用法词典。”这是一个何等伟大的著作啊！

的确，我但愿我有时间干这件事。而且我相信我可能这样为一本活的、有创造性的词典打下基础——完全不同于只靠一本或几本词典作依据的那种词典。

19 编写另一本你自己的词典

一段时间以前我说过每个英语学习者都可以编写他自己的惯用法词典。后来我想到每个英语学习者也可以编写为他自己用的另一种词典。因为没有一个更好的名称，我想我们不妨叫它题目词典。我指的是这样的一本词典——里面按照字母次序排列着若干题目，把关于每个题目的有用的短语和句子聚集在一起。举例来说，在“books”这个题目下可以聚集着关于书的短语和句子，但不必每个短语或句子中都有“book（s）”这个词。

这件事可以用阅读和作笔记的方法来干。没必要把短语和句子抄下。把页数和行数记下，再写出一两个词作为暗示就够了。这样一来，任何书可以只给它作一个题目索引从而使它变成一本题目词典。若干本这样的词典可以变成一本相当完备的题目词典。

我所说的题目词典在我国似乎未曾出现过。我不知道为什么没有人想到过编写一本。这种词典对于所有写英语的人将是大有用处的。因为我们时常想不起来关于某个题目的正确表达方式，而一般的词典不能满足我们的需要。

但愿我能够有时间来完成自己的建议！

20 再论该读什么

因为你为了学习写作而阅读，也因为你该学会用现代英语散文来表达你的意思，你读的东西必须是现代英语散文。一百年以前通行的表达方式今天也许不通行了。同样地，诗歌中通行的表达方式可能在散文中也不通行。

可是“现代英语散文”这个名称也得受到限制。因为你应该学会用标准英语来表达你的意思，你读的东西一定不可有太多的俚语，不论人们可能赋予俚语这个词什么意义。再有一点，因为你该学会写的是日常生活中的事物，所以你读的东西一定不可是专门性的。

还有一个限制。你读的东西必须对于你是相当容易的；花大量时间和精力在揣摩言外之意和找出各种出处及引典上，很容易使你分心，你的目的是学习英语写作。

21 为了学习表达的艺术而阅读

当你读一篇短篇小说时，你可能只为了乐趣而读它。当你读一篇传略时，你可能只为了知识而读它。但因为你是英语学习者，我认为你该时常为了学习表达的艺术而阅读。而且为了这个目的，你可能读短篇小说或传略、读杂文或新闻，以及任何用好的当代英语写成的东西。

假使你善于观察的话，即使读一小段，你也可能学到好几个表达方式。试着读下面《英国广播公司现代英语》的几段文字，注意下列的各点惯用法：（指英语原文，不指译文。）

一百多年以前，她开办了第一家专为妇女服务的英国医院。在英格兰这种医院现在还很少。这家医院在伦敦的尤斯顿路上。它的位置意味着全英格兰的妇女能够十分容易地到达。

当她开办这家医院时，她的目的是向妇女们提供一个能够受到女医生和女护士医疗的地方。她也想这家医院在女医生们很难找到工作的一个时期内为她们提供职位。近来当局曾经企图关闭这家医院。他们说它又老式又非常浪费钱。可是政府已经决定让这家医院继续开着。许多人为这家医院所提供的有价值的服务将继续下去而感到很高兴。

用这个方法，你将很快地学习表达的艺术，也许每天一两段的积累会在一个月内教会你几百个表达方式，而这些表达方式将大大改进你的写作。而且要是你能够——我相信你能够——每天把已经用这个方法读过的一两段文字记入心中，效果就将更好。

22 用模仿学习英语会话

我认识几个曾经在英国或美国学习过，可是并不能把英语讲得正确的人；他们在语法、习语和发音方面都会犯错误。但不久前的一天我碰到一个讲完美英语的中国妇女。她的英语水平似乎并不很高；但是我相信她讲英语比我更像一个英国人。经我询问，才知道她从未进过高等学校，但只被英国教师教过英语。她讲英语不像讲外语。她这样讲英语并非因为她认为这样讲是对的，而是因为她不知道任何别的讲法。她没有，而且大概也不知道中国的英语学习者所特有的无数错误。

这个妇女用不自觉的模仿的方法学会了讲英语。这无疑是最好的方法。但是并非所有的学习者都有这样学习的机会。可是也有不得已而求其次的方法；我指的是自觉的模仿。假使有人在英国或美国度过好几年而不能讲正确的英语，这是因为他们在外国时并不曾作过多少自觉的模仿。他们把自己的错误带了过去，再把它们带了回来，虽然他们该把错误留在那里。

我大概会被人误解，被人认为我的意思是一切到英国或美国去的人们应该只是为了学习英语会话这个目的而这样做。不；我的意思只是：通过仔细的模仿，一个人能够容易学到英语，而且不仅在以英语为母语的国家中，在中国的某些地方也一样。我同样认为一个人学习英语的目的并不只是在于讲它。但讲得好能使人写得好，语言主要是一个口头的东西，这点必须在中国的英语学习者中被大家认识到。

23 模仿的好处和坏处

时常听到有英语学习者读了一两本经典著作就努力去模仿它们的文体。可是事实上文体是不能被模仿的。不同的作家有不同的文体。他们并不努力去写得像他们写的那样。所以模仿任何文体往往导致矫揉造作。

而且被模仿的文体要是一百多年前的著作的文体，结果更加不好。我们是20世纪80年代的人，不该写19世纪80年代的英语。

我建议你别把某个特殊的文体作为目的。注意写正确的、简单的、合于习语的、明白的英语，如此而已。

但是模仿并不总是坏的。往往模仿某个东西是重要的。在个人的文体不适宜的场合，模仿是做到正确的唯一方法。举例来说，在写关于某事物的广告时，你必须模仿你所见过的类似的广告。虽然你可能很广泛地读过一般读物，要是你不曾读到某种广告，你就不可能写出一个好的广告。

你这样做将是有益的：收集若干短的广告、请帖、启示、收条、借据、商业合同等。当你需要写这种东西中的一种时，你只需做一些模仿和改变。下面是一个普通的请帖：

M·S·亚当斯夫妇请L·J·威廉斯夫妇光临，在五月十七日星期六晚上七点钟共进晚餐。地址是明星街八十六号。

这封请帖是M·S·亚当斯夫妇写给L·J·威廉斯夫妇的。只要把它放在你面前，你就能写出一个新的。你只需改变一下姓名、星期几、某月某日、时间和地址就行了。

24 舌和笔

英美人问他们所遇到的中国人“你会讲英语吗？”远比问“你会写英语吗？”要多得多。如果听到有人学了几年英语却不会讲，他们也许会觉得可笑。

事实上，语言主要是需要开口说话的。学习英语但不尝试去讲它是不足为训的。而且像读一本语法书那样去读一本会话书是荒谬的。

不但如此，因为平常写的英语和平常讲的英语差异不大，学习讲是学习写的一个很好的方法。英语讲得好的人也能写得好。在用舌用得正确的场合用笔也就用得正确。许多日用的短语和结构对于在谈话中使用它们的人来说是自然而然的。举例来说，一个讲出“in fact”和“as a matter of fact”的人不可能写出并不存在的“in a fact”、“as a fact”和“as a matter of the fact”。如果英语不完美的人最明显的标志是介词误用，那么好的讲话对于如何学习将那些难用的小词用得合于习语是大有帮助的。一个讲出“sick of”、“interested in”、“prefer…to…”的人不用刻意努力就会在正确的地方写出同样正确的介词。

我认为，一个学生向他的教师用英语讲他所关心的任何东西，每当表达错误时由教师来改正，这将不但是学讲而且是学写的好方法。可惜的是，依我看来这在有许多学生的教室中是行不通的。

25 只是不曾知道

你有相当好的语法知识。你有三千或四千个词的词汇量。你知道一千或两千个习语。你对于惯用法多少是仔细的。你应该能够写得相当好。

可你是否能够做到？要是你不能，为什么不能？我想你的困难之一是往往不能表达你所要说的话。你不能，可是当你看到你的意思被能表达它的人表达出来了，你大概会这么想：“那看起来很容易。我只是不曾知道。”

你是对的。你只是不曾知道。几个普通词只是被某个精通英语的人按照一个简单的语法次序排列起来，那就表达了你的意思，可是你不知道选择什么普通词和怎样去排列它们。

这是中国英语学习者的一个很普遍的困难。这是因为他们读得不够广泛，也不够仔细。有几千个一般不被看作习语的有用的表达方式。它们很容易理解，所以易于被人忽略。可是忽略它们的人将会忘记它们，而且在需要的时候想不到用它们。

你在储藏了许多有用的短语和句子以前不能学到写作自如，而要储藏这些东西又非广泛而仔细的阅读不可。

26 这么多的要点

读了许多我所说的关于惯用法的要点，有几个读者告诉我，他们认为要记住这么多看来并没有什么规则的要点简直是不可能的。他们想知道，是否所有写正确英语的人都牢记着这些点，并且每当写作时都注意到它们；是否还有人就算没注意这类小小的点也学会了如何把英语写得很好。

是的，大部分的这种要点看来是小小的点。然而正是这种点显示出一个人是否精通了英语。偶然的语法错误当然必须避免，它们很可能只是由于不小心，也很可能并不是英语不完美的人所特有的。但是习语上的失误总是暴露出某人不熟悉正确的英语。所以，看似不重要的惯用法点是值得所有想把英语写得正确的人注意的。

至于把它们牢记在心，生来就用这门语言的人也许不必作出任何自觉的努力。可以说他们是凭直觉学到惯用法的。他们每天讲英语，许多合于习语的表达方式和结构的使用对他们来说是第二天性，所以他们在讲话时讲得正确的写起来也绝不会错。

对于中国的英语学习者来说，情况截然不同，因为他们大多数是在读英语而不是讲英语。他们必须细心去掌握对以英语为母语的人来说十分自然的许多惯用法点。

我所说的惯用法点并不像你认为的敌人那样难以对付。密切注意它们有助于人们去征服它们。还有一点，以英语为母语的人从讲话中学到的东西你可能通过朗读学到；虽然也许慢一些，但朗读会像讲话一样帮助你。朗读也有胜于讲话的方面，因为你在读好的书面英语时，没有从所受教育不多的人们口中学到常见语误、不规范语式和用词不当的危险。

27 怎样表达这个意思

你的问题不是说什么而是怎样说。你也许时常有不知道怎样表达一个概念或一个思想的时候。举例来说，假使你恰巧不知道“thermometer”这个词，你可能不能表达量温度的那个玻璃管（温度计）的概念。另举一例，假定你被要求用书面英语来申请一个职位，但你觉得自己做不到。假定你请一个朋友代你写了那封信。你读了信并且理解到位。你认识到自己不曾想到把那些简单的词按照简单的次序来安排。你的确有话要说，可是你不知道怎样来说！所以学习写作很有必要。

事实上，你时常需要表达的概念和思想，有许多在之前就已经被人表达过了。随便找本书挑一页仔细阅读，你大概会找到几个能帮助你表达事物的表达方式。这种表达方式中有许多可能由你看来太过简单而不值得多加注意，可事实却是：你不可能创造它们，要是你不曾注意它们，也就不能使用它们。有许多中国的英语学习者读过不少语法书和作文书，也作过改正句子和改写句子的习题，可是他们连过得去的英语都写不出。症结所在是：他们或许读得不够广泛，或许读得不够仔细，或许不曾把足够的、曾经认为太容易理解而不值得牢记的词、短语和句子记入心中。

28 一个“愚笨的”写作原则

修辞学书也许告诉你许多写作的原则。但我将解释的那个原则是我不曾在任何修辞学书中见到过的。我自己在多年前发现了它，一发现就开始实行。我发现它很有用，所以相信你采用了也将会得益。这个原则是：你不该用在阅读中未见到过的任何结构、表达方式和词组。

在我看来一般的中国英语学习者有相当好的语法知识和相当大的词汇量，而且当他写英语的时候，会按照自己的语法知识和对于词义的理解来造句。结果是：他的英语往往看似正确但并不真正正确。因为正确的英语和惯用法有关，不只是语法和词汇。在修改的作文中，我经常被问为什么把某个词或结构改成了另外一个。好吧，我不是每次都能说出为什么。我改用了那个词或结构是因为英国人会在那里用那个词或结构。

假定你将写“He was rich to live on luxury”这句话。这句句子对吗？“He was”肯定是对的，你见过许多次。“He was rich”也是对的，你见过不止一次。“He was rich to…”——你从来没见过，对吗？不，你从来没见过，所以你不该放它过去。“on luxury”——你从来没见过这个表达方式，所以你不该用它。正确的句子应该是：“He was rich enough to live in luxury.”

你认为我的原则很愚蠢吗？看起来是的。可是我认为它很有帮助，而且我希望你将试着使用它。

有个问题当然会被提出：我并不总是记得自己是否见过某个结构、表达方式或者词组，我不是几乎什么都不能写了吗？你应该记得，你应读得仔细，你应该从阅读中学习表达的艺术。我希望你不曾忘记题目为“为了学习表达的艺术而阅读”的那篇文章。

29 对于写作的一个帮助

你时常碰到完全理解但不能把它译成易读汉语的词、短语或结构吗？我相信你是时常碰到的；我相信你读过足够多的英语所以会有这种经历。我自己时常碰到这种情况。

你大概见过像“They will not return for many days to come”这样的句子。你懂它的意思是：他们将在许多天以后回来，或者他们将只在许多天过去以后才回来。可是你能够把它译成易读的汉语吗？很普通的表达方式“simply cannot”中的“simply”这个词我看很难译成汉语。我觉得有别于“possible”的“probable”这个很普通的词也很难译成汉语。至于像“you cannot be too careful”这一句，我甚至认为是无法翻译的。

这一切和许多别的词、短语和结构似乎没有我们所说的汉语对应语。你理解它们，可是你不能把它们译成汉语。就是说，你不能把它们译得既准确又明白。

我并不是建议你试译这些难弄的东西。请注意我的话：不要试译它们。只要把它们记牢。当你写作的时候，它们会对你有用。它们将帮助你写出更合于习语的英语。

顺便说一点，“society”是中国的英语学习者用得较多的一个词。但是我很少见有人把它用于“companionship”一义，例如在“The old man enjoys the society of young people”中。这是因为中国的学习者通常不把一个英语单词用在不容易译成汉语的一个词义中。我希望你现在将得益于我的暗示。

30 供考虑的几个错误

读者，你在下面几句句子中发现错误吗？

1.He is studying for serving the people.

2.I have met him for five times.

3.Pardon me for I give you so much trouble.

4.For I am a Chinese，I love China.

如果你在这些句子中没有发现任何错误，你的英语知识还不够。这些句子都是错误的。虽然我相信你可能认为它们是十分合于语法的，但据我所知，你不会在英国人的英语中找到它们。

让我来解释一下：（1）表示目的的“for”后面可以接名词（例如在“for pleasure”中），但通常不接动名词。（2）“for the…time”是对的，但是“for…times”是错的。（3）“for”用作连词是很弱的，不可引导任何重要的原因。（4）“for”是并列连词，不是从属连词。

现在请读改正后的句子：

1.He is studying （in order） to serve the people.

2.I have met him five times.

3.Pardon me for giving you so much trouble.

4.I love China，for I am a Chinese.

既然你知道了关于“for”这个词在使用中的四个普遍错误，我希望你将注意到在自己的写作中避免它们。这种错误通常并不在语法书和作文书中说起。可是它们在中国的英语学习者中非常普遍。而且我见到在许多别的普通英语单词的使用中有着相似的错误。我认为对这种错误的讨论应该成为每一本专为中国学习者写的作文书的一大部分。可惜的是，许多中国的学习者正在学习语法和修辞学的规则及原则，却完全不注意这种错误。

一本好的英语作文书尚待著作。你希望见到一本这样的书出版吗？

31 供考虑的另外几个错误

读了我的那篇《供考虑的几个错误》之后，一个读者写信请我提供更多的错误让他考虑。我希望你将有兴趣读下面的四句句子，看看它们是否包含着错误：

1.May I introduce you my brother？

2.Please favour me an early reply.

3.I will inform you the result by and by.

4.He has presented me a book.

我想你读到过语法中的双宾语。你已经知道一个动词可能带两个宾语，一个叫直接宾语，一个叫间接宾语。你见过类似下面各句句子：

1.Can you recommend me a tailor？

2.Please send me an early reply.

3.I will tell you the truth by and by.

4.He has lent me a book.

可是你见过像第一组中的那种句子吗？我在中国的英语学习者写的英语中时常见到它们，可是从来不曾看到英国人这样写。在一个英国人写的东西中，这些句子将是：

1.May I introduce my brother to you？

2.Please favour me with an early reply.

3.I will inform you of the result by and by.

4.He has presented a book to me.

He has presented me with a book.

现在你可以知道“introduce”、“favour”、“inform”和“present”这几个动词不能带双宾语，虽然“recommend”、“send”、“tell”和“lend”可以。语法书说到双宾语，给出几个例子，可是它们并不告诉你只有几个动词可以带双宾语，也不提任何不可能有这个结构的动词。所以在我看来，我刚才说到的四个错误在中国的学习者中是十分普遍的，甚至曾经仔细读过语法的人们也会犯这样的错。

老实说，语法不能在写作中给你多少帮助。它告诉你什么是对的，可是它不太告诉你什么是错的。当你在自己的语法书中见到了某一种结构，就在自己的写作中使用它。可能你不会犯错误，但也可能犯了一个错误。

32 短比长好

我曾经读过希莱埃·贝洛克的一篇杂文，其中作者说道：“我忍不住要说愚蠢的评论家关于英语中的句子应该是长还是短的一切讨论简直是浪费纸张。”

我完全同意他。一句句子的好坏并不是由长短决定的。长短是检验句子好坏的假标准。认为能写一串长句是某人精通英语的证明是错误的；认为简单而明白的英语要求每句至多只可有若干个词也是错误的。

我记得自己曾经前后按照这两个错误的想法行事。在一段时间内，我在一句句子里就语法和意思允许的范围内尽量多用词。结果导致文体过分庄严。后来又有一段时期，我努力做到每一句是语法上的简单句，而且像入门书中的句子那样容易理解。结果是不自然的简单。

但是，我就这两种错误向一切学习英语写作的人提出警告，我认为写长句的错误是两者中更普遍的，学习者应该更加注意去避免它，这不只是因为在那些对于词、短语和合于习语的结构没有多少实践的人们手中，长句比短句难于处理得多。决不可假定包含在一个长句中的语法或习语上的错误可能不容易被发现。

33 比扩大词汇量更重要的一件事

“怎样扩大我的词汇量”——这是我被问过的最普遍的问题之一。的确，一般中国的英语学习者的词汇量非常有限，可是我认为对于他有限的词汇量，有比使它增加更为重要的事要做。他还得识更多的词才能精通英语。同样，他只有对自身词汇量中的大多数词获得进一步的了解，才能精通英语。

因为他会在自己并不真正懂得一个词的时候以为懂得了它。我所说的懂得一个词，是指懂得它真正的唯一意义或各个意义，而不是指一个或多个我们所谓的它的汉语对应语。以“student”这个词为例。我们中国人经常误用、误解这个词。那些人错误地把所有的学童都称作“students”，而且只因他们自己不在校，当被人称作“students of English”时就感到生气。事实上一个学童并不是一个“student”，而一个英语研习者是一个“student of English”，虽然他可能是一个老年人并且可能已经写了许多论述英语的书。

我们易于忽略普通词。除了误用和误解外，我们易于忽略它们的各种意义，或者可以说各种合于习语的用法。以“read”这个词为例，你当然认为对它很熟悉，可是你知道下面例解的各种意义（或用法）吗？

Can your read dreams？

The baby cannot read the clock.

He is reading her thoughts.

The sentence reads like a paraphrase.

Don’t read too much into the text.

The thermometer reads 68°.

要是不，你几乎还不能说已经熟悉了“read”这个词。

34 让这个词成为你自己的

一个词在你能够正确使用它以前还不是你自己的。你可能知道某个词的一两个汉语对应语，但也许仍不能正确地用它。我恐怕一般中国的学习者所能译成汉语的英语词，不到一半真正可以说是他自己的。

随机举几个例子：“wise”、“probable”、“congratulate”、“equip”、“personality”、“novel”、“nevertheless”、“meanwhile”——这些词有许多中国的学习者可能“认得”却不能正确地使用它们。你认为你能正确地使用它们吗，读者？请仔细地读下面各句，看看你在任何一句中是否能找到错误。我必须事先告诉你所有印作斜体的词是被误用的，如果你没能找到它们中的某一个错误，那就证明那个词还不是你自己的。

1.The boy reads the book very well，and so he may be called a very wise boy.

2.He is probable to pass the examination.

3.Let’s congratulate her success.

4.A radio has been equipped in the hall.

5.He never pays his debts；his personality is bad.

6.I don’t like such novels as these short stories.

7.Nevertheless poor，the girl was neatly dressed.

8.I bought some bananas and meanwhile some apples.

这些用斜体印的词中有多少是你自己的？有多少不是你自己的？在一本好的词典中查出那些不是你自己的词来，找出它们为什么在这些句子中是错的，并且学习它们的正确用法。

请牢记：不是每一个你认为理解的词真正是你自己的。

35 关于用词的一个警告

有一次，我从一个曾经在英国学习多年的人写的一篇文章中见到“destruct”这个词，它明显地被用作“destroy”来解释了。另外一次，我在一本上海出版的有图画的杂志中见到同一个词，它显然用了相同的意义。还有一次，我见到“destroyal”这个词被一位显然受过良好英语教育的人用作“destruction”来解释。

可是事实上动词是“destroy”，名词是“destruction”，并不存在“destruct”和“destroyal”这两个词。

我认为用那些不存在的词的人们应该认识那些正确的词。但他们很粗心，只抓住了看来像他们所要的词的一组字母。的确这些并不存在的词也许会被所有见到它们的人所理解。但是它们当然不能因此而有存在的理由。

在中国的英语学习者写的英语中，我时常见到并不真正存在的词。他们用这种词，或许因为他们不认得那些正确的词，或许因为他们只是粗心——更有甚者因为相信他们自己有着构词法的良好知识。无论如何，这是并未精通英语的人们所特有的一个很不好的毛病。

所以，我建议你别用任何你不确定看到标准作家们使用过的词，有疑问便查词典。

另有一言相告。可能你有时用的一个词的确记载在词典中，但它并不通用，你用它并非因为你确定它是存在的，而只因为你以为它是你所要的那个词。举例来说，因为你知道名词“aggression”和形容词“aggressive”，你可能就用了动词“aggress”——可这是一个很不普遍的词。

36 准确的那个词

不久前某天我作一篇翻译，尝试了好几个词才得到了那个能表达我所要的细微意义的词。那个词是“admonish”，我尝试过的词是“advise”、“counsel”、“warn”、“exhort”、“reprove”、“rebuke”和“reprimand”。大体说来“admonish”的意义是“exhort”或“reprove”，但是它带有亲切、和善跟严肃相结合的含义，也带有警告和规劝的含义。

有时我想了又想，斟酌了又斟酌，还想不出那个准确的词。在这种情况下，我只得用我认为最近于所要表达意义的那个词。这是用英语写作的人们的一个普遍的经验，也是他们应该引以为憾的一个经验。

同义词的研究无疑对于仔细选词很有帮助；仔细选词对于良好写作特质之一的精确是必要的。但是有两个错误我想是学习者应该警惕的。一个错误是依赖英汉词典中所给的所谓汉语对应语。另一个错误是研究同义词条中的解释而忽略那些例证。

可是正确的英语大部分使用常见词，常见词的正确使用，依靠它们的“意义”少，而依靠所说的惯用法多。举例来说，一个写正确英语的人也许不能详细地告诉你“for”和“to”有什么区别，但是他永远都会用那个对词而非另一个。他用那个准确的词是出于习惯而非仔细选词的结果。在这件事中，研究同义词是没有帮助的。一个人只能靠着阅读合于习语的英语而进步——这件事是不论多少词的研究也不能替代的。

37 “文学英语”指什么

修辞学书和作文书告诉我们，英语可以略分成（1）文学英语和（2）口语英语。文学英语应该用于写作中，而口语英语不应该。

是的，我们——我指你——应该学习写文学英语。但是“文学英语”究竟指什么？什么是文学英语？恐怕有许多中国的英语学习者认为文学英语显然是一种文雅的英语。他们认为它绝对不同于用于谈话、向一个班级的学生演说或向商店写订货事务信中的英语。他们认为在文学英语中脸不是“face”而是“visage”，一个人永远不是“goes”而总是“repairs”，虽然不是全部，却大部分是藻语。

可是这个想法是错误的——这个想法阻碍了人写出自然且纯粹的英语。文学英语，实际上并非指限用于文学中的英语。它不是一种明显文雅的英语。它只是受过良好教育的英国人和美国人在写作中用的普通英语——这里的写作，不一定为了文学目的而写作，往往是为了实用目的而写作。在文学英语中脸几乎总是“face”，很难得是“visage”，一个人几乎总是“goes”，很难得是“repairs”。

虽然“口语英语”指会话中用的英语，并不因而可以说会话中的英语必然都太口语化而不可用于写作。受过良好教育的英国人和美国人用于会话中的大部分词和习语必然是文学英语。

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作者：葛传椝

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PREFACE

The present volume is a revised edition of my A Textbook of English Composition first published in 1941. The revising has been done in accordance with the same strongly held beliefs as those that I acted upon in writing the original work. These beliefs are as follows:

1. Such a book ought never to lose sight of the fact that it is intended for Chinese students, who have their special difficulties and therefore need special advice and warning. Since they have not been brought up in English-speaking families and since they study English chiefly as something written rather than spoken, they are ignorant of a great many everyday expressions that are only too common on the lips of those whose mother tongue is English. On the other hand, they are quite safe from a great many faults in diction and construction that most English and American students of composition have to take care to unlearn before they can hope to write respectable English.

2. Such a book ought to aim at the art of writing English for prac-tical purposes instead of at authorship. The object of the average student of English composition, whatever his nationality, is to learn to express himself in written English, not to learn to become a professional author.

3. Such a book ought not to confine itself to the treatment of school compositions. While most students may never wish to write professionally, it does not follow that all that they will ever have to do in the way of English composition is to write short essays on given subjects, or what is called in American schools “themes”.

4. Such a book ought not to content itself with imparting a knowledge of the art of writing English. Principles and rules are of little use until they are applied.

5. Such a book ought to give such principles and rules; only as are based upon the actual practice of good authors. Some of those found in nearly every popular manual of composition serve no definite purposes and therefore prove to be only so many handicaps in the path of the writer of English, who has enough to take care of without the interference of those unnecessary “technical” restrictions.

6. Such a book ought to teach present-day English only. living as they do at the present day, students of composition should in no way be taught or encouraged to follow the usage and practice of authors of bygone days.

7. Such a book ought to be written on the assumption that its readers are careful students but that they are not students of precocious abil-ity. No book can teach anything to careless students or to those who feel little or no interest in the subject. Nor is it advisable to take too much for granted in Chinese students of English, who are necessarily supposed to have made progress in their studies with the help of dictionary and grammar.

Whatever shortcomings some critical readers may find in this book, I take a pride in pointing out that the whole work is my own. I should like to make special mention of the fact that the illustrative examples have been, except in a very few cases, taken at first hand, and that for the purpose of collecting such examples I read a very large number of books, newspapers, and magazines. Not a single sentence has been quoted from any work written in the nineteenth century. In this new edition a large number of newer examples have been added or substituted, most of the authors happily still alive.

It remains for me to thank Comrade Yu Shiwen ( Conyoon) for his help in the preparation of this revised edition. I have also to express my gratitude to the late Comrade Gui shaoxu, who was the first to encourage me to write a book of this kind.

Ge Chuangui

October, 1983

CHAPTER Ⅰ INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER Ⅱ MECHANICS OF COMPOSITION

CHAPTER Ⅲ LEARNING TO WRITE

CHAPTER Ⅳ WRITING CORRECTLY

CHAPTER Ⅴ WRITING CORRECTLY (CONTINUED)

CHAPTER Ⅵ WRITING WELL

CHAPTER Ⅶ PARAGRAPHS

CHAPTER Ⅷ FORMS OF COMPOSITION

CHAPTER Ⅰ INTRODUCTION

1. Composition and Compositions.The title of this book, which is now The Writing of English, was originally A Textbook of English Composition. The last word is “Composition”, not “Compositions”. “Composition” is an uncountable noun, meaning the art or practice of writing. “Compositions” (plural) is a countable noun, meaning pieces of writing; the singular form “composition” (as in “a composition” and “this composition”) means a piece of writing.

“Piece(s) of writing”, however, is a vague term. A single sentence is a piece of writing; a book of many volumes is also a piece of writing. Both may therefore be called “compositions”. Between these two extremes there are various kinds of compositions, in whatever way they may be classified. But “compositions” has the narrower sense of school compositions or “student compositions”, that is, short essays written on given subjects as educational exercises, or what is known in American schools as “themes”.

2. Purpose of this Book.This book is not confined to compositions in the narrower sense though these are by no means neglected. Nor does it claim to teach the writing of novels, short stories, dramas, poems, literary criticism, newspaper editorials, or scholarly treatises. It gives principles, suggestions, models, and exercises that will help you to express yourself well in English no matter what form of writing you may happen to do.

This book is written for you, who are supposed to be a Chinese student of English having a vocabulary of several thousand words and a fair knowledge of grammar, but having had little practice in writing, and even less in speaking, the language. From the use of this book you may expect to acquire the art of expression in English — on condition that you do all the exercises carefully, preferably under the guidance of a competent teacher, and act upon all the principles and suggestions as far as possible.

3. Your Advantage.As I have said in the above, you “are supposed to be a Chinese student of English ... having had little practice in writing, and even less in speaking the language”. If you had been brought up in an English-speaking family, you would no doubt have more freedom of expression in the use of English than you have. But you have your advantage too. Just because you have not been brought up in an English-speaking family, you will be saved a great deal of trouble of trying to unlearn many errors and faults peculiar to those having been brought up on English. You are not, for instance, in the habit of using the notorious double negative, as in “I don't know nothing about him”, which many English-speaking children say when they ought to say “I know nothing about him” or “I don't know anything about him”.

Much of the material that is usually found in books of composition written for English-speaking students is therefore quite useless to you — perhaps as useless as any method of getting rid of the cigarette habit would be to non-smokers.

4. Your Special Difficulties.Being the kind of student you are, you have certain special difficulties in learning English composition. You are perhaps a better speller than the average English or American schoolboy is; you have perhaps had more practice in parsing and analysis than he has; you perhaps know a great many words that he does not know. But you find it much more difficult to express many common ideas and thoughts than he does; you are far less good at the use of many common words than he is; you may even make such ridiculous mistakes as he never dreams of.

A large part of this book is devoted to helping you to conquer these difficulties.

5. Rhetoric.The two words “and Rhetoric” might have been added to the title of this book. You would like to have them added, wouldn't you? At any rate, you must not think that the high-sounding word “rhetoric” as used in the titles of so many American books of English composition has anything “deep” in it. In fact, it is practically equivalent to “composition” or “the art or practice of writing”, as can be seen from the following definition of the term quoted from a very popular book of “Composition and Rhetoric”: “Rhetoric consists of the study of the principles governing the clear, forceful, and elegant expression of thoughts”. Such books, which are often called “rhetorics” (with the singular “a rhetoric”) in America, do not teach anything that is not taught in those having only the more homely word “composition” in their titles.

If I have dropped the word “rhetoric” from the title of this book, however, it is not merely because the term would sound more or less like an Americanism or because it would not have much meaning. There are two other reasons. First, this book is not a formal treatise on rhetoric in the old-fashioned sense of the word: it does not make a parade of the many jaw-breaking rhetorical terms that are of little use except as an essential part of a knowledge of rhetoric, such as “asyndeton”, “oxymoron”, and “syllepsis”. Secondly, this book abstains from advising the observance of many rules that exist only from a narrowly rhetorical point of view: it mentions some of them only to condemn them as superstitions, such as “A sentence should not begin with ‘and’” and “A sentence should not end with a preposition”.

CHAPTER Ⅱ MECHANICS OF COMPOSITION

6. Materials.Use white paper; either ruled or unruled when you use pen and ink, but preferably unruled when you use a typewriter. You had better use sheets of 8 , by 11 inches (known as the standard size). Use blue or blue-black ink; no other color is to be tolerated. If you use a typewriter, you had better use a black ribbon.

7. One Side or Two Sides?Whether you use a pen or a typewriter, you had better write on one side of the paper only. In order to save paper, you may write on both sides. In this case, write “PTO” (=Please Turn Over) or simply “Over” at the bottom of the front page, so as to indicate that there is writing on the other side. “PTO” is the usual English form, and “Over” is the usual American form.

8. Margins.Leave a margin of about an inch at the top, at the bottom, and on both sides. Owing to the unequal lengths of English words, the right margin may not be quite even. But you must take care to make it as even as possible.

9. Spacing.If you use a typewriter, use double spacing. If you use a pen, use single spacing. You may, however, use double spacing, if you think single spacing is not enough for the corrections and insertions that are likely to be made by either your teacher or yourself.

Leave one space between words and two spaces between sentences. But when a sentence ends just at the right margin, do not leave any space before the following sentence, which should begin just at the left margin.

Indent the first line of a paragraph about an inch. When you happen to use single spacing in typewriting (which, as can be gathered from the above, is not advisable), use double spacing between paragraphs.

Paragraphs will be dealt with in Chapter VII. One thing deserves mention here, however; it is that in reporting a conversation, every speech, however short, and with or without such an expression as “he said” or “she replied”, is usually indented as a paragraph, though it is not quite a paragraph as defined in that chapter. It is indented merely to make the conversation clear and pleasant.

.1.

“Oh, Miss Worth...”

“Yes?”

“Are you quite well?”

Nancy raised her eyebrows. “Perfectly, thank you.”

— BEVERLEY NICHOLS, Self.

.2.

“I am late” she said hurriedly when she saw him already dressed. “I overslept myself.”

“It doesn't matter” he replied. “I am not going any more to that foreign school.”

“What now?” she asked, surprised, setting down the tray.

“I am going to the public university.” he announced.

“But that School!” She cried. “Anybody can go to it!”

“Therefore I can go.” he declared.

“Your father won't let you,” Peony retorted “nor your grand-father”.

“Then I won't eat.” I-wan said with energy.

— PEARL S BUCK, The Patriot.

.3.

“What is your name?” slowly asks the man.

“Bernice —”

“Bernice!”

“Yes, Bernice Lane.”

“Mr Lane — Oliver Lane's little girl.” repeats the man, or is he making the inquiry.

“Yes, I am. And when I have grown a big girl I am going to try and paint a nice picture of daddy.”

“Let me see what you can do today. I know that you must have lots of pictures of — of daddy.”

“Hundreds of them, and they make him laugh because they look so funny, and never really like him.”

— ELEANOR THORNE, The Widening Path.

10. Titles.Write the title in the centre of the first line; or, if it is too long for one line, in the first and second lines. In this case, make the part in the second line shorter than that in the first line, and centre the second part as well as the first part.

How a Knowledge of English has Helped

me in my Studies and Work

Begin the first word and all other important words in the title with a capital letter. The articles, prepositions, and conjunctions are usually unimportant.

When you use a typewriter, you may write all words in the title in capital letters.

HOW A KNOWLEDGE OF ENGLISH HAS HELPED

ME IN MY STUDIES AND WORK

This is not necessary, however.

Do not underline the title. Do not use a full stop after the title even if it is a grammatically complete sentence. A question mark or a mark of exclamation, however, should be used when necessary. Do not enclose the title in quotation marks unless it happens to be a quotation. The quotation marks are unnecessary even if the title is a quotation.

Leave one or two lines blank below the title.

11. Paging.Number the pages with Arabic numerals in the upper right-hand corner of each sheet except the first, which is not usually numbered. You may use a full stop after the number. You may also enclose it in a small circle. But there seems to be no reason for doing either.

12. Folding.Fold your manuscript lengthwise down the centre. See that the front page is concealed, not exposed. When your manuscript consists of so many sheets that you cannot fold it conveniently, leave it flat and fasten it with a paper clip, but do not roll it.

13. Endorsing.Place your folded manuscript so that the crease is at the left and the loose edges are at the right. Then endorse it one or two inches below the top. The simplest form of endorsement is your name and the date.

Wang Ailin

10 September 1983

But some other data may be added.

Wang Ailin

Senior III

What a knowledge of English

has Done for Me

10 September 1983

14. Spelling.As I have said in Section 4, “You are perhaps a better speller than the average English or American schoolboy is”. I do not quite agree with a certain English teacher of English who writes somewhere: “To spell correctly is a difficult thing even for English people, still more is so it for Chinese students”. I am fairly sure that you do not write “recieve” for “receive”, nor write “principle” for “principal” or the other way round, though such errors are not uncommon among English-speaking people, even among college students.

When you are in any doubt about the spelling of a word, you have simply to refer to a dictionary. Where two or more spellings are given, the first is the one preferred by the dictionary. The matter is simple enough.

There is one point, however, that deserves your attention. It is uniformity. You must not spell the same word in the same composition in different ways. This rule you can easily keep by following the same dictionary.

As you may be aware, there are English spellings and American spellings. For instance, “colour” and “honour” are English, but “color” and “honor” are American. This is not the place to state the pros and cons of either form. It seems, however, that many English people consider the American form unorthodox, and that many Americans consider the English form old-fashioned. My advice is always to keep the rule of uniformity in the same composition.

15. Syllabication.Syllabication matters in composition only as far as dividing a word at the end of a line is concerned. Words of one syllable, even if comparatively long (such as “through” and “strength”) cannot be divided at all. When a word is divided between two lines, use a hyphen at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of the second line.

Syllabication is not so simple a matter as you may think. A syllable in written English may or may not correspond to a syllable in spoken English. This is partly because written words may be divided into syl-lables according to their derivation instead of according to their pronunciation. The subject is too large to go into here. You have simply to refer to a dictionary in cases of doubt. (Not all dictionaries, however, indicate syllabication.)

16. Underlining.Single underlining has the same value in handwriting and typewriting as italics have in printing. Double underlining has the same value as small capitals.

composition = composition

composition = COMPOSITION

Capital letters are of course just put in capital letters.

When a small letter is mistakenly written for a capital letter, you may use three lines under it to indicate that it should be a capital letter.

composition = COMPOSITION

To indicate bold-faced type, use a wavy line.

composition = composition

Small capitals and bold-faced type are not used in ordinary composition. The uses of capital letters you have doubtless learnt from books of grammar. The uses of italics, however, are not usually mentioned in such books, and so are worth mentioning here.

17. Italics.

1. Use italics for titles of newspapers, magazines, and books.

China Daily (Newspaper)

China Reconstructs (Magazine)

The Writing of English (Book)

Titles of articles in newspapers and magazines, and of chapters, sections, poems, etc. in books are usually set in quotation marks, not put in italics. Even titles of newspapers, magazines, and books may be enclosed in quotation marks instead of being put in italics.

“China Daily” (Newspaper)

“China Reconstructs” (Magazine)

“The Writing of English” (Book)

You must not, however, use both italics and quotation marks for the same title.

Wrong:“China Daily”

“China Reconstructs”

“The Writing of English”

When a title begins with an article, definite or indefinite, take care to include the article in the title.

Right: The Times

Wrong: Times

It is quite obvious why the “the” before “London” is not in italics in the following quotation:

We have the files of The Times, Mr Barnard, up to a few years ago. But only, I regret to say, the London Times. — JAMES HILTON.

2. Use italics for names of ships.

the Mainethe Tatania the Shandong the Jiangxin

3. Use italics for unnaturalized non-English words (that is, what English-speaking people call “foreign words”).

vice versa (Latin)

force majeure (French)

kultur (German)

viva (Italian)

troika (Russian)

Such words are marked in some dictionaries by italics and in some others by two preceding vertical lines.

kultur ‖ kultur

Not all dictionaries agree about the question whether a certain non-English word is already naturalized or not.

4. Use italics for words, letters, and figures merely as such.

composition rhetoric (Words)

a b y z (Letters)

1 3 1234 66666 (Figures)

But quotation marks may be used instead of italics, as in the case of this book.

5. Italics may be used to call attention to a word or words illustrating a particular point, as in many illustrative sentences in this book.

6. Italics are sometimes used for emphasis.

(1) She never makes me laugh. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) What would he do if I-ko accepted — with her? — PEARL S BUCK.

(3) Imagine his coming to anything so modern! — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

(4) She was the landlady: efficient, stylish, diplomatic, and tremendously experienced. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(5) And this is a sort of accident, isn't it? — JAMES HILTON.

(6) It will be a treat. — EVELYN WAUGH.

(7) But nobody knows when, where, or if his brother Phineas returned. — G K CHESTERTON.

(8) Can you think what would happen if we stayed here? — H E BATES.

(9) I have been talking rot. — H G WELLS.

(10) I am delighted to see you. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

18. Omissions, Corrections, and Insertions.Your manuscript should of course be as neat as possible, so that omissions, corrections, and insertions should be avoided as far as possible.

1. Strike out the word or letter to be omitted.

When two or more letters have to be omitted in a word, you had better strike out the whole word.

2. Strike out the wrong word or letter and write the right one above it.

When two or more letters have to be corrected in a word, you had better strike out the whole word.

It is very bad to omit a word or letter by enclosing it in paren-theses.

Very bad: the art or (or) practice of writing (Word)

com(m)position (Letter)

3. Use a caret (∧) below the word or words inserted.

the art or∧ practice of writing

You had better not insert a letter in a word in this way.

Bad: praticeC∧

4. Use a vertical line between two words that have been mistakenly written as if they were one word.

English︱composition

5. Use the mark “” between the two parts into which a word has been mistakenly divided.

composition

6. Use the mark “～” round the words or letters to be transposed.

When two or more transpositions have to be made in a word, you had better strike out the whole word.

7. Use a series of dots under the word or letter that has been mistakenly struck out.

To use a small triangle in such cases is to adopt a Chinese custom in writing English; it is very bad. This small triangle would be unintelligible to English-speaking people.

8. Use the mark “” before a word that ought to begin a new paragraph.

It was Sunday afternoon and we were all occupying various attitudes of heat-exhaustion and repose when a horn sounded and a huge car was heard to be approaching. “Who's that?” was asked. — E V LUCAS, You Know What People Are.

19. A Warning.You must not think that because you know these rules for making omissions, corrections, and insertions you are free to make any number of these in your manuscript. As I have already said, your manuscript should be as neat as possible. Better rewrite a whole page than let it have a poor appearance.

Incidentally, the skilful use of penknife, indiarubber, or ink-eraser may render the making of omissions etc comparatively neat.

CHAPTER Ⅲ LEARNING TO WRITE

20. Something to Say.Composition, as has been said in Section 1, is the art or practice of writing. In other words, it is the art or practice of saying something in written words. When nothing is to be said, no composition is possible. You simply cannot learn composition if you always have nothing to say. Since you are bent upon learning it, you must find something to say. This finding is necessary to practice in composition.

When you come to think about it, it is not at all difficult to find something to say. You may find it from a great many sources, the most common of which are perhaps personal experience, observation, conversation, and reading. Of course you have occasion to speak and write the Han language every day. Just ask yourself the question “How shall I say it in English?”, and you will find something for practice in English composition. You will find far more material than you have time for every day.

21. How to Say It.Your question is not what to say but how to say it. You may often have an idea or a thought that you do not know how to express. For instance, you may not be able to express the idea of the glass tube measuring temperature if you do not happen to know the word “thermometer”. To take another example, suppose you wish to apply for a position by letter but you cannot do so. Now suppose you ask a friend to write the letter for you, and he writes it. You read it and understand it all right. You come to realize that you did not think of arranging those simple words in that simple order. You did have something to say, but you did not know how to say it! Hence the importance of studying composition.

22. A Consolation.I take it for granted that when you ask yourself the question “How shall I say it in English?”, you often find that you cannot. Well, let me give you a word of consolation. Even experienced writers may sometimes find that they cannot say something that they wish to say. As you are merely a young Chinese student of English, what cause have you to feel disappointed?

23. Others May Have Said It before You.As a matter of fact, many of the ideas and thoughts you often have occasion to express have already been expressed by others before you. Read any page in any book carefully, and you will perhaps find some expressions that will help you to say things. Many of such expressions may seem to you to be too simple to deserve much attention, but you cannot invent them, nor can you use them unless you have noted them. There appear to be many Chinese students who have read a number of books on grammar and composition and done many exercises in correcting and improving sentences and yet cannot write even tolerable English. The trouble is that they may either have not read widely enough or have not read carefully enough.

24. What to Read.Since it is for the purpose of learning composition that you read, and since it is in present-day English prose that you ought to learn to express yourself, what you read must be present-day English prose. Expressions in common use a hundred years ago may not be so at the present day. Likewise, expressions in common use in verse may not be so in prose.

The term “present-day English prose”, however, requires qualification here. Since it is in standard English that you ought to learn to express yourself, what you read must not contain too much slang, what-ever significance one may attach to the word. Again, since it is things in everyday life that you ought to learn to write about, what you read must not be of a technical character.

One limitation more. What you read must be fairly easy for you; too much time and energy spent in reading between the lines and finding out all kinds of references and allusions would very likely distract your mind from your purpose, which is to learn English composition.

25. How to Read.As you may have gathered from the above, in reading to learn English composition, you ought to regard the language as the main thing. To quote from my A Word to the Wise:

“When you read a story in English, do you read it for the story or for the English? This is a question that is not so foolish as it may seem. For I find that many students of English pay far more attention to the story than to the English. They read and enjoy and for a long time afterwards remember the story, but do not care to study the use of words and phrases in it. For instance, they cherish the memory of how the mystery of the eternal triangle is solved, but do not remember a single sentence in the story and cannot tell what preposition is used before or after a certain word in the speech of a certain character.

“Of course, it is all right to read and enjoy and remember a story, and so long as one wants to know the story only, one need not bother about the language. But the case is quite different with a student of English. I mean a student of English as distinguished from a student of stories or what is called the general reader”.

As you may also have gathered from the above, you ought to read very carefully. Not only very carefully but also aloud, and that again and again till you know the passage by heart and can recite it as if it were your own. Positively this will teach you many useful words and phrases; negatively it will help you to avoid many errors and faults in expression. Incidentally, I have found from experience that intelligent copying is an aid to learning by heart.

26. Some Dictionaries Recommended.When you read, you cannot make too much use of your dictionaries. I use the plural form “dictionaries” because in my opinion you ought to use more than one dictionary. The same sense of the same word or phrase may be explained more clearly in one dictionary than in another. You will do well to buy and use as many of the following dictionaries as you can:

Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Third Edition; Oxford University Press

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Longman Group Limited

Chambers Universal Learners' Dictionary, W & R Chambers Ltd, Edinburgh

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Seventh Edition; Oxford Univer-sity Press

The Pocket Oxford Dictionary, Sixth Edition; Oxford University Press

The Universal English Dictionary, George Routledge & Sons Ltd, London

Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition; G & C Merriam Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA

Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, Eighth Edition; G & C Merriam Company, Springfield, Massachusetts, USA

If I have not recommended any English-Han dictionary, it is not because I think all such dictionaries are bad, but because you must have already used some of them for a long time, and because there are many words and phrases that are explained in English far more clearly than they can possibly be in Han.

Exercise 1

Read the following selections till you can recite them:

1.

The Outline of History proved an extremely successful book. The number of copies distributed in English and in translations is entering now upon the third million.

This extraordinary reception astonished both its publishers and its author. It revealed the existence of a new immense stratum of intelligent people in the modern community eager and ready to supply the defi-ciencies of school and college education. It was the world-wide need for such a general review of historical fact, far more than any literary merit of the Outline, which brought about this enormous sale.

This discovery of this great mass of inquiring minds, with all the political and social possibilities it revealed, was necessarily extremely stimulating to the writer of the Outline and his associates. They realized that here was a new element in the world's affairs: a great and as yet disorganized multitude capable of a modern ideology and needing only to be drawn together by a common system of knowledge and understandings, to become a dominating influence in the reconstruction in human affairs. It seemed almost ungrateful not to serve this receptive multitude to the utmost. It was not that those responsible for the Outline had any great conceit of themselves as leaders, but that the good fortune of that book had put them into a position of exceptional advantage to go on and complete the work of which the Outline was manifestly only a part. The responsibility of their opportunity far exceeded their powers. The Outline gave the framework of international ideas; it was a basis for political thought and activity, but it left certain other fields of universal human interest untouched. Nobody had such a chance of getting these gaps filled in a reasonably short space of time, if he could do it, as the writer of the Outline.

So there has now sprung from this beginning two other enterprises, which round off and complete a working statement of the general picture of our world needed by the modern citizen. The first of these is an outline of biological science, a statement of all that is currently known about the life in us and round us, our health, our mental activity, our origins, and the whole story of life's evolution since the beginning. This the writer has done in intimate collaboration with two able biologists, his son, G P Wells, and the grandson of his former professor, Professor Julian Huxley. They have made an up-to-date summary of all biological knowledge. For reasons that need not be gone into here, they have not called this work, The Outline of Life, but The Science of Life.

But still there was left a third main aspect of human existence, and that was the business existence, the work, anxiety, effort, pressure of everyday life. The Outline of History told a man of his origins and tradition, why war hung over him, and why he was under the law; The Science of Life told him of the nature of his bodily and mental life; the third outline to complete the exposition of his world had to be an outline of economics, of how and why man worked, why money has become essential to his well-being and his relations to his fellow creatures, and the general “go” of industry, wealth-winning and earning and spending. This again it was found better not to call an Outline, and after many changes of title it has been completed and is now being published as The Work, Wealth, and Happiness of Mankind. So the first statement from a modern standpoint of what man was and is and what he does is completed.

These works are offered to the world without arrogance and without compunction. They are no doubt faulty to a terrible extent, and in due course they will certainly be superseded by far better work upon the same lines. They are like the temporary sheds that precede a palace. Their substance will need condensation and simplification for school use into an elementary Account of Life for the young, and various portions of them may need expansion for the college student. But until they are so superseded these three works remain, in their pioneer and experimental fashion, a necessary bringing together of what a contemporary man or woman can know about the past, about self, and about the daily task. — H G WELLS, The Outline of History.

2.

The thread of my journey proper was waiting to be picked up again, and I found it in the Potteries. I did not want to leave my old home, but it was not unpleasant to be once more in a district entirely unfamiliar to me, to begin with a mind like a blank sheet of paper, to be a stranger and a sightseer and a noodle asking questions instead of the man back home wondering whether it is he or the town that has changed. I carried with me to the Potteries a full load of ignorance. I knew that cups and saucers and plates were made there, and I had some acquaintance with them, in the form of the Five Towns, in Arnold Bennett's novels. And that was all. Though Bennett, I think, told us a good deal about his birthplace. Oddly enough, I do not think I heard his name mentioned once during all the time I was in the Potteries. In a Year-book of the district, several years old, that someone gave me, though there were thousands of names in it, I never caught sight of his. Very odd, this. There is a great deal in this Year-book about the products of North Staffordshire. Surely Bennett and his excellent novels deserve a place among those products. And what single man in our time did more to make the Potteries known to the rest of the world than Bennett did? In this blathering Year-book there is not a single town councillor or Territorial officer or secretary of an angling association who is apparently not regarded as being of more importance in the district than one of the country's best contemporary novelists. The visit of any empty bigwig matters more to the editor of this compilation than Bennett and all his works. Why was Bennett not made a Freeman of Stoke-on-Trent? (In this matter of Freemen, the city seems to have a passion for colonial premiers.) Why no sort of memorial to him anywhere? And why are third-rate politicians in this country still considered to be far more important than first-rate artists of any kind? Is it because there is always a chance that the politician may be able to wangle something, whereas no real good can come of artists? I wonder if there is a country in Europe in which musicians, painters, authors, philosophers, scientists, count for less than they do in this Country. Is this public indifference due to the fact that we have so many men of genius, unlike those small countries which go the length of regarding their occasional men of genius as public benefactors? I do not think it is. I think it is the result of our general lack of intellectual curiosity and zest for art, and of our trick, very noticeable in public life if no longer so obvious in private, of cherishing large numbers of the empty bigwigs mentioned above, men who have never done anything in particular but are vaguely important, imposing figures decorated like Christmas trees with medals and orders and stars. You would imagine that the shrewd, democratic, industrial provinces would never allow themselves to be taken in by such inflated person-ages; and I do not think they do any more in private; but they still do in their public, official, and municipal life, where they still hardly condescend to notice the existence of artists and scientists. This is, however, by the way. — J B PRIESTLEY, English Journey.

3. The Seventh-day Adventist

He was a big man, and his bones were well covered. He gave you the impression that he had put on flesh since he bought his clothes, for they seemed somewhat tight for him. He always wore the same things, a blue suit, evidently bought ready-made in a department store (the lapel decorated with a small American flag), a high starched collar, and a white tie on which was a pattern of forget-me-nots. His short nose and pugnacious chin gave his clean-shaven face a determined look; his eyes, behind large, gold-rimmed spectacles, were large and blue; and his hair, receding on the temples, lank and dull was plastered down on his head. But on the crown protruded a rebellious cock's feather.

He was travelling up the Yangtze for the first time, but he took no interest in his surroundings. He had no eye for the waste of turbulent waters that was spread before him, nor for the colours, tragic or tender, which sunrise or sunset lent the scene. The great junks with their square white sails proceeded stately down the stream. The moon rose, flooding the noble river with silver and giving a strange magic to the temples on the bank, among a grove of trees. He was frankly bored. During a certain part of the day he studied Chinese, but for the rest of the time he read nothing but a New York Times, three months old, and the Parliamentary debates of July, 1915, which, heaven knows why, happened to be on board. He took no interest in the religions which flourished in the land he had come to evangelize. He classed them all contemptuously as devil worship. I do not think he had ever read the Analects of Confucius. He was ignorant of the history, art, and literature of China.

I could not make out what had brought him to the country. He spoke of his work as a profession which he had entered as a man might enter the civil service, and which, though it was poorly paid (he complained that he earned less than an artisan), he wanted, notwithstanding, to make a good job of. He wanted to increase his church membership, he wanted to make his school self-supporting. If ever he had had a serious call to convert the heathen there was in him no trace of it now. He looked upon the whole matter as a business proposition. The secret of success lay in the precious word organization. He was upright, honest, and virtuous, but there was neither passion in him nor enthusiasm. He seemed to be under the impression that the Chinese were very simple people, and because they did not know the same things that he did he thought them ignorant. He could not help showing that he looked upon himself as superior to them. The laws they made were not applicable to the white man, and he resented the fact that they expected him to conform to their customs. But he was not a bad fellow; indeed, he was a good-humored one, and so long as you did not attempt to question his authority there is no doubt that he would have done everything in his power to serve you. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM, On a Chinese Screen.

4.

From the time I was seven years old I had always asserted that when I grew up I wanted to be what I then called “an authoress”, but my parents, though they thought that I wrote “nice little pieces”, were anxious that I should earn my living in a recognized way. Obviously one couldn't earn one's living by writing, and the fact that at ten I had had a story on the children's page of the Lady's Companion, and that at thirteen I had had one on the children's page of Reynolds's Newspaper, must not be allowed to give me “ideas” about myself. My father wanted me to follow his example and enter the Civil Service, as a post office clerk, or a letter-sorter like himself. I reminded him how bad I was at geography and urged that I would never be any good at that sort of thing: I would put all the letters into the wrong bags, so my parents said that I must try for a scholarship and then we should see. I tried for a scholarship for a secondary school. I failed dismally in arithmetic, as usual, but scraped through on the strength of high marks for grammar, and with a passionate essay on the horrors of war — plentifully besprinkled with quotations from The Biglow Papers, of course. But on the viva voce I collapsed completely. I was told certain figures and asked in what connection I had heard them before. I didn't know. They were the amount of the War Loan. Questioned as to my “general knowledge” of literature, I said that Scott wrote Hereward the Wake, and the moment I came out of the examination room, freed from those staring eyes and unsympathetic faces at the long examiner's table, I knew that it was Kingsley. I knew, even before the result was announced, that I had failed, and that they thought me stupid, but I knew that I was not stupid, only that I hadn't got their kind of nonstupidness. Could any of them write of war as I had written of it? I was convinced that they couldn't, and that none of the girls who would be granted scholarships could, nor upon any other subject either, but because I did not know the War Loan figures, or who wrote that dull book about Hereward the Wake, they thought me too stupid to be admitted to their precious school — where I would learn French and algebra, and to play hockey, and wear a hat with the school colours round, and generally “get educated”.

Well, but I didn't really want to get educated. I wanted to avoid having to go into the Civil Service. I entered for another scholarship, because something had to be done about me, and it was clear that I wasn't equipped to earn any kind of livelihood as I was. This scholarship was for a commercial school which like most establishments of the kind calls itself a college, because, one presumes, it sounds better. Here one had the choice of entering on either the commercial or the Civil Service side. I entered on the commercial side, and scraped through with a half-fee scholarship. My future was now all mapped out. I was to “go into an office”, and there was a vague idea that with my ability to “put words together”, I might eventually “work up” to “a good secretarial post”. So far as anyone — my schoolteachers, my parents, and myself — could see, there was no other practical use to which that ability could be put. — ETHEL MANNIN, Confessions and Impressions.

5. Pay It Back

It was with much interest that I read a news item which said that a country rector has received by post an eagle. Not an ordinary eagle, but a wooden one, carved in oak.

It had been wrenched from one of the pews of his church earlier in the year, presumably by some souvenir-hunter on holiday who thought that it would make a nice ornament at home.

Some people would call this vandalism, others would call it souvenir-hunting, and others, again, would call it plain stealing.

But, whatever name you choose, the act cannot be excused. Indeed, there is only one saving grace about the whole affair, and that is that the perpetrator suffered an uneasy conscience and returned the carving to be restored to its proper place.

It would be a very good thing for those who have sustained loss and suffered hurt if we all made an effort to put right the wrongs which we have done to others.

It doesn't matter twopence whether it is done anonymously or not. After all, when you right a wrong which you have done, you do it for your own satisfaction, and to clean your own slate. You don't do it so that Tom Jones next door should say what a jolly good fellow you are. If you do, then you are going about it in the wrong spirit.

But just imagine the overwhelming tide of good will that would flow, and the unexpected happiness that would accrue, if we all followed the example of that unknown person who sent the parcel to the rector. Not to mention the surprise with which the railway companies and hotels would receive innumerable spoons, knives, serviette-rings, tankards, and so forth!

We might even receive little gifts and attentions ourselves for deceits which had been practiced upon us, and the flood of unreturned books and garden implements would make our homes look their old selves again.

But, seriously, it is an idea which I heartily commend to you all. Pay back kindness, pay back loans, and, above all, repay those debts which only you know exist. You'll be all the happier for it. — Editor of Answers.

27. Self-cultivation.Though it is not on the assumption that you are a self-taught student that I am writing this book, yet I have to point out that when it comes to reading with a view to learning composition, you ought to treat the matter as a form of self-cultivation. The five selections in the above exercise are by no means all that you ought to read in the way indicated. Nor should you confine yourself to what American teachers call “assignments”. Nor should you regard the reading as something to be done in a composition class. Fortunately there is no lack of material in these days of easy access to various kinds of publications. Your teacher is of course expected to be both able and willing to advise you in the choice of material.

28. Writing from Memory.A very helpful exercise in composition is to write a passage from memory and correct your work in strict accordance with the passage. This is tantamount to getting the author of that passage to correct your work. Incidentally, you will do well to try this exercise in reading any passage just before you feel you can recite it correctly.

29. Imitation, Conscious and Unconscious.The careful reading of suitable present-day English prose will help you in learning composition through imitation, which is either conscious or unconscious. Things unconscious cannot be taught, of course. Conscious imitation, however, is well worth discussing as an aid to composition.

Take the first sentence in the first selection in Exercise 1: “The Outline of History proved an extremely successful book”, where the verb “proved” is a copulative one having “book” as its complement. Now you may write as many sentences as you can in imitation of this single sentence; thus:

1. The old man proved the father of the young man.

2. The story proved true.

3. The experiment proved a success.

4. This book will prove very helpful to you.

5. These exercises will prove a great aid to composition.

6. His advice may prove sound.

7. At last his poor friend proved his best friend.

8. He may yet prove faithful to his word.

9. The park proved a real boon to the children.

10. The task proved too much for him.

You will do well to do this conscious imitation as often as you can.

Exercise 2

Read the five selections in Exercise 1 again and write as many sentences as you can in imitation of any number of points in any number of sentences in them.

30. Reading Dictionaries.By reading dictionaries I do not mean reading any from cover to cover, but reading the illustrative examples of the various uses of a great many common words. This will serve the same purpose as the careful reading of suitable present-day English prose.

Copious illustrative examples are to be found in the first three dictionaries I have recommended in section 26. They are very often complete sentences and are usually such as to be used in speech as well as in writing. Those in The Concise Oxford Dictionary and The Packed Oxford Dictionary are sometimes framed in too condensed a form to be easily understood.

Exercise 3

Read the illustrative examples under the following words in any dictionary:

a, about, above, across, act, after, against, all, along, and, any, appear, arrange, as, at, be, back, before, behind, below, between, beyond, break, bring, but, by, can, carry, catch, charge, come, cover, cut, die, do, down, drive, drop, due, enter, ever, fall, feel, figure, fill, find, follow, foot, for, from, get, give, go, good, hand, have, hear, high, hold, home, if, in, it, keep, lead, let, life, like, line, little, live, look, lose, low, make, man, matter, may, move, must, nice, no, not, now, of, off, on, one, only, often, or, order, out, over, pass, play, point, poor, put, raise, rather, reach, read, return, right, rise, round, run, save, say, see, send, serve, set, settle, shall, sit, so, some, spare, speak, stand, strike, such, take, tell, that, the, then, there, this, through, time, to, treat, turn, under, up, use, walk, want, way, wall, what, when, where, why, will, with, without, word, work, world, write, yet.

31. Expressing Another Person's Thoughts.Expressing another person's thoughts is a valuable training in English composition both because you may sometimes have occasion to do so and because it will help you to express your own. The thoughts are there for you to express: there is something to say. Besides, there are often some words and phrases for you to use.

32. Paraphrasing Sentences.Paraphrasing is a simple form of expressing another person's thoughts. It means giving the meaning of a passage in other words, that is, giving it a simpler and clearer expression. It may be called close reproduction or close retelling. But it is not mere substitution of words, nor mere sentence transformation.

The following are some examples of paraphrasing sentences:

1. Men complain, justly enough, that the production of books is becoming wholly commercialized. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

Paraphrase: People complain that at the present day books are published more and more as mere commodities. The complaint is quite reasonable.

2. An adventure is only an inconvenience rightly considered. — G K CHESTERTON.

Paraphrase: While an adventure and an inconvenience are generally thought to be quite different things, the fact is that when what is known as an inconvenience is considered in the right way, it becomes an adventure.

3. Should you wish to make sure that your birthday will be celebrated three hundred years hence, your best course is undoubtedly to keep a diary. — VIRGINIA WOOLF.

Paraphrase: Do you wish to acquire such permanent fame that your birthday will be celebrated even three hundred years from now? If so, the best thing for you to do is certainly to keep a diary.

4. There are few harder fates for a man of some genius than to be intimately associated with a man of more. — J MIDDLETON MURRY.

Paraphrase: A man of minor genius can seldom, if ever, be more unfortunate than when he is closely associated with a man of greater genius.

5. If you choose your friends on the ground that you are virtuous and want virtuous company, you are no nearer to friendship than if you choose them for commercial reasons. — A CLUTTON-BROCK.

Paraphrase: Of course, you cannot obtain true friendship if you choose certain persons for your friends merely for the sake of any material benefit you hope to get from them. Nor can you obtain true friendship if you choose them merely because you think that they are as virtuous as you are and must therefore be suitable friends for you.

6. I said a moment ago that he was young and shy; and I admit that I slipped those epithets in without having justified them to you by due process of induction. — MAX BEERBOHM.

Paraphrase: A moment ago I called him young and shy. Now I must say that before I used the words “young” and “shy” I had not said anything to prove that I should be quite right in applying them to him.

7. Her house is completely expressive of her personality. — ETHEL MANNIN.

Paraphrase: If you look at her house, you will see what kind of person she is.

8. It is characteristic of Connie's sort that they forget they have made a scene two minutes after it is over, and imagine that others forget as easily. — SUSAN ERTZ.

Paraphrase: When such women as Connie have a quarrel, they forget about it as short a time as two minutes after it, and suppose that other persons forget about it as easily as they do.

9. Pretty little wallflowers sit out by the dozen. — H V MORTON.

Paraphrase: Many pretty little women who happen to have no persons to dance with remain sitting by the wall.

10. She has not been out very long. — HENRY JAMES.

Paraphrase: She was introduced to society only a short time ago.

33. Suggestions for Paraphrasing.In order to paraphrase well, it is necessary to follow a few simple suggestions:

1. Study the passage carefully to get a thorough grasp of its meaning. You can never paraphrase anything that you do not fully understand.

2. Try to express the meaning in the simplest and clearest manner you can. You may use any word or phrase in the original that you find simple and clear enough; do not avoid any word or phrase merely because it is in the original. Similarly, while it is anything but necessary to follow the construction of the original, it is not advisable to change merely for the sake of a change. It is often better to paraphrase a sentence in two or more sentences.

3. Get rid of all figurative language.

4. Paraphrase a passage in as many ways as you can till you come to what you consider the best way. Though you may not be able to write such good English as the original, yet you ought to aim at doing so — remembering, however, that you must express the meaning in a simpler and clearer manner.

Exercise 4

Paraphrase the following:

1. I know more than one rich man who would give all his riches for something he has not got, and I dare say you have seen women who wear fine clothes and have sad faces, but who ride wearily in motor cars past happy women laughing and singing at their cottage doors. — ARTHUR MEE.

2. She was not given to questioning the order of her universe, but the thought simply would come into her mind that Providence had treated her rather badly. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

3. No two schools are alike, but more than that — a school with two hundred pupils is really two hundred schools, and among them, almost certainly, are somebody's long-remembered heaven and somebody else's hell. — JAMES HILTON.

4. The condition of the world was such that Michael constantly wondered if his own affairs were worth paying attention to; but then the condition of the world was also such that sometimes one's own affairs seemed all that were worth paying attention to. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

5. If she exercises so much rule among the high ones, how can we, being both men of the common sort, hope to engage her ear? — ERNEST BRAMAH.

6. When he walked across the fields again in the cold clear twilight the wind was dropping, but the furrows in the ploughed lands were bleached white on the eastern side, and in the corn fields the young flourishing shoots of winter wheat lay flattened against the earth by the cold wind as though by a roller. — H E BATES.

7. There is a super-national republic of thought and art, to the great German members and masters of which my debt is incalculable, and that their country should admit my claim to he a member of it is a triumph which enables me to face with blushing all the eulogies and congratulations showered on me on the first birthday I have ever celebrated and the last I intend ever to celebrate. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

8. The recent interest in China on the part of the West, the wistfulness of certain Western persons who envy the simplicity and security of China's pattern of life and admire her arts and philosophy have also helped to inspire the young Chinese with confidence in themselves. — PEARL S BUCK.

9. If he saw only the surface of things, it is for the reason that most things have nothing but a surface. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

10. We reached a door in the wall, tumbled down a flight of steps, and stood, as it were, upon the shore of a lake of light, with nothing before us but sun-shot air, and across that radiant emptiness the further hills rolling away towards Somerset. — MAURICE HENRY HEWLETT.

11. The lonely grace of the winter trees, their bare tracery, unspeakably delicate, clear against a purple or violet haze in the sky, and the pretty fairyland where the yellow lamps made spots of colour — all this was beauty wonderful and magical, and blessed my lot for once that I could go and gaze on it day by day. — G S STREET.

12. We impute to our dead bodies many of the senses and shames of the living, and we shudder without reason at the thought of things occurring to them that could injure us only while we are alive. — ROBERT LYND.

13. A house is infinitely communicative, and tells many things besides the figure of its master's income. — R W CHAPMAN.

14. I spent my first evening there walking about the centre of the town, which is neither dignified nor very extensive, indeed hardly worthy of the excellent residential quarters outside it. — J B PRIESTLEY.

15. It was not till I was a young man, at college, that I got any clue to the significance of my dreams and to the cause of them. — JACK LONDON.

16. You know that in spite of all the myriad newspapers, daily and weekly: that now assail our peace; in spite, too, of the fact that most of us are more or less intimately acquainted with someone who writes — so familiar with him, indeed, as to be contemptuous; none the less, no sooner does a thing, however trite, get into print, than we approach it with a certain reverence. — E V LUCAS.

17. It is because they cannot think that infants are happy, despite internal sufferings and coercive treatment from without which would cause a person of riper years to commit suicide — MARY ELIZABETH COLERIDGE.

18. An Autobiographer, however much of an artist, however delicate his embroidery, stands a very poor chance of deceiving even those of the readers who, coming long after him, never encountered the impostor in the flesh. — AUGUSTINE BIRRELL.

19. When I was a boy one could not but notice that among those who prided themselves on their love of books, and upon their possession, in this respect, of an educated and cultured taste, it was the fashion to consider Dickens as an author immensely inferior to Thackeray — who, in his novels, always kept good company, even if he affected to mock at it-and, in fact, to regard him as a somewhat vulgar demagogue and comedian. — OSBERT SITWELL.

20. Anyone who reads of Riley's tours of the country, particularly if he has ever gone through the ordeal of catching trains, greeting people, being dined, and keeping irregular hours, will believe that these labours more than anything else took away his strength and shortened his life to something less than the allotted threescore years and ten. — EDGAR LEE MASTERS.

34. Paraphrasing Paragraphs.The following are some examples of paraphrasing paragraphs.

.1.

A great joke, this growing old — but a sad joke, too, in a way. And as Chips sat by his fire with autumn gales rattling the windows, the waves of humour and sadness swept over him very often until tears fell, so that when Mrs Wickett came in with his cup of tea she did not know whether he had been laughing or crying. And neither did Chips himself. — JAMES HILTON, Goodbye, Mr. Chips.

Paraphrase: Chips was growing old. He considered it something amusing. But he also found some sadness in the amusement. In autumn, as the wind was rattling the windows, he used to sit by the fireside thinking. He felt amused and sad by turns, very often with the result that he wept. When Mrs Wickett, his landlady, came in to hand him his cup of tea, she did not know whether he had been laughing or crying. Even Chips himself did not know whether he had been laughing or crying.

.2.

On a bleak wet stormy afternoon at the outset of last year's spring, I was in a cottage, all alone, and knowing that I must be all alone till evening. It was a remote cottage, in a remote county, and had been “let furnished” by its owner. My spirits are easily affected by weather, and I hate solitude. And I dislike to be master of things that are not mine, “Be careful not to break us” say the glass and china. “You'd better not spill ink on me” growls the carpet. “None of your dog's-earing, thumb-marking, back-breaking tricks here” snarl the books. — MAX BEERBOHM, And Even Now.

Paraphrase: It was an afternoon at the beginning of the spring of last year. The weather was dreary, rainy, and stormy. I was alone in a cottage. I knew that I must be alone till evening. The cottage was in a remote part of a remote county. It had been let by its owner together with its furniture. As I am easily affected by weather and hate being alone, I felt unhappy. And my unhappiness was increased because I dislike being set among things that do not belong to me. Whenever I am alone in a room that is not mine, I feel as if everything in it were warning me not to touch it. Articles of glass and china seem to say: “Be careful not to break us”. The carpet seems to say in an angry manner: “If you write anything, you must not spill any ink on me”. The books seem to say in a fit of ill temper: “You must not turn down any page of us, nor leave any mark of your thumb on any page of us, nor break the back of any one of us”.

Exercise 5

Paraphrase the following:

1.

Perhaps I am but half a collector after all. Your true collector keeps his treasures in shrines, for public or private devotion; he will scarcely suffer flowers in his goblets, or so much as read his first editions. But I have little pleasure in a cloistered spoon; a spoon that is too precious for use, and must be kept in a cabinet, looks forlorn and foolish to my eye. I would sooner risk losing the marks than keep a spoon uncleaned; dirty copper and brass are very well, but tarnished silver is an offence. My spoons are used; not without apprehension, but I trust with fortitude. I like to sit down to dinner and note which spoon — for no three are of a set — I am to use tonight. — R W CHAPMAN, The Portrait of Scholar.

2.

Two things are essential to a restful holiday. The first is not to possess a map. The second is not to possess a car. To go anywhere with both a map and a car is to invoke the spirit of unrest and to become the slave of the place where one is not — no longer an idler but an unpaid chauffeur plying along unknown roads till the fall of evening. — ROBERT LYND, Rain, Rain Go to Spain.

3.

Learn to take a joke, because the fellow who always wants to have the laugh on somebody else is pretty awful to live with, don't you think? I rather think he would also be the kind of person who would always want the best of a bargain, and the last word in an argument, and the last penny in your pocket.— Editor of Answers.

4.

It is with a kind of fear that I begin to write the history of my life. I have, as it were, a superstitious hesitation in lifting the veil that clings about my childhood like a golden mist. The task of writing an autobiography is a difficult one. When I try to classify my earliest impressions, I find that fact and fancy look alike across the years that link the past with the present. The woman paints the child's experiences in her own fantasy. A few impressions stand out vividly from the first years of my life; but “the shadows of the prison-house are on the rest”. Besides, many of the joys and sorrows of childhood have lost their poignancy; and many incidents of vital importance in my early education have been forgotten in the excitement of great discoveries. In order, therefore, not to be tedious I shall try to present in a series of sketches only the episodes that seem to me to be the most interesting and important. — HELEN KELLER, The Story of My Life.

35. Paraphrasing Verse.The following are some examples of paraphrasing verse:

.1.Dirge in Weeds

A wind sways the pines,

And below

Not a breath of wild air;

Still as the mosses that glow

On the flooring and over the lines

Of the roots here and there.

The pine-tree drops its dead;

They are quiet, as under the sea.

Overhead, Overhead

Rushes life in a race,

As the clouds the clouds chase;

And we go,

And we drop like the fruits of the tree,

Even we,

Even so.

— GEORGE MEREDITH.

Paraphrase: A wind sways the tops of the pine-trees. But there is no wind on the ground, where the air is as still as the mosses growing and glowing on it and over the lines of the roots of the trees here and there. Dead pine-cones drop on the ground. They are as quiet as if they were under the sea. But as they die and drop, the clouds still chase each other overhead in a race of Life. We, human beings, die and drop just like pine-cones, while the world goes on as usual. Such is the fate of man.

.2.

The LinnetI heard a linnet courting

His lady in the spring;

His mates were idly sporting,

Nor stayed to hear him sing

His song of love —

I fear my speech distorting

His tender love.

One phrase was all his pleading,

He spoke of love and home:

To her who gave him heeding

He sang his question “Come”. —

His gay sweet notes,

So sadly marred in the reading!

His tender notes!

And when he ceased, the hearer

Re-echoed the refrain,

And swiftly perching nearer,

“Come, come” she sang again, —

and for their loves!

Would that my verse spake clearer,

Their tender loves!

Blest union of twin creatures

Unmarred by sense of doubt:

All summer's dry misfeatures

Such springtide trust bars out;

But of their loves

Fall short our wiser natures:

Their tender loves!

— ROBERT BRIDGES.

Paraphrase: I heard a linnet making love to his sweetheart in the spring. His companions were playing about in an idle manner, and did not stop to hear him sing his song of love. His love was of such a tender kind that I am afraid I could not reproduce accurately what he sang.

He said nothing but love and home. To the female bird that listened to him he sang in an interrogative tone the single word “Come”. It was in gay sweet tender notes that he uttered that word “Come”. Such gay sweet tender notes would be sadly spoilt if they were ever imitated in reading,

When he stopped his song, the female bird sang “Come” in response, and she repeated that word as she moved swiftly to perch nearer. How I wish I could express more clearly in my verse the tender mutual love of these two birds!

The union of these two birds is a very happy one. It is in no way spoilt by any sense of doubt. They trust each other in the spring so perfectly that they do not fear anything bad that may come to them in the summer. Now we, who are human beings and are of course supposed to be wiser than birds, simply do not possess such mutual love.

In paraphrasing verse, avoid any suggestion of rhyme and rhythm and poetic diction. More changes in sentence structure are often required than in paraphrasing prose.

Exercise 6

Paraphrase the following:

1. Light

The night has a thousand eyes,

And the day but one;

Yet the light of the bright world dies

With the dying sun.

The mind has a thousand eyes,

And the heart but one;

Yet the light of a whole life dies

When less is done.

— F W BOURDILLON.

2. Leisure

What is this life if, full of care,

We have no time to stand and stare?

No time to stand beneath the boughs

And stare as long as sheep and cows.

No time to see, when weeds we pass,

Where squirrels hide their nuts in grass.

No time to see, in broad daylight,

Streams full of stars, like skies at night.

No time to turn at Beauty's glance,

And watch her feet, how they can dance.

No time to wait till her mouth can

Enrich that smile her eyes began.

A poor life this if, full of care,

We have no time to stand and stare.

— W H DAVIES.

3. When I Am Old

When I am old,

And sadly steal apart

Into the dark and cold,

Friend of my heart!

Remember, if you can,

Not him who lingers, but that other man

Who loved and sang, and had a beating heart, —

When I am old!

When I am old,

And all Love's ancient fire

Be tremulous and cold:

My soul's desire!

Remember, if you may,

Nothing of me and you but yesterday,

When heart on heart we bid the years conspire

To make us old.

When I am old,

And every star above

Be pitiless and cold:

My life's one love!

Forbid me not to go:

Remember nought of us but long ago,

And not at last, how love and pity strove

When I grew old!

— ERNEST DOWSON.

4. Out in the Dark

Out in the dark over the snow

The fallow fawns invisible go

With the fallow doe;

And the winds blow

Fast as the stars are slow.

Stealthily the dark haunts round

And, when a lamp goes, without sound

At a swifter bound

Than the swiftest hound,

Arrives, and all else is drowned;

And I and star and wind and deer

Are in the dark together — near,

Yet far, — and fear

Drums in my ear

In that sage company drear.

How weak and little is the light,

All the universe of sight,

Love and delight,

Before the might,

If you love it not, of night.

— EDWARD THOMAS.

36. Condensing.Condensing is another form of expressing another person's thoughts. It means giving the meaning of a passage, a story, an essay, a poem, or even a whole book, in one or more sentences. It may be called summarizing, abstract-writing, or précis-writing.

The following are the condensed forms of the two paragraphs that have been paraphrased in Section 34:

1. As Chips was growing old, he used to sit by the fireside in autumn and felt amused and sad by turns, very often with the result that he wept without knowing whether he was laughing or crying.

2. I dislike being alone in a room that is not mine, especially on a wet stormy day.

The following are some examples of condensing stories, essays, and poems:

.1.The Letter

It was a summer afternoon. The clear blue sky was dotted with fluttering larks. The wind was still, as if it listened to their gentle singing. From the shining earth a faint smoke arose, like incense, shaken from invisible thuribles in a rhapsody of joy by hosts of unseen spirits. Such peace had fallen on the world! It seemed there was nothing but love and beauty everywhere; fragrant summer air and the laughter of happy birds. Everything listened to the singing larks in brooding thoughtlessness. Yea, even the horned snails lay stretched out on grey stones with their houses on their backs.

There was no loud sound. Nothing asserted its size in a brutal tumult of wind and thunder. Nothing swaggered with a raucous noise to disarrange the perfect harmony. Even the tiny insects mounting the blades of grass with slow feet were giants in themselves and things of pride to nature.

The grass blades, brushing with the movements of their growth, made joyous gentle sounds, like the sighs of a maiden in love.

A peasant and his family were working in a little field beneath the singing larks. The father, the mother, and four children were there. They were putting fresh earth around sprouting potato stalks. They were very happy. It was a good thing to work there in the little field beneath the singing larks. Yes. God, maybe, gave music to cheer their simple hearts.

The mother and the second eldest daughter weeded the ridges, passing before the others. The father carefully spread around the stalks the precious clay that the eldest son dug from the rocky bottom of the shallow field. A younger son, of twelve years, brought sea sand in a donkey's creels from a far corner of the field. They mixed the sand with the black clay. The fourth child, still almost an infant, staggered about near his mother, plucking weeds slowly and offering them to his mother as gifts.

They worked in silence; except once when by chance the father's shovel slipped on a stone and dislodged a young stalk from its shallow bed. The father uttered a cry. They all looked.

“Oh! Praised be God on high!” the mother said, crossing herself.

In the father's hands was the potato stalk and from its straggling thin roots there hung a cluster of tiny new potatoes, smaller than small marbles. Already their seeds had borne fruit and multiplied. They all stood around and wondered. Then suddenly the eldest son, a stripling, spat on his hands and said wistfully:

“Ah! If Mary were here now wouldn't she be glad to see the new potatoes. I remember, on this very spot, she spread seaweed last winter”.

Silence followed this remark. It was of the eldest daughter he had spoken. She had gone to America in early spring. Since then they had only received one letter from her. A neighbour's daughter had written home recently, though, that Mary was without work. She had left her first place that a priest had found for her, as servant in a rich woman's house.

The mother bowed her head and murmured sadly:

“God is good. Maybe today we'll get a letter”.

The Father stooped again, struck the earth fiercely with his shovel, and whispered harshly:

“Get on with the work”.

They moved away. But the eldest son mused for a while looking over the distant hills. Then he said loudly to his mother as if in defiance:

“It's too proud she is to write, mother, until she has money to send. I know Mary. She was always the proud one”.

They all bent over their work and the toddling child began again to bring weeds as gifts to his mother. The mother suddenly caught the child in her arms and kissed him. Then she said:

“Oh! They are like angels singing up there. Angels they are like. Wasn't God good to them to give them voices like that? Maybe if she heard the larks sing she'd write. But sure there are no larks in big cities”.

And nobody replied. But surely the larks no longer sang happily. Now the sky became immense. The world became immense, an empty dangerous vastness. And the music of the fluttering birds had an eerie lilt to it. So they felt; all except the toddling child, who still came innocently to his mother, bringing little weeds as gifts.

Suddenly the merry cries of children mingled with the triumphant singing of the larks. They all paused and stood erect. Two little girls were running up the lane towards the field. Between the winding fences of the narrow lane they saw the darting white pinafores and the bobbing golden heads of the running girls. Their golden heads flashed in the sunlight. They came running, crying out joyously in trilling girlish voices. They were the two remaining children. They were coming home from school.

“What brought ye to the field?” the mother cried while they were still afar off.

“A letter” one cried, as she jumped on to the fence of the field.

The father dropped his shovel and coughed. The mother crossed herself. The eldest son struck the ground with his spade and said: “By the Book!”

“Yes, a letter from Mary” said the other child, climbing over the fence also and eager to participate equally with her sister in the bringing of the good news. “The postman gave it to us.”

They brought the letter to their father. All crowded round their father by the fence, where there was a little heap of stones. The father sat down, rubbed his fingers carefully on his thighs, and took the letter. They all knelt around his knees. The mother took the infant in her arms. They all became very silent. Their breathing became loud. The father turned the letter round about in his hands many times, examining it.

“It's her handwriting surely” he said at length.

“Yes, yes” said the eldest son. “Open it, father.”

“In the name of God” said the mother.

“God send us good news” the father said, slowly tearing the envelope.

Then he paused again, afraid to look into the envelope. Then one of the girls said:

“Look, look. There's a cheque in it. I see it against the sun”.

“Eh?” said the mother.

With a rapid movement the father drew out the contents of the envelope. A cheque was within the folded letter. Not a word was spoken until he held up the cheque and said:

“Great God, it's for twenty pounds”.

“My darling,” the mother said, raising her eyes to the sky. “My treasure, I bore you in my womb. My own sweet treasure”.

The children began to laugh, hysterical with joy. The father coughed and said in a low voice:

“There's a horse for that money to be had. A horse”.

“Oh! Father” said the eldest son. “A two-year-old and we'll break it on the strand. I'll break it, father. Then we'll have a horse like the people of the village. Isn't Mary great? Didn't I say she was waiting until she had money to send? A real horse!”

“And then I can have the ass for myself, daddy” said the second boy.

And he yelled with joy.

“Be quiet will ye” said the mother quietly in a sad tone. “Isn't there a letter from my darling? Won't ye read me the letter?”

“Here” said the father. “Take it and read it one of ye. My hand is shaking”.

It was shaking and there were tears in his eyes, so that he could see nothing but a blur.

“I'll read it” said the second daughter.

She took the letter, glanced over it from side to side, and then suddenly burst into tears.

“What is it?” said the eldest son angrily. “Give it to me.”

He took the letter, glanced over it, and then his face became stern. All their faces became stern.

“Read it, son” the father said.

“‘Dear Parents',” the son began. “‘Oh, mother, I am so lonely’. It's all, all covered with blots the same as if she were crying on the paper. ‘Daddy, why did I ... why did I ever ... ever ...’ it's hard to make it out ... yes ... ‘why did I ever come to this awful place? Say a prayer for me every night, mother. Kiss baby for me. Forgive me, mother. Your loving daughter Mary.’”

When he finished there was utter silence for a long time. The father was the first to move. He rose slowly, still holding the cheque in his hand. Then he said:

“There was no word about the money in the letter” he said in a queer voice. “Why is that now?”

“Twenty pounds” the mother said in a hollow voice. “It isn't earned in a week.”

She snatched the letter furtively from her son and hid it ravenously in her bosom.

The father walked away slowly by the fence, whispering to himself in a dry voice:

“Aye! My greed stopped me asking myself that question. Twenty pounds”.

He walked away erect and stiff, like a man angrily drunk.

The others continued to sit about in silence, brooding. They no longer heard the larks. Suddenly one looked up and said in a frightened voice:

“What is father doing?”

They all looked. The father had passed out of the field into another uplying craggy field. He was now standing on a rock with his arms folded and his bare head fallen forward on his chest, perfectly motionless. His back was towards them but they knew he was crying. He had stood that way, apart, the year before, on the day their horse died.

Then the eldest son muttered a curse and jumped to his feet. He stood still with his teeth set and his wide eyes flashing. The infant boy dropped a weed from his tiny hands and burst into frenzied weeping.

Then the mother clutched the child in her arms and cried out in a despairing voice:

“Oh! Birds, birds, why do ye go on singing when my heart is frozen with grief”.

Together, they all burst into a loud despairing wail and the harsh sound of their weeping rose into the sky from the field that had suddenly become ugly and lonely; up, up into the clear blue sky where the larks still sang their triumphant melody. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY, The Mountain Tavern.

Condensed: On a fine summer afternoon, a peasant and his family were working happily in a little field. A letter came from the eldest daughter, Mary, who had gone to America in early spring and had sent home only one letter since. Both parents were very glad to find a cheque for twenty pounds in this second letter. But they were deeply grieved to learn from the letter that their daughter was lonely and unhappy in America, and to think how hard it must have been for her to earn that money.

.2.No Regrets

About a month ago I was present at a solemn occasion — the reading of a will. I can remember one passage that particularly struck me. It ran something like this:

“And I direct that ￡50 be paid to old William B — , whom I have wished to help for many years, but always put off doing so”.

It was the Voice of Opportunity Lost speaking from Beyond. But the story does not end there. When the lawyers came to carry out the bequest, they discovered that old William B had died, too, and so the good deed was lost.

I felt rather sorry about that. It seemed to me a most regrettable thing that William should not have had his ￡50 just because somebody kept putting off giving it to him. And, from all accounts, William could have done with the money.

But I am sure that there are thousands of kindly little deeds waiting to be done today, which are being put off “until later”.

George Herbert, in praise of good intentions, says that “One of these days is better than none of these days”. But I say that “Today” is better than all.

If we accept the dictum that “sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof”, we might also concede that insufficient unto the day is the good we are able to accomplish, and not defer until tomorrow the kindly impulse which prompts us now.

Tomorrow that poor person may have moved on with a little extra bitterness in his heart because no one cared, tomorrow you may have the little regret that you “put it off”.

And, after all, that's such a poor excuse, isn't it?

Next time you push some job aside just stop and ask yourself why you do it. You'll be surprised how difficult it often is to give a convincing answer. When you have exhausted the possibilities, you will find you come down to the plain answer: “I don't know”.

Don't put it off. We shall pass this way but once, so let us have no regrets in our wills. — Editor of Answers.

Condensed: Do not put off till later any kindly little deed that you ought to do today. You may not have the same opportunity again.

.3.The Charcoal-burner

He lives within the hollow wood,

From one clear dell he seldom ranges:

His daily toil in solitude

Revolves, but never changes.

A still old man, with grizzled beard,

Grey eye, bent shape, and smoke-tann'd features,

His quiet footstep is not fear'd

By shyest woodland creatures.

I love to watch the pale blue spire

His scented labour builds above it;

I track the woodland by his fire:

And, seen afar, I love it.

It seems among the serious trees

The emblem of a living pleasure,

It animates the silences

As with a tuneful measure.

And dream not that such humdrum ways

Fold naught of nature's charm around him;

The mystery of soundless days

Hath sought for him and found him.

He hides within his simple brain

An instinct innocent and holy,

The music of a wood-bird's strain, —

Nor blithe, nor melancholy.

But hung upon the calm content

Of wholesome leaf and bough and blossom —

An unecstatic ravishment

Born in a rustic bosom.

He knows the mood of forest things,

He feels, in his own speechless fashion,

For helpless forms of fur and wings

A mild paternal passion.

Within his horny hand he holds

The warm brood of the ruddy squirrel;

Their busty, mother storms and scolds,

But knows no sense of peril.

The dormouse shares his crumb of cheese,

His homeward trudge the rabbits follow;

He finds, in angles of the trees,

The cup-nest of the swallow.

And through this sympathy, perchance,

The beating heart of life he reaches

Far more than we who idly dance

An hour beneath the beeches.

Our science and our empty pride,

Our busy dream of introspection,

To God seem vain and poor beside

This dumb, sincere reflection.

Yet he will die unsought, unknown,

A nameless headstone stand above him,

And the vast woodland, vague and lone,

Be all that's left to love him.

— EDMUND GOSSE.

Condensed: An old man lives a quiet and apparently monotonous life in a small wooded valley, engaged in the making of charcoal by burning wood. He is quite happy, for he enjoys nature and the company of animals and birds. He has a more sympathetic heart than we have, and seems to God to be of more worth than we are. But, alas! He will die unknown.

Of course, space does not allow any whole book to be reprinted here to be condensed. I must content myself with writing below a summary of Arnold Bennett's The Old Wives' Tale, a very long novel, without quoting a single passage from it:

Constance and Sophia Baines, two sisters, lived together in Bursley, England. Constance, a staid and sensible young woman, married Samuel Povey, the chief assistant in her father's shop, and spent all her life in Bursley. Sophia, more passionate and imaginative than Constance, eloped with Gerald Scales, a commercial traveller who had come into a fortune. Being a bad man, he carried Sophia to Paris and finally deserted her. She struggled to success as a lodging-house keeper in Paris. The sisters were reunited and spent their last years together in Bursley.

37. Various Degree of Condensation.There are various degrees of condensation. The Old Wives' Tale has been condensed in the above to only six sentences. It might have been condensed to sixty sentences, or six hundred sentences. Much of the work that you may have to do in the way of writing English in practical life is that of condensing. How far something ought to be condensed is to be determined as occasion requires. For example, when you condense something for those who want to know merely what it deals with, you ought to condense it to fewer words than when you do it for those who want to know more about the original.

38. Suggestions for Condensing.Below are some simple suggestions for condensing:

1. Study the original carefully to get a thorough grasp or its meaning.

2. Pick out the main points, and leave out all unnecessary points.

3. If possible, arrange the points in the condensation in the same order as in the original.

4. Unless the original is a short passage, you had better write the main points down instead of merely picking them out mentally, and arrange them in something like an outline. (This note-taking and outline-making will prepare you for original composition. They will be treated further on in this chapter.)

Exercise 7

Condense the following:

1.

It is true that when little girls become self-conscious they lose their charm, or the best part of it; they are at their best as a rule from five to seven, after which begins a slow, almost imperceptible decline (or evolution, if you like) until the change is complete. The charm in decline was not good enough for Lewis Carroll; the successive little favourites, we learn, were always dropped about ten. That was the limit. Perhaps be perceived, with a rare kind of spiritual sagacity resembling that of certain animals with regard to approaching weather-changes, that something had come into their heart, or would shortly come, which would make them no longer precious to him. But that which had made them precious was not far to seek: he would find it elsewhere, and could afford to dismiss his Alice for the time being from his heart and life, and even from his memory, without a qualm. — W H HUDSON, A Traveller in Little Things. (“Lewis Carroll” is the pseudonym of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson, author of two famous books for children, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass.)

2.

The little church, seen from below, looked like a peeping rabbit or human. A last effort seemed to have carried it to the top of the last heave of ground which rose behind the marshes. With a yet sturdier push, perhaps, it might have climbed a higher downland away to the north; but it would scarcely have got a better view, and certainly could not have inspected the life below so nearly. For there ran the road along the coast, with its comings and goings and partings of ways; there was a sprinkling of farms and hamlets. In front of them were the flat-stretching marshes; and beyond these again, outside the sand-hills, a great expanse of sea rose up to the horizon. The church surveyed the traffic of passing lives on the road below, and the grey-green, scarcely humanized solitude of the farther stretches, where the land has won a victory in its endless conflict with the sea, although the salt water leaves its mark and steals back through interloping creeks and channels. — ARTHUR MCDOWALL, Ruminations.

3. The Secret

A girl was coining home from a friend's house. She was excited, her eyes sparkled, and her cheeks shone red. She had to run for the tram, and her breath came quickly. She wore a red coat and a red hat, and carried two or three small parcels dangling by their strings.

The tram filled with women returning from the mill. There was fog and frost outside, and some of the factory workers looked tired and dispirited. As a certain thought struck her, the glow faded from the face of the girl in red, and she sat huddled in a corner, looking at the glass opposite, scarcely breathing the close air, now tainted with the smell of wool and sweat.

For a fortnight, she had had a secret, the most happy thing that had ever happened to her. Each morning when she woke up, it seemed that the secret stood by her bedside and kissed her awake, with a kiss so light and gentle that she could never quite answer it. The secret was ethereal, elusive, and she had to lie back and shut her eyes in order to reach the full enjoyment of it. Slowly, everything to do with it would crystallize in her mind, from the first footfall to the moment of the long, long look.

It was strange, but she could not remember the sound of his voice. Suddenly a picture would come — of his dark suit, of his boots, of his attitude as he bent his head — not of himself completely; and she would be so grateful for each picture, waiting and waiting until she could exactly remember the exquisite moment. That was the hardest of all, and came so very seldom. She would look up, there would be the light resting like a thin knife blade on his black hair, and his eyes, never visualized except at this second, shining down into hers; and again she would be overcome with nervous trembling, and feel as she felt then, as if she were falling into a mass of clouds, which both held her up and sank downwards with her.

The fact that she had seen him but a few times did not trouble her. It was enough to know that he was alive, that he had looked at her and made her glad. She wanted nothing more than she had got; something to dream about; a memory to pursue, but too fragile ever to grasp. Ever since he had gone, love for him had risen out of her like a tree filled with pale blossom. For a whole fortnight, until today, this had been her secret.

The tram ground noisily over some points and stopped. The mill workers trooped out, exchanging jokes in harsh, tired voices, giving exaggerated shivers as they met the cold air outside. The girl in red was left alone in her corner.

She had not noticed the people getting out, as she was thinking about a butterfly she had once seen crawling up a warm wall-side, years ago when she was a child, in another country. She had been tired, and had sat down in the shade to rest. It was hot. Over the wall, a field's length away, ran a broad river. She had sat down at the roadside in the dust, not caring about anything, only waiting for the sun to become a little less hot. Then, from somewhere near the bottom of the wall, the butterfly had crept up.

She had never seen a butterfly just outside its chrysalis before. She did not know that it would be damp, and trembling, and weak, and that it would have to creep up painfully from the shade to the sunshine, and hang there fluttering and fluttering, a prey to any casual thing, until its wings were strong enough to bear it away.

She had sat and watched it for a long time. From looking like a piece of crumpled silk, or a bruised poppy petal, its wings grew broad and strong. It was a great red butterfly, covered with coloured rings, yellow and blue and black. She had never seen anything so beautiful in her life.

Just at the last, when it was ready to fly away, unable to restrain the impulse, she had put out a quick hand to hold it back. Yet, child as she was, one part of her had known that a thing so delicate should never be defiled by a coarse touch. As she whispered yearningly “Don't go away, you lovely thing”, the nail of her eager forefinger had caught one quivering wing, and torn it across.

Again she felt the thrill of terror and remorse that had struck through her as she watched the butterfly struggling along the wall-top striving to lift its broken wing. She had hurried away, and left it, but always the remembrance of it stayed in her mind. Here was this beautiful creature ready for life, and she had spoilt it.

After she left the tram, there was a long walk before she could reach home. The air was bitterly cold, and the mist wound about her head like a filmy scarf. Underfoot, the wet road was as smooth and slippery as glass. The silence pressed down heavily, like a weight.

The girl lowered her face into the warmth of her collar, and walked along the dark road. She tried to think about the secret. She listened for the footsteps, but they would not come; the dark hair did not shine for her, nor did those other eyes meet hers with the intent look in them.

All the happiness had fled from her secret since the afternoon. When, unable to bear its beauty, she had told it to her friend. It was a secret no longer. It was nothing, not even a handful of spilt blossom. So, as she neared home, she could only think of a broken-winged butterfly creeping despairingly along a wall-top away in another country. — MALACHI WHITAKER, Frost in April.

4. Open Up

A hand clapped me on the back. I turned round and saw that it belonged to a friend of mine, whom I had not seen for some time. We started chatting, and I walked home with him.

“Come inside,” he invited me “although I'm afraid the place has been shut up, and it won't be very exciting. Still, I want to hear you talk.”

We both entered, and I again got the feeling that I always get when I enter a house that has been shut up. It is like somebody in a coma, living and yet not “alive”.

After giving one quick look round, my friend went straight to the windows and flung them wide. A cool breeze wafted in, a few sounds from the outside world came with it, and gradually the stuffiness of the room disappeared.

There was something about that open window that appealed to me. Do you know what it suggested to me? It suggested an open mind, liberty of thought, freshness, reasonableness, and broadness of outlook.

Yes, it meant all those, and it suggested that these qualities, too, were inherent in the man who opened the windows. He couldn't stand the stuffiness within the room, and he was the kind of man who couldn't stand the stuffiness of some minds, living but not “alive”.

Don't think I mean just “fresh-air fiends”. Very often these people are rather fanatical persons who have only one idea, which is to live in half a gale, to the discomfort of everybody else. After all, even the man who throws his windows wide does not leave them open top and bottom all day, unless it is in the height of summer.

The ideal method is to ensure that the air in a room is kept freely circulating, so that we do not get drowsy and dull.

So it is also the ideal method for thinking and living. Open the windows of your mind to keep fresh ideas on the move, so that you may not get stuffy in your outlook on life. If you feel you're rather like a room that has been shut tight — and who hasn't experienced that feeling sometimes? — open up. Let some air into your life. Remember that there is a world outside in which you must play a part. — Editor of Answers.

5. An Old Woman of the Roads

O, to have a little house!

To own the hearth and stool and all!

The heaped-up sods upon the fire,

The pile of turf against the wall!

To have a clock with weights and chains

And pendulum swinging up and down!

A dresser filled with shining delf,

Speckled and white and blue and brown!

I could be busy all the day

Clearing and sweeping hearth and floor,

And fixing on their shelf again

My white and blue and speckled store!

I could be quiet there at night

Beside the fire and by myself,

Sure of a bed, and loth to leave

The ticking clock and the shining delf!

Och! but I'm weary of mist and dark,

And roads where there's never a house or bush,

And tired I am of bog and road

And the crying wind and the lonesome hush!

And I am praying to God on high,

And I am praying Him night and day,

For a little house — a house of my own —

Out of the wind's and the rain's way.

— PADRAIC COLUM.

39. Using Material in Han.Reading a piece of Han and reproducing its meaning in English is another form of expressing another person's thoughts. This is more difficult than paraphrasing and condensing because there are no expressions in the original to be used. It may involve either paraphrasing or condensing, however; therefore what has been said about these two forms may also apply in it.

By “using material in Han,” I do not mean translation in the ordinary sense of the word: I mean writing a piece of English based on one of Han. Experience tells me that when those who have not had much practice in writing English try to translate from Han into it, they are liable to write what for want of a better term we may call “Han English” or many English-speaking people call “Chinglish”.

What is worse, this “Han English” they may even carry over, quite unconsciously, into their work when they are not translating at all. Incidentally, since translation is an elastic term, I may as well say here that if what I have been talking about may be called translation, it is exceedingly free translation.

Exercise 8

Write some pieces of English based on selections from books, magazines, or newspapers in Han. Avoid word-for-word translation, and any expression that seems to you to be Han rather than English.

40. Expressing Your Own Thoughts.As you have had much practice in expressing another person's thoughts, it is time you learnt to express your own thoughts, which may be called original composition or free composition.

41. Keeping a Diary.Keeping a diary in English will give you daily practice in expressing your own thoughts. Though it is quite usual to use abbreviations and incomplete sentences in a diary, you had better not do so; for your object is to practise writing rather than to keep the record itself.

42. Choosing a Subject.Composition is saying something about something. This latter something is the subject. In your composition class it is usually your teacher that gives you a subject to write upon. It is but natural; for it is hardly practicable for your teacher to tell you to write without telling you what to write about. Besides, he is expected to know well what you are able to write about, and what you are not. When you have left school or college, your work, your personal affairs, or your social relations will require you to write upon certain subjects. Therefore you will in both cases have subjects chosen for you, instead of doing the choosing yourself.

While you are writing for practice, however, you are free to choose your own subjects. You ought to choose those in which you are personally interested and about which you have enough to say. It seems to me that many students of composition like to write on such big subjects as world peace and international relations and feel above writing about things of everyday interest, with the result that they have nothing definite to say.

I have just spoken of subjects “in which you are personally interested and about which you have enough to say”. Can you think of any such? If not, just think how many things you have ready at the tip of your tongue when you have time to talk to your friends. Below are a number of such subjects, to which you will no doubt be able to add many others:

1. Your family.

2. Your school.

3. Your class.

4. Your teachers.

5. Your friends.

6. Your pets.

7. Your hobbies.

8. You pet aversions.

9. Your daily life.

10. Your biography.

11. Your ambition.

12. Your native place.

13. Your house.

14. Your bedroom.

15. Your favourite books.

16. Your favourite newspapers.

17. Your favourite magazines.

18. Your health.

19. Your interests.

20. Your prejudices.

43. Choosing a Title.A subject and a title are not the same thing. A title is the exact words in which a subject is expressed. For instance, when your family is the subject of your composition, you may use any of the following titles and perhaps many others:

1. My Family.

2. My Household.

3. My Home.

4. My Home Life.

5. My Life at Home.

6. How I Live with my Family.

7. We are Seven (or Eight etc.).

8. Home, Sweet Home.

9. Nothing Like Home.

10. By the Fireside.

As a rule, you had better use a short title. A long title is far from attractive, though it may tell more about the subject than a shorter one can. Generally speaking, a plain title is suitable for a composition of an intellectual nature, and a figurative or quaintly worded title is suitable for a composition of an emotional or imaginative nature.

A title is not usually a complete sentence. It should be grammatically correct, though there is a growing tendency to omit the articles, especially in journalistic writing.

Many English and American writers use “On” before a noun as the title of an essay, the “On” meaning concerning, as in “On Making Friends”. Formerly “Of” was also sometimes used in this way, but it is not now.

When you cannot think of a suitable title for your composition before you begin to write, you will do well to put off choosing one until after you have finished your composition.

Exercise 9

Write down as many subjects as you can on which you think you can write, and write as many titles about them as you can. (Read Section 10 again.)

44. Taking Notes.When you have chosen a subject, think about it hard. Ideas will come into your mind. Take a note of each as it comes. The ideas are likely to come in a confusing manner: some may overlap, some may be unimportant, some may be irrelevant, some may be indefinite. Never mind. Note them all down. Catch them before they may escape. Do not stop until no more ideas come.

Suppose your subject is your family (whatever your title may be). Such ideas as the following may come into your mind:

1. My father.

2. My mother.

3. My brothers.

4. My sisters.

5. My grandfather, dead since 1939.

6. My grandmother, an invalid, dead since 1937.

7. My uncle, a widower since 1967.

8. My aunt, an old maid.

9. A distant relation, having been living with us for nearly twenty years.

10. A cat and a dog.

11. Recent removal into a new house.

12. A small garden.

13. Pleasant surroundings.

14. Mutual love among all members of my family.

15. Occasional tiffs between my younger brother and younger sister.

16. Not rich, but nothing to worry about.

17. My father's hobby.

18. My mother's favourite books.

19. My brother's ambitions.

20. My uncle's jokes.

21. My aunt's idiosyncrasy.

22. Our distant relation's sense of humour.

23. Our library.

24. Our neighbours.

25. Our friends.

26. Our correspondents.

27. My father's typewriter.

28. My elder brother's pen-friend.

29. Our dog, a very faithful animal.

30. Our cat, likely to have kittens before long.

45. Making an Outline.When you have taken enough notes about your subject, consider each to see whether it is closely connected with your subject. The answer to this question depends partly upon how long your composition is to be. For instance, if your composition about your family is to be about three hundred words in length, your uncle's jokes, your aunt's idiosyncrasy and your distant relation's sense of humour may not be considered closely connected with your subject; but if your composition is to be about three thousand words in length, all these may be considered closely connected with your subject, though the fact that your cat is going to have kittens before long may still be considered unconnected.

When you have omitted the points that you do not consider closely enough connected with your subject, arrange the remaining points in the proper order, that is, in as natural an order as you can. You may arrange and arrange, picking out the main points and placing the minor ones under them. You may use arabic numerals for the main points and small letters for the minor ones; you may use capital letters for the main points and arabic numerals for the minor ones; you may use Roman numerals for the main points; you may use no numerals and no letters at all. This is merely a matter of form, and does not seem to be very important.

The following is supposed to be an outline of a composition of about a thousand words about your household:

1. Members of my family.

a. My father.

b. My mother.

c. My brothers.

d. My sisters.

e. My uncle and aunt.

f. A distant relation.

2. My father.

a. His hobby.

b. His typewriter.

3. My mother.

a. Her favourite books.

4. My brothers.

a. Their ambitions.

b. My elder brother's pen-friend.

5. My uncle.

a. A widower since 1967.

b. His jokes.

6. My aunt.

a. An old maid.

b. Her idiosyncrasy.

7. Our distant relation.

a. Having been with us for nearly twenty years.

b. Her sense of humour.

8. My grandfather and grandmother.

a. The former dead since 1939.

b. The latter dead since 1937.

9. Mutual love.

a. Occasional tiffs between my younger brother and younger sister.

10. Not rich.

a. Nothing to worry about.

11. A cat and a dog.

a. The latter a very faithful animal.

12. Our new house.

a. Pleasant surroundings.

b. A small garden.

c. Our library.

13. Our friends.

a. Correspondents.

b. Neighbours.

Even while you are making, or after you have made, your outline, you may think of points that are worth including. Do not begin the actual writing until you are satisfied with your outline. While you are writing, however, you need not follow your outline slavishly if you find any omission or addition or alteration or adaptation desirable or necessary. After all, your outline is only a means, not an end; your composition is your end. (But, of course, when an outline is given for you to expand into a composition, as often occurs in an examination, you must follow the outline closely.)

46. Note-taking and Outline-making in the Head.You might raise the question whether all writers take notes and make outlines in the above-mentioned manner. My answer is that even experienced writers arrange their ideas in their heads, if they do not actually set them down on paper, before they begin to write. This mental note-taking and mental outline-making you may also do when the composition you are going to write is a very short one. It is not worthwhile to make a written outline for its own sake.

Exercise 10

Make outlines on five or more subjects that you think you can write upon.

47. Making Outlines of What You Read.Making outlines of what you read is a valuable training in making outlines; for it shows you how experienced writers arrange their ideas.

Below is an outline of Liam O'Flaherty's “The Letter” (pp 38—43):

1. A summer afternoon.

a. The clear blue sky.

b. Singing larks.

c. Perfect peace.

2. A peasant and his family.

a. Where they worked.

b. How they worked.

3. The father speaking of Mary.

a. Mary in America.

b. Mary's long silence.

c. Expecting a letter from Mary.

4. The arrival of Mary's letter.

a. A cheque.

b. The letter read.

c. Mary's loneliness and unhappiness.

5. How the letter affected the family.

a. The father crying.

b. The eldest son jumping to his feet.

c. The infant boy weeping.

d. All in a despairing wail.

Exercise 11

Make an outline of Malachi Whitaker's “The Secret” (pp 48—50) and “Open Up” (pp 50—51).

48. Expanding an Outline.When you have finished your outline, expand it into a composition, that is, do the actual writing. You may be able to do it at a sitting, or you may have to stop from time to time. In either case, you will do well to follow the following suggestions:

1. Do something more than merely expanding each point in your outline into a complete sentence. Additional ideas are often necessary.

2. Do not follow your outline slavishly if you find it desirable or necessary to make any omission or addition or alteration or adaptation.

3. As a rule expand each main point in your outline into a paragraph.

4. Consult one or more dictionaries as often as you need.

5. Do not drag in any word or idiom just to show off your knowledge of it.

6. Revise your work very carefully. Do not be content with anything short of your best.

Below is a composition written in accordance with the outline shown in Section 45:

My family consists of ten persons. Besides myself, who am my parents' second son and third child, there are my parents, my elder brother and elder sister, my younger brother and younger sister, my uncle, my aunt, and a distant relation. My uncle is my father's elder brother. My aunt is my father's younger sister.

My father is a school teacher by profession. He has been teaching at the same school for twenty-five years, and will not retire for another five years. He is very happy in his work, and often says that teaching is his chief interest. He has only one hobby, which is to collect stories for children. He is in the habit of copying stories on his typewriter in the evening. He calls his typewriter his best friend. I do not know exactly how many stories he has yet collected. They cannot be fewer than a thousand, however. He has adapted and rewritten about five hundred and published them in ten volumes, many copies of which he gives to his pupils as prizes. This has earned him at his school the nickname “Story-teller”, of which he is rather proud.

My mother, who used to work as an assistant at a grocer's shop and retired only a short time ago, is a great reader as well as a good housekeeper. She has heavy household work to do every day. But she never complains. She takes a pleasure in working for those whom she loves, and after a busy day she always finds in reading an unfailing resource. She often reads far into the night. She is always ready with the remark “I live with the people in my books every evening”. Her favourite books are biographies, autobiographies, and biographical and autobiographical novels. She delights in talking to us about her “people in books” as though they were her personal friends.

My elder brother is an ambitions young man. He is a college student, and will graduate next year. Not satisfied with a college education, he will devote years to the study of philosophy after graduation. His ambition is to read all Chinese and English works on his subject and to write what he calls “the greatest history of philosophy in the world”. He is fortunate in his pen-friend in England, who is also keenly interested in his subject, and who hopes to help him in achieving his ambition. My younger brother has his ambition too, though he is a mere schoolboy of nine. He wishes to become a civil engineer. He has a set of tools, with which he works in a thousand ways after school every day. As to my sisters, there does not seem to be anything particular to mention except that they always try to do their best in their schoolwork and to be useful at home too.

My uncle is a widower of sixty-two. He has not married again since his wife died fifteen years ago. Before he became a rheumatic four years ago, he was a doctor. He is fond of cracking jokes, many of which I have written down in a notebook. He even jokes about his illness, to which he says he owes his habit of keeping good hours, and therefore his health. He calls himself in good health because he feels all right except for his rheumatism.

My aunt, a self-taught singer, is an old maid. She might have married, but she preferred to remain single because she feared to have children. Not that she does not like children. As a matter of fact, she likes them very much. She was afraid to give birth to any; that was all. She cannot say why; she admits that that is only her idiosyncrasy. As I have just said, she likes children very much. She is never tired of making little things for us. She often talks to my younger sister for hours.

Our distant relation, who has been with us for nearly twenty years, is a childless widow. She loves us all as if we were her own children. She has a sense of humour. She appreciates my uncle's jokes. She is sorry that she had too little education in her childhood. “If I could write better,” she has said several times during the past few months “I would write a book about my life as a guest in a pleasant home”. She con-siders herself so much of a member of our family that she always calls our family “my family”.

My grandfather died in 1939; my grandmother, in 1937. They were both very kindly old people.

Our household is like a little community. Mutual love prevails. I do not remember we have ever had any quarrel, except for occasional tiffs between my younger brother and younger sister. Such tiffs, how-ever, seldom last for more than five minutes. They serve to excite much laughter, and to elicit a joke or two from my uncle.

We are not rich at all. But we can make ends meet. My father may be called our only breadwinner; besides the salary from his school, he makes some money by writing stories. My uncle sometimes offers to contribute a small sum to the family chest out of the money he saved up when he was a doctor. But my father usually declines his offer, saying: “There is nothing to worry about so long as I can sell my stories”.

The only animals we keep are a cat and a dog. Oddly enough, they enjoy each other's company. The dog is a very faithful animal. Once he saved my younger brother from being attacked by a snake by fighting with it.

We all live in a new house, into which we removed only a few months ago. It has pleasant surroundings. There is a small garden in front of the house. Both flowers and vegetables are growing in it. Our library is in a very small room upstairs. There are about two thousand books, mostly in Han and some in English.

Only a few friends come to see us often. Most of my father's friends are not in this city. He corresponds with them. Three of them are abroad; they and my father have never met. One or two neighbours sometimes have a chat with my parents, and their children sometimes play with us.

In writing this account of our household I have been reminded of the phrase “Home, Sweet Home”. Indeed, our home is a very sweet one.

Exercise 12

Expand into a composition each of the outlines you made in exercise 10.

49. Practice in Composition.Now that you have learnt how to take notes and make an outline and expand an outline into a composition, you are advised to do as frequent exercises in original composition as you can find time for, in addition to the various exercises to come in the chapters that follow. (The nature of the next chapter, however, is such that no exercise need be given.) You need not try always to write a composition of a thousand or more words: you will do well to pay more attention to the application of the principles and suggestions as you learn them than to the length of your compositions. Incidentally, you are advised to do exercises in telling another person's thoughts in conjunction with those in telling your own.

CHAPTER Ⅳ WRITING CORRECTLY

50. What is Correct English?The idea seems to prevail among Chinese students of English that correct English is nothing but grammatical English. This is not true. An expression may be perfectly grammatical and yet incorrect. It is incorrect often because it is unidiomatic, and it is unidiomatic often because it contains a word or a phrase used in a wrong sense.

51. Usage.It is usage that governs grammar and idiom. By usage is meant the customs and habits followed by those who use the English language as their mother tongue.

There are various standards of usage, however, so that what is correct according to one standard may be incorrect according to another. In point of time what was correct a hundred years ago may be incorrect today. In point of place what is correct in America may be incorrect in England. In point of the “social” nature of language what is correct in familiar conversation may be incorrect in formal writing.

52. Present-day Usage.The English language is constantly changing. It changes so gradually, however, that it may be regarded as fairly fixed at any given time. As you belong to the present day and write English to be read by persons of the present day, you ought to conform to present-day usage. You cannot justify any violation of it by quoting any author of the seventeenth or the eighteenth or the nineteenth century.

Here I must explain the term “Modern English”, which has two senses, one technical and the other popular. In its popular sense the term means the same as present-day English. In its technical sense it means the last of the three periods into which the English language has been divided: the first period, called Old English, ending about 1100—1150; the second period, called Middle English, ending about 1500; the third period, called Modern English, from about 1500 to the present day. Technically, therefore, even English of the sixteenth century, such as that of Shakespeare, is Modern English. You must not confuse the two senses. (When used in the technical sense the term usually begins with a capital M.)

Even the term “present-day English” is sometimes used in the sense not of English of the present day but of English from about 1650 to the present day. In this book the term is always used in the former sense.

Expressions that are not present-day English are either archaic or obsolete. “Archaic” means old-fashioned or out-of-date. “Obsolete” means no longer in use. It is not always possible, however, to say whether a certain expression belongs to one kind or the other.

The following is a list of some common archaic and obsolete expressions:

affright (frighten)

alack (interjection expressing regret or surprise)

an (if)

anent (concerning)

anon (soon)

art (second person present indicative singular of “be”)

bedight (adorn)

behoof (advantage)

betwixt (between)

boot (advantage; avail)

break one's fast (take breakfast)

bring someone acquainted with (make someone acquainted with)

certes (certainly)

do(e)st (second person present indicative singular of “do”; “dost” usually as the auxiliary verb, and “doest” usually as the independent verb)

do(e)th (third person present indicative singular of “do”; “cloth” usually as the auxiliary verb, and “doeth” usually as the independent verb)

eftsoon(s) (immediately afterwards)

eke (also)

ere (before)

erst (while) (formerly)

(e)st (personal ending used to form the second person singular indicative of verbs, as in “goest” and didst”)

eth (personal ending used to form the third person singular present indicative of verbs, as in “walketh” and “knoweth”)

eve (evening)

even (evening)

for (followed by an infinitive, with or without implication of purpose, as in “for to see”)

forsooth (indeed)

had been (used for “should have been” or “would have been”, as in “I had been happy had I seen him” and “It had been a pity if he had lost the book”)

haply (perhaps)

hast (second person present indicative singular of “have”)

hath (third person present indicative singular of “has”)

hight (named)

howbeit (nevertheless)

incontinently (immediately)

in (good) sooth (truly)

knave (servant)

lore (instruction; wisdom; scholarship)

meet (suitable)

meseems (it seems to me)

methinks (it seems to me)

mine (used before a word beginning with a vowel, as in “mine eyes”)

morrow (morning)

much (many, as in “much people”)

nath(e)less (nevertheless)

nay (no, an adverb, equivalent to a negative sentence)

not (used after a verb, as in “know not” and “fear not”)

oft (often)

oftentimes (often)

parlous (dangerous)

peradventure (perhaps)

perchance (perhaps)

poesy (poetry; art of writing poetry)

quoth (said, used of the first and third persons only)

saith (third person present indicative singular of “say”)

sennight (week)

shalt (second person present indicative singular of “shall”)

surcease (cease; cessation)

swain (male servant; boy)

thee (second person singular objective)

thine (second person singular possessive, either used before a word beginning with a vowel, as in “thine eyes”, or in absolute use, as in “The book is thine”)

thou (second person singular nominative)

thy (second person singular possessive)

thyself (second person singular reflexive and emphatic form)

trow (suppose, think)

unto (to)

villain (rustic)

were (used for “should be” or “would be”, as in “I were glad of it” and “it were better to try again”)

which (relative pronoun referring to a person or persons)

whilorn (formerly)

wight (person)

wilt (second person present indicative singular of “will”)

wit (know)

withal (with; moreover)

woe is me! (alas!)

woe worth ... (cursed be ...)

wot (know)

yclept (named)

ye (second person plural, more commonly nominative)

you was (always singular)

The only legitimate place for such expressions as those in the above list is verse, or prose in which associations with former times are to be suggested or an old-fashioned atmosphere is to be created. In normal prose the use of any such expression will produce only a ridiculous effect. However beautiful a word or phrase you may find, you must not display it where it is conspicuously out of place.

53. Neologisms.Neologisms are expressions that are too new to be in very common use, or to be found in most dictionaries. In fact, every expression now established in English was once a neologism. Such common words as “laser” and “television” were neologisms not so very long ago.

As this book is not likely to be revised every year or every five years, I do not think it quite safe to give a list of what I regard as neologisms, which may no longer be such a year or two from now. My advice is not to use any expression that you have found only once in current literature. This will save you from the danger of mistaking an idiosyncrasy or even a blunder of a single writer for an example of a general usage. I believe it is still right to follow the advice given in the familiar quotation from Essay on Criticism by Alexander Pope, the eighteenth-century English poet:

Be not the first by whom the new are tried,

Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.

54. English and American Usage.Usage varies with different places where English is used. There are English English, American English, Scottish English, Irish English, Australian English, Canadian English, and English peculiar to particular places in a particular country. Not that English as used in different places may be divided into entirely different kinds. The fact is that though written English is nearly the same everywhere, there are certain expressions that are in current use in one country or one district only.

I have spoken of usage as varying with different places. In fact, usage varies with people from different places rather irrespective of where a person concerned happen to be. For instance, an American living temporarily in England is not likely to follow English usage instead of American.

It is to be noted that so far as the English language is concerned, the usage of only those who use it as their mother tongue can be accepted as correct. The use of any English word in any sense or construction that is not current among any class of such people is incorrect, however common it may be among any number of people whose mother tongue is not English. While there are English English, American English, Scottish English, Irish English, Australian English, and Canadian English, there are no such things as French English, German English, or Spanish English. I hope I am not impertinent if I try to warn you — who are Chinese — that you must not regard any expression as correct simply because you find it quite common among certain English-writing Chinese.

This is not the place to go into the subject of local peculiarities of English. I must content myself with giving a list of common instances of American as distinguished from English usage; for English English and American English are the two chief kinds, all the others being negligible so far as students of English composition are concerned. As to the question which usage is to be preferred, all I can say is that perhaps neither is in itself better or worse than the other, and that, being Chinese as you are, you need not follow either exclusively. After all, though there are so many differences, there are far, far more expressions that are in current use on both sides of the Atlantic, especially in the written language. Besides, in view of the three following considerations, the question is not such a serious one as I may have led you to think:

1. Many expressions given as English as differentiated from their American equivalents are really also common in America.

2. Many expressions given as Americanisms are becoming naturalized in England, so that in a few years scarcely any Englishman will think of them as originally American. (Many expressions commonly used in England today are of American origin, though the average Englishman may not even suspect it.).

3. It is not always possible to find out whether a certain expression is English or American.

I compiled the following list in 1941 chiefly, but not solely, from H W Horwill's A Dictionary of Modern American Usage[1] (Oxford University Press, England), which was the best book of its kind then available, but have now (1983) revised it considerably and brought it up to date.

absorbent.“Absorbent cotten” is the American equivalent of the English “cotton wool”.

acclimate.“Acclimate” is the American equivalent of the English “acclimatize”. Likewise, “acclimation” is the American equivalent of the English “acclimatization”.

accounting.“Accounting” is the American equivalent of the English “accountancy”.

administration.“The Administration” is the American equivalent of the English “the Government”. “The Reagan (name of the American president) Administration” is American; “the Mrs Thatcher Government is English.

after.“Half after three”, “ten minutes after five”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “half past three”, “ten minutes past five”, etc.

aim.The verb “aim” followed by an infinitive was originally the American equivalent of the English “aim” followed by “at” and a gerund but now the former usage is English as well as American.

all.

1. “All morning”, “all week”, “all summer”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “all the morning”, “all the week”, “all the summer”, etc.

2. “All of the books”, “all of these books”, “all of his books”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “all the books”, “all these books”, “all his books”, etc. But the omission of “the” has for years been usual in England too.

allow.“Allow” used before a that-clause in the sense of admit or assert was originally an American usage, but sometimes occurs in England now.

almost.“Almost no ...”, “almost nothing”, “almost never”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “scarcely (or hardly) any ...”, “scarcely (or hardly) anything”, “scarcely (or hardly) ever”, etc.

already.While “He has already gone home” is both English and American, “He already went home” is American only.

aluminum.“Aluminum” is the American equivalent of the English “aluminium”.

any.“That won't help us any” is the American equivalent of the English “That won't help us at all” or “... in the least”.

apartment.The sense of set of rooms in a larger building is American; that of a room is English. The English equivalent of the American “apartment” is “flat”. “Apartment house” is the American equivalent of the English “block of flats”. “Apartment hotel” is the American equivalent of the English “service flats”.

appreciate.“Appreciate” used before a that-clause in the sense of recognize or understand is chiefly an Americanism. It only occasionally occurs in England, where the usual practice is to supply “the fact” before “that”.

apt.“Apt” followed by an infinitive always suggests a general or habitual tendency in England as in “A careless person is apt to make mistakes”. It is not used in any particular case, as in “If you arc careless in writing this essay, you are apt to make mistakes”. This latter sentence is American.

around.“Around” is much more used in America than in England. Such expressions as “around the corner” and “around two hundred people” are American; the English equivalent of the “around” is “round”.

as.

1. “As strange as it sounds, what he says actually happened not so long ago” is American; the usual English way of expression is “Strange as it sounds, ...”

2. “As of”, as in “as of this date”, “as of 16 April”, and “as of now” is an Americanism. In the first two phrases, the English equivalent is “as from”, in the third, the English equivalent is just “now”.

Sometimes the idiom may mean up to, as in “As of eleven o'clock last night the boy was still sitting alone in the park”.

ashcan.“Ashcan” is the American equivalent of the English “ashbin” or “dust bin”.

aside.“Aside from” is the American equivalent of the English “apart from”.

auction.“At auction” and “put up at auction” are the American equivalents of the English “by auction” and “put up to auction”.

automat.“Automat” is an Amelicanism.

automobile. “Automobile” is the American equivalent of the English “motor car” or “car”.

avail.“Avail of” was once the American equivalent of the English “avail oneself of”. For many years now “avail oneself of” has been the only form in America as well as in England.

away.“away behind”, “away down”, “away off”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “a long way behind”, “a long way down”, “a long way off”, etc.

baby.“Baby buggy” or “baby carriage” is the American equivalent of the English “perambulator” or “pram”.

back.

1. “Back of” is the American equivalent of the English “at the back of” and “behind in support”.

2. “Back rent”, “back pay”, “back salary”, “back taxes”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “arrears of rent”, “arrears of pay”, “arrears of salary”, “arrears of taxes”, etc.

baggage.“Baggage” is the American equivalent of the English “luggage”. “Baggage car” is the American equivalent of the English “luggage van”. However, the luggage with which an English person travels by sea or by air is now usually called “baggage”.

bar.“Bar” is the American equivalent of the English “public house” or “pub”.

bargain.

1. “Into the bargain” is used both in England and in America, but “in the bargain” is often used instead in America.

2. “Bargain for” is used both in England and in America, but “bargain on” is often used instead in America.

bathrobe.“Bathrobe” is the American equivalent of the English “dressing-gown”.

battle.“Battle” used transitively in the sense of battle with is an Americanism.

beet.“Beet” is the American equivalent of the English “beet-root”.

before.“Five minutes before three” etc are an American usage; it does not seem to be so common as “five minutes of three” etc, however.

bellboy, bellhop.“Bellboy” or “bellhop” is the American equivalent of the English “(hotel) page”.

best.While “get the better of” is used both in England and in America, “get the best of” is used in America only.

bill.“Bill” is the American equivalent of the English “bank-note”.

billboard.“Billboard” is the American equivalent of the English “hoarding”.

billfold.“Billfold” is the American equivalent of the English “wallet” or “notecase”.

billion.The sense of a thousand million or a milliard is American; that of a million million is English (now little used).

boot.“Boot” means in America what is known in England as “high boot” or “wellington”.

bulletin.“Bulletin-board” is the American equivalent of the English “notice-board”.

business.“Business suit” is the American equivalent of the English “lounge suit”.

butcher.In America “butcher” often means a seller of sweets etc on a train.

cab.In America “cab” is often used for what is called a “taxi” or “taxicab” in England. However, “cab rank” is English rather American, and in America “taxi stand” is usually used instead.

call.In telephoning, “call (transitive or intransitive verb) collect (adverb)” is often used for the English “reverse (the) charge(s)”.

candy.“Candy” or “candies” is the American equivalent of the English “sweets”.

can not.“Can not” (two words) used to be the American equivalent of the English “cannot” (one word). Now it seems that even in America “cannot” is often used when the “not” is not meant to be stressed.

car.In the vocabulary of railways “car” is the American equivalent of the English “carriage” or “coach” and “the cars” is the American equivalent of the English “the train”.

carfare.“Carfare” is the American term for a passenger's fare by train, bus, etc.

charge.“Charge” used before a that-clause in the sense of allege used to be an Americanism, but now it is so used in England too.

check.

1. “Check up (on)” was originally an Americanism, but is now widely used in England, usually as more forceful than “check”.

2. “Check out” is often used in America in the sense of check up (on).

3. “check (luggage etc)” at a railway station etc is an Americanism.

checkroom.“Checkroom” is the American equivalent of the English “left luggage room” at a railway station etc and a “cloakroom” in a hotel.

claim.“Claim” used in the sense of assert or assertion is an Americanism.

clerk.“Clerk” used in the sense of shop assistant or act as a shop assistant is an Americanism.

close.“Close out” meaning end (a business) or sell (all the goods) is an Americanism.

closet.“Closet” is the American equivalent of the English “cupboard”.

college.In America, “in college” is more usual than “at college”.

comfort.

1. “Comfort” used in the sense of warm quilt is an Americanism.

2. “Comfort station” is the American equivalent of the English “public lavatory”.

comforter.“Comforter” used in the sense of warm quilt is an Americanism.

composition.“Composition book” is the American equivalent of the English “exercise book”.

considerable.

1. “Considerable” used of material things, as in “considerable gold” and “considerable oil”, is an Americanism.

2. “Considerable” used as a noun in the sense of a considerable amount is an Americanism.

consult.“Consult with” used with a person or persons for its object means in England discuss something with (a person or persons). In America, however, it means merely consult.

cookbook.“Cookbook” is the American equivalent of the English “cookery book”.

cordially.“Cordially” used in the complimentary close in letters is an Americanism.

corn.While in England “corn” means any kind of cereal, in America it always means Indian corn or maize.

cot.“Cot” is the American equivalent of the English “camp-bed”.

county.In America a “county” is next below a “State”.

credit.“Credit” used as the name of a unit of academic work is an Americanism.

crib.In America “crib” meaning bed for a young child is more usual than the English “cot”.

cunning.“Cunning” used in the sense of dainty or pretty is an Americanism.

data.“Data”, being the plural form of “datum”, is often treated in American as a singular, meaning facts or information; now sometimes so treated in England.

day.“Day before yesterday” and “day after tomorrow” are the American equivalents of the English “the day before yesterday” and “the day after tomorrow”.

dear.In American letter-writing “My dear ...” used in the salutation in letters is less familiar than “Dear ...”; the reverse is true in English letter-writing.

delivery.“General delivery” is the American equivalent of the English “poste restante”.

develop.“Develop” used in the sense of make known or become known is an Americanism.

different.

1. “Different” used in the sense of distinctive or special or out of the ordinary has long been used in American advertisements, and for a number of years also in English advertisements. It seems that “super-different” appeared later.

2. “Different than” is far oftener used in America than in England, though it originated in England as long ago as the eighteenth century.

diner.“Diner” used in the sense of a (small) restaurant is an Americanism.

ditch.“Ditch” used as a transitive verb meaning “throw (a car etc) into a ditch or derail (a train) is an Americanism (occasionally found in England).

do.“Do over” is the American equivalent of the English “do again” or “do all over again”.

docket.“Docket” used the senses of list of causes for trial or list of the names of persons whose causes are pending and list of things to be done is an Americanism. The English term for the first sense is “cause list”.

doctor.In America, “doctor” is applied not only to physicians but also to dentists, veterinary surgeons, and even druggists.

dormitory.“Dormitory” used in the sense of university or college hall of residence is an Americanism.

dresser.“Dresser” used in the sense of chest of drawers or dressing-table is an Americanism.

drown.“Drown out (words, noise, music, etc)” is the American equivalent of the English “drown (words, noise, music, etc)”.

drugstore.“Drugstore” is generally regarded as the English “chemist's (shop)”. The American term, however, denotes something not quite the same as what the English term denotes. A “drugstore” sells not only medicinal drugs but also many other things, including toilet articles, light refreshments, even magazines and gramophone records.

editorialize.“Editorialize” is an Americanism.

elevator.“Elevator” is the American equivalent of the English “lift”.

end.“At loose ends” is the American equivalent of the English “at a loose end”.

event.“In the event that they arrive this evening”, “in the event that the weather is fine”, etc are American. The English equivalents are “if they arrive this evening,” “if the weather is fine”, etc.

exclusive.“Exclusive” used in the sense of highclass or fashionable was originally an Americanism, now also common in England.

executive.“Executive session”, meaning private meeting, is an Americanism.

exercise.“Exercises” (plural) used in the sense of a formal programme of events, as in “graduation exercises” and “inauguration exercises”, is an Americanism.

expressway.“Expressway” is the American equivalent of the English “motorway”.

extend.“Extended” used in the sense of long, as in “extended trip” and “extended discussion”, is an Americanism.

face.“Face up to” was originally an Americanism, but is now also common in England. Its sense is somewhat different from that of “face”; compare “face a difficult situation” and “face up to a difficult situation”. The first phrase means recognize a difficult situation; the second means recognize, and be determined to deal with, a difficult situation.

faculty.“Faculty” used in the sense of the teaching staff of a university, college, or school is an Americanism.

fail.“Failed” used as an adjective in the sense of having failed is an Americanism, as in “failed author” and “failed bank”.

fall.“Fall” used in the sense of autumn is an Americanism. Always say “in the fall”.

faucet.“Faucet” is the American equivalent of the English “tap” (especially indoors).

feel.When used in the sense of touch with the hand, “feel” is often followed by “of” in America.

fender.“Fender” is the American equivalent of the English “wing” or “mudguard” of a motor vehicle.

figure.

1. “Figure” used in the sense of calculate or reckon or estimate is an Americanism, often with its meaning intensified by the addition of “out” or “up”.

2. “Figure on” is an Americanism meaning either make calculations about or count on, expect.

fill.

1. “Fill” used in the sense of “fulfil” is an Americanism.

2. “Fill in” is an Americanism meaning either (transitively) tell (somebody) more or (intransitively) act as a substitute.

3. “Fill out” is the American equivalent of the English “fill in” in the sense of put in what is necessary in (a document etc).

fire.“Fire department” is the American equivalent of the English “fire brigade”.

fix.“Fix” and “fix up” used in such senses as arrange, organize, prepare, mend, and adjust were originally Americanisms, now common in England too.

floor.

1. The “first floor” in America is the “ground floor” in England; the numbering of the higher floors follows according to the same reckoning.

2. “Floorwalker” is the American equivalent of the English “shopwalker”.

fool.“Fool” used as an adjective in the sense of foolish is an Americanism.

free.“For free”, meaning without charge or payment, was originally an Americanism, now found in England too.

freight.“Freight” used of transport by land is an Americanism. “Freight train”, “freight car”, “freight depot”, and “freight yard” are the American equivalents of the English “goods train”, “goods wagon”, “goods station”, and “goods yard”.

gait.“Gait” used in the sense of pace, as in “fast gait” and “slow gait” is an Americanism.

gang.“Gang” used in the sense of a group of boys habitually play-ing together or as a verb in a corresponding sense is an Americanism.

garbage.

1. “Garbage”, which seems to be little used in England, is usually used to mean domestic waste, especially kitchen waste.

2. “Garbage barrel”, “garbage can”, “garbage collector” and “garbage wagon” are Americanisms.

gas, gasoline (or gasolene).

1. “Gas” and “gasoline” (or “gasoline”) are the American equivalents of the English “petrol”.

2. “Gas station's is the American equivalent of the English “filling-station”. Incidentally, “fillingstation” itself was originally an Americanism.

gear.“Gear-shift” is the American equivalent of the English “gear-lever”.

generator.What is called a “dynamo” is in America often called a “generator”.

get.

1. In America, the past participle is usually “gotten”, instead of “got”, as in “I have (or I've) gotten three letters from her during the last five days” and “He has (or He's) just gotten his bike repaired”. However, when “have got” means have, “got” is used in America as well as in England, as in “I have (or I've) got a book on English idioms” and “He has (or He's) got to call on her this morning”. (Incidentally, “have got” followed by an infinitive is less used in America than in England.)

2. “get around” meaning visit many places, is an Americanism.

3. “Get” followed by an infinitive, meaning succeed in doing something, was originally an Americanism, now also found in England; as in “I hope you will get to make his acquaintance by and by” and “I've gotten to call on him this morning”. (It is interesting to compare “I've got to call on him this morning” and “I've gotten to call on him this morning”. The first sentence can mean either “I have to call on him this morning” or “I have succeeded in calling on him this morning”; the second can mean only “I have succeeded in calling on him this morning”.

grade.

1. “Grade” used in the sense of one of the divisions or sections of the school course, each representing a year's work, or as a verb in a corresponding sense, is an Americanism; roughly equivalent to the English “form”, “standard”, or “class”. “Grade school” (or “the grades”) and “grade teacher” mean elementary school (in the American sense) and a teacher in such a school.

2. “Grade” used in the sense of a mark in connection with examination papers or pieces of schoolwork is an Americanism.

3. “Grade crossing” is the American equivalent of the English “level crossing”.

graduate.

1. In America “graduate” denotes a person who has completed a course at any educational institution; in England it denotes a person who has taken a degree in a university or passed all examinations in one of a certain kind of college. As a verb there is a corresponding difference.

2. In America “graduate” was once more commonly transitive than intransitive. “He was graduated last year” was American; “He graduated last year” was English. For many years now, however, the English usage has been commoner than the former American usage in America.

3. “Graduate” or “graduate student”, meaning a postgraduate, is an Americanism.

graduation.About “graduation” there is a difference between American and English usage corresponding to that about “graduate”.

gridiron.“Gridiron” meaning football field is an Americanism.

grind.“Grind” used in the sense of plodding student is an Americanism; roughly equivalent to the English “swot”.

ground.“Ground wire” is the American equivalent of the English “earth wire”.

guard.“Guard” meaning a prison warder is an Americanism.

guess.“I guess” used in the sense of I think or I suppose is an Americanism.

gum.“Gum” meaning rubber boot or rubber overshoe or galosh is an Americanism, (“Gumshoe”, also an Americanism, seems less common.)

gun-fight.“Gun-fight” meaning fight between two persons with firearms is an Americanism.

guy.“Guy” used in the sense of fellow or chap was originally an Americanism; now also found in England, merely as slang of course.

half-staff.“Half-staff” is the American equivalent of the English “half-mast”.

hallway.“Hallway”, meaning entrance hall of a house or corridor, was originally an Americanism, now also found in England.

hand.

1. “At hand” used in connection with the receipt of letters is an Americanism.

2. “on hand” used in the sense of in attendance was originally an Americanism; now also found in England.

handle.“Handle” used in the sense of deal in, as in “This shop handles pens and ink”, was originally an Americanism; now also found in England.

have.

1. “Have” as used in “I will have him do it” is an Americanism. In England the usual expressions are “I will get him to do it” (more polite) and “I will make him do it” (less polite).

2. In America, the auxiliary verb “do” used with “have” in questions and negative statements is far more common than in England. For example, “Does he have any friends or relatives in this town?” and “He doesn't have any friends or relatives in this town” are quite natural in America. These sentences are not usually said in England, where the usual forms are “Has he any friends or relatives in this town?” and “He hasn't any friends or relatives in this town”. (The problem is too complex to go into here.)

haze.“Haze” used in the sense of bully (transitive verb, especially in schools and colleges) is an Americanism.

head.“Head up” used in the sense of be at the head of (a delegation, a company, etc) is an Americanism. In England, “head” is used alone instead.

headliner.“Headliner”, meaning star performer, is an Americanism.

help.“Help” used in the sense of employee or employees or servant or servants is an Americanism.

highboy.“Highboy” is the American equivalent of the English “tallboy”.

hired.“Hired man”, “hired woman”, and “hired girl” (used euphemistically for “domestic servant”) are Americanisms.

holiday.“Legal holiday” is the American equivalent of the English “bank holiday”.

home.“The Smith home”, “the Johnson home”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “Mr Smith's”, “Mr Johnson's”, etc.

hospital.“In the hospital”, “to the hospital”, “out of the hospital”, “attend the hospital”, etc. are the American equivalents of the English “in hospital”, “to hospital”, “out of hospital”, “attend hospital”, etc. In England “the” is used before “hospital” when a particular hospital is meant.

hunt.“Hunt” used in connection with the shooting of birds is chiefly an Americanism.

icebox.“Icebox” is the American equivalent of the English “refrigerator” or “fridge”.

impractical.“Impractical” is chiefly an Americanism, equivalent of the English “unpractical” and “impracticable”.

in.“In” as used in “the hottest day in thirty years”, “the best novel I have read in weeks”, “I have not heard from him in months”, etc is an Americanism. The English equivalent is “for”.

Instal(l)ment.“Instal(l)ment plan” is the American equivalent of the English “hire-purchase (plan)”, “hire-purchase system”, or “hire system”. “Instal(l)ment buying” and “instal(l)ment selling” are also Americanisms.

junior.

1. “junior” used in the sense of third-year student at university, college, or school is an Americanism.

2. “John Buck, junior” or “John Buck, Jr.”, meaning the son who has the same as his father John Buck, is an Americanism.

just.While “he has just called” is both English and American, “He just called” is American only.

kerosene.“Kerosene” is the American equivalent of the English “paraffin (oil)”.

likely.When used as an adverb, “likely” is usually followed by “very” or “most” or “quite” in England, but not in America.

line.“Line” used in the sense of queue (that is line of persons waiting their turn) is an Americanism. “stand in line” and “line up” (=“queue up”) are Americanisms.

locate.“Locate” used in the sense of take up residence or business is an Americanism.

long distance.“Long distance” as used in “long distance telephone call” and “She calls me long distance to say that ...” used to be the American equivalent of the English “trunk-call” and “She gives me a trunk-call to say that ...”, but are now also common in England.

look.

1. “Look to” used in the sense of tend towards or aim at is an Americanism.

2. “Look to be” used in the sense of seem to be is an Americanism.

lose.“Lose cut” (intransitive) was originally the American equivalent of the English “lose”; now also found in England.

lumber.“Lumber” used in the sense of (partly prepared) timber is an Americanism.

lunch, luncheon.“Lunch” (or “luncheon”) used in the sense of slight hurried meal is an Americanism.

maid. “Maid of honour” used in the sense of chief bridesmaid at a wedding is an Americanism.

mail.“Mail”, both noun and verb, is much more used in America than in England. “Mailbox”, “mail car”, “mail carrier”, “mail drop”, “mailman”, and “mail matter” are all Americanisms, though “mailbag”, “mail train”, “mail-van” and “mails” are also common in England.

major.“Major” used as a noun in the sense of college student's principal subject of study or college student specializing in a subject (as in “He is a major in electronics” or “He is an electronics major”) or as a verb in the sense of take a certain subject as one's major (as in “He majors in electronics”) is an Americanism.

make.“Make an address” is an Americanism. In England the usual expressions are “give an address” and “deliver an address”, though “make a speech” is quite common.

meet.“Meet with” used with a person or persons for its object is chiefly an Americanism, usually used of meeting either by accident or by plan. “Meet up with” is also an Americanism used almost always of meeting by accident.

merchant.“Merchant” used in the sense of a shopkeeper is an Americanism.

miss.

1. “Miss out”, meaning fail, is an Americanism.

2. “Miss out on”, meaning fail to get (something) is the American equivalent of the English “miss”.

mission.“Mission” used in the sense of permanent foreign embassy or legation is an Americanism.

monopoly.“Monopoly” followed by “on” (instead of “of”) is an Americanism.

most.“Most” used in the sense of almost is used chiefly in America.

name.

1. “First name” and “given name” are the American equivalents of the English “personal name” or “Christian name”.

2. “Name(d) for”, as in “The boy is named for his grandfather”, is the American equivalent of the English “name(d) after”.

neighbourhood.“Neighbourhood” used as an attributive adjective, as in “neighbourhood schools” and “neighbourhood gossip”, is an Americanism.

notion.“Notions”, meaning miscellaneous small articles, such as pins, needles, and thread, is an Americanism. The department in a department store selling such things is called a “notion department”.

of.“A quarter of three”, “five minutes of five”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “a quarter to three”, “five minutes to five”, etc.

office.“Office-holder” (that is, one who holds a government office) and “office-seeker” (that is, one who seeks a government office) are Americanisms.

old.“Older brother” and “older sister” are the American equivalents of the English “elder brother” and “elder sister”.

on.The adverbial use of the names of the days of the week (without the preceding “on”) is an Americanism. “Can you call Monday?” is American; “Can you call on Monday?” is English.

operate.In America, “operate” is a very common word freely used in the senses of conduct, run, carry on, act, etc. “Operating costs” is the American equivalent of the English “running expenses” or “working expenses”.

operation.In America, “operation” is as freely used as “operate” in corresponding senses.

operator.In America, “operator” often means the manager or owner of a business, a factory, a mine, etc.

order.

1. “In order” used in the sense of permissible or appropriate is an Americanism.

2. “Order” followed by its object and a past participle, as in “He ordered the work done”, was originally an Americanism. In England, “to be” used to be used before the past participle, but is now sometimes omitted.

out “Out” used as a preposition meaning out of or out through, as in “in one door and out another”, is an Americanism.

over.“Over” written at the bottom of a page to indicate that there is writing on the other side is the American equivalent of the English “P T O” (Please Turn Over).

pajamas.“Pajamas” is the American equivalent of the English “pyjamas”.

parking-lot.“Parking-lot”, meaning area for parking cars, is the American equivalent of the English “car-park”.

pay.

1. “Pay envelope” is the American equivalent of the English “pay packet”.

2. “Pay station” is the American equivalent of the English “pay (tele)phone”.

pocket-book.“Pocket-book” used in the figurative sense of money or income is an Americanism.

point.

1. “Point” used as the name of a unit of academic credit is an Americanism.

2. “Point” or “pen-point” is the American equivalent of the English “nib”.

3. “Exclamation point” is the American equivalent of the English “note of exclamation” or “mark of exclamation”.

politician.“Politician” used in the sense of one who makes a trade of politics is an Americanism.

politics.“Politics” used in a bad sense, especially in the idiom “play politics”, is an Americanism.

porch.“Porch” is the American equivalent of the English “veranda”. “Porch climber” is the American equivalent of the English “cat burglar”.

post.

1. “Post no bills” is the American equivalent of the English “Stick no bills”.

2. In America, “postcard” means a card of private manufacture to be conveyed by post, and “postal card” (often called “postal”) means a card issued by the Post Office to be conveyed by post. In England both kinds are called “postcard”.

preferable.“Preferable than “is often used in America instead of “preferable to”.

president.“President” used in the sense of head of a business organization or a college or university is an Americanism.

protest.“Protest” used transitively in the sense of protest against is an Americanism.

publisher.“Publisher” used in the sense of a newspaper proprietor is an Americanism. (In England, a newspaper “publisher” is not the proprietor but an agent of the proprietor.)

purse.“Purse” used in the sense of a “handbag” is an Americanism.

railroad.“Railroad” is the American equivalent of the English “railway”.

rain.“Rain out”, meaning prevent or stop (an event, a game, etc) because of rain, is the American equivalent of the English “rain off”.

raise.

1. “Raise” used in the sense of a rise in salary or wages is an Americanism.

2. “Raise” used in the sense of grow (farm or garden products), breed (animals), and rear (children) was originally an Americanism, and now still occurs more often in America than in England.

realtor.“Realtor” is the American equivalent of the English “real estate agent”.

recitation.“Recitation” used in the sense of the hearing of a lesson or even of any class exercise or attendance is an Americanism.

rent.“For rent” is an Americanism, meaning to let or for hire.

rest.“Rest up” used in the sense of rest oneself (thoroughly) is an Americanism.

rest-room.“Rest-room”, meaning public lavatory in a hotel, restaurant, factory, etc, is an Americanism.

retail.“At retail” is the American equivalent of the English “by retail”.

rhetoric.

1. “Rhetoric” used as if it meant nothing but composition is an Americanism.

2. “Rhetoric” used in the sense of a book of rhetoric (as in “a rhetoric” and “rhetorics”) is an Americanism.

ride.“Ride” used in the senses of journey by rail or by water and go on a journey by rail or by water is an Americanism.

room.“Room” used as a verb in the sense of occupy lodgings is an Americanism. From this use come the three Americanisms “roomer”, “rooming-house”, and “room-mate”.

run.

1. “Run” used in the sense of small stream is an Americanism.

2. “Run” used in the sense of ladder as the name of a kind of defect in stockings is an Americanism.

salesman.“Salesman” used in the sense of commercial traveller is an Americanism. In England it means either a middleman between the producer and the retailer or a man who sells goods in a shop.

saloon.“Saloon” used in the sense of drinking-bar or public house (or pub) is an Americanism. A “saloon-keeper” is the American equivalent of the English “publican”.

say.

1. “Say!” or “Say” is the American equivalent of the English “I say!” or “I say”, as in “Say! You've never heard of him?”, “Say!Never mind the broken glass”, and “Say, the picture is simply wonderful”.

2. “Say” followed by an infinitive is an Americanism as in “Father says to work while you work and play while you play” and “She said for us all to help her clean up her room”.

“What say” is the American equivalent of the English “What do you say” in making a suggestion, as in “What say we ask the boy there the time?”

schedule.

1. “Schedule” used in the sense of a timetable is an Americanism.

2. “Schedule” used in the sense of set down definitely, as in “The trip was scheduled for June”, is an Americanism.

school.

1. In America, “in school” is more usual than “at school”.

2. In America, “school” is often used of a college or a university.

school-bag.“School-bag” is the American equivalent of the English “satchel”; now also found in England.

seat.“Have a seat!” is the American equivalent of the English “Take a seat!”

section.“Section” used in the sense of district or region of a town or a city is an Americanism.

senior.“Senior” used in the sense of fourth-year student at university, college or school is an Americanism.

session.“Session” used in the sense of the part of the day or the year when teaching is given, as in “half-day session” and “200-day session”, is an Americanism.

shoe.The idiom “if the shoe fits” is the American equivalent of the English idiom “if the cap fits”.

shoot.“Shoot to death” is the American equivalent of the English “shoot dead”.

shop.

1. “Shop” used in the sense of a place where certain things are made or repaired was originally an Americanism; now common in England too.

2. “Barber shop”, “blacksmith shop”, “carpenter shop”, “tailor shop”, etc are the American equivalents of the English “barber's shop”, “blacksmith's shop”, “carpenter's shop”, “tailor's shop”, etc.

3. “shopman” used in the sense of a workman in a shop (in the American sense) is an Americanism.

4. In America “shop” (verb) often means visit shops to inspect goods (without necessarily buying any).

short.“In short order”, meaning immediately, is an Americanism.

should.In such sentences as “I suggest(ed) that the children (should) play together” and “The regulations require(d) we (should) get at six o'clock and take morning exercise”, “should” is far oftener used in England than in America, when it is hardly ever used.

shower.“Shower one with missiles or compliments” is the American equivalent of the English “shower missiles or compliments (up) on one”.

sick.“Sick” is the American equivalent of the English “ill”. In England there is a tendency to confine “sick” to the sense of nauseated, though it is still always used attributively instead of “ill”, as in “sick man”, “sick-bed”, “sick-leave”, and “sick-room”.

sidewalk.“Sidewalk” is the American equivalent of the English “pavement” and “footpath”.

silent.“Silent partner” is the American equivalent of the English “sleeping partner”.

skill.“Skill” used in the sense of an ability or an accomplishment (as in “an skill” and “skills”) was originally an Americanism, now also found in England.

slay.“Slay”, which is chiefly a poetical or rhetorical word in England, is widely used in America of killing (a person or persons); “slayer” is likewise so used.

so.In American usage “so” is often used in the sense of so that, as in “Write carefully so you will make no mistakes”.

soap.“Soap opera”, meaning a sentimental domestic radio or tele-vision story or serial (originally intended to sell toilet or laundry soaps) was originally an Americanism, now used in England too.

sociable.“Sociable” used in the sense of an informal reception is the American equivalent of the English “social”.

soda.“Soda biscuit (or cracker)” is the American equivalent of the English “cream cracker”.

solicitor.“Solicitor” used in the sense of a person who solicits business or help of any kind is an Americanism.

some.“Some” used in the sense of somewhat, as in “some better” and “I hope you will progress some,” is an Americanism.

sophomore.“Sophomore”, meaning a second-year college or high school student, is an Americanism.

sound.“Sound out (a person) about or on something” was originally the American equivalent of the English “sound (a person) about or on something”; now also found in England.

spool.“Spool of thread” is the American equivalent of the English “reel of cotton”.

stand.“Stand” used in the senses of witness-box and stall or booth for business is an Americanism.

start.In America, “start” used intransitively in the sense of begin is often intensified by the addition of “in” or “out”.

stay.“Stay home” is the American equivalent of the English “stay at home”.

store.While “the stores” (plural) means in England a large shop divided into several departments, “store” is the American equivalent of the English “shop”.

story.“Story” used in the sense of a news article of any kind is an Americanism.

street.“On the street” is the American equivalent of the English “in the street”.

streetcar.“Streetcar” is the American equivalent of the English “tram(car).”

student.“Student” used to denote a mere school pupil is an Americanism.

subway.“Subway” is the American equivalent of the English “underground railway”.

suspenders.“Suspenders” is the American equivalent of the English “braces” for holding up trousers.

tag.“Tag day” is the American equivalent of the English “flag-day”.

take.“Take” in used in the sense of visit (a place in sightseeing) or attend (a lecture, film, etc) is an Americanism.

tardy.In America, “tardy” usually meats not slow or sluggish but late or unpunctual, as in “tardy to school” and “half an hour tardy for dinner”.

teach.“Teach school”, meaning be a schoolteacher, is an Americanism.

team.“On the tennis (of football, boxing, etc) team” is the American equivalent of the English “in the tennis (of football, boxing, etc) team”.

tell.“Tell (somebody) goodbye”, meaning bid (somebody) goodbye, is an Americanism.

text.“Text” used in the sense of a textbook is an Americanism.

that.The conjunction “that” is more freely omitted after a verb in America than in England.

theme.“Theme” used in the sense of school composition is an Americanism.

this.“Who is this?” is the American equivalent of the English “Who is that?” on the telephone; similarly, “Is this George?” is the American equivalent of the English “Is that George?”

thus.“Thus and so”, meaning thus or so, is an Americanism.

tie.

1. “Tie” used in the sense of a necktie was originally an Americanism, now also often found in England.

2. “Tie” is the American equivalent of the English “(rail) sleeper”.

3. “Tie” used in the sense of laced shoe is an Americanism.

timber.“Timber” used in the sense of quality or type as applied to persons, as in “a person of his timber”, is an Americanism.

time.

1. “On time” used in the sense of punctually was originally an Americanism, now also found in English.

2. “On time” used in the sense of on hire-purchase is an Americanism.

tired.“Tired” used in the sense of annoyed is an Americanism.

too.

1. “Too” used at the beginning of a clause or sentence in the sense of moreover is an Americanism.

2. “Too bad” is the American equivalent of the English “a great pity”.

tough.“Tough” used as an adjective in the sense of ruffianly and as a noun in the sense of ruffian is an Americanism.

trackless.“Trackless trolley” is the American equivalent of the English “trolley bus”.

transfer.

1. “Transfer” used in the sense of a ticket enabling a tram or bus passenger to continue his journey on another route is an Americanism.

2. “Transfer” used intransitively was originally an Americanism.

transportation.“Transportation” is the American equivalent of the English “transport” in the sense of transporting or being transported or means of transporting.

trolley-car.“Trolley-ear” is the American equivalent of the English “tramcar”.

truck.“Truck” used in the sense of vegetables grown for the market is an Americanism.

university.“At university”, “go to university”, etc are now quite common in England, but “at the (or a) university”, “go to the (or a) university”. etc are still the normal expressions in America, where “leave university”, “finish university”, “since university”, etc seem to be unknown.

use.“Used” used in the sense of second-hand, as in “used books” and “used furniture”, was originally an Americanism; now found in England too.

vacation.“Vacation” used as a noun in the sense of period or holiday spent away from home or business or as a verb in the sense of take a holiday was originally an Americanism. The noun is now common in England too, where the verb seems to be still far less common than holiday.

vaudeville.“Vaudeville” is the American equivalent of the English “variety”; “vaudeville theatre” is the American equivalent of the English “music-hall” or “variety theatre”.

visit.“Visit” used intransitively and followed by “with” meaning talk (socially) with is an Americanism.

wait.“Wait on table” is the American equivalent of the English “wait at table”.

waitress.“Waitress” used in the sense of maidservant who waits at meals in a private house is an Americanism.

walk-up.“Walk-up”, meaning block of flats without a lift, is an Americanism.

want.“Want” (verb) followed by a clause containing “should” as in “I want you should help him”, is an Americanism. Both in England and in America, the usual expression is “I want you to help him”.

warden.“Warden” is the American equivalent of the English “prison governor”.

wash.

1. “Wash up” used in the sense of wash ones face and hands is an Americanism.

2. “Wash-rag” is the American equivalent of the English “face-cloth” or “face-flannel”.

3. “Washroom” used for lavatory is an Americanism.

4. “wash-woman” is the American equivalent of the English “washerwoman”.

waste.“Waste-basket” is the American equivalent of the English “waste-paper basket”.

way(s).

1. “Way” used adverbially in the sense of far, as in “way back” and “way off”, is chiefly American.

2. “Ways” used instead of “way” in the sense of distance, as in “a long ways off” and “a good ways apart”, is an Americanism.

3. “Way station”, meaning minor station on a railway line, is an Americanism.

4. “Way train”, meaning train that stops at way stations, is an Americanism.

weather.“Weather bureau” is the American equivalent of the English “meteorological office”.

week.In America, “two weeks” is almost always used instead of “fortnight”. (In England, “two weeks” is also in common use, of course.)

weekend.“On weekends” and “on a weekend” are the American equivalents of the English “at weekends”, and “at a weekend”.

vwell.“Well” used as an attributive adjective, as in “a well boy”, is a rarely used Americanism.

windbreaker.“Windbreaker” is the American equivalent of the English “windcheater”.

windshield.“Windshield” is the American equivalent of the English “windscreen”.

witness.“Witness stand” is the American equivalent of the English “witnessbox”.

wholesale.“At wholesale” is the American equivalent of the English “by wholesale”.

wrench.“Wrench” is the American equivalent of the English “spanner”.

yard.“Yard” is the American equivalent of the English “garden” in the sense of one adjoining a house.

yet.While “Have they gone away yet?” is both English and American. “Did they go away yet?” is American only.

yesterday.“On yesterday” is an Americanism.

yours.In America “yours” is often omitted from the complimentary close in letters, as in “Sincerely” instead of “Yours sincerely”.

zip code.“Zip (=zone improvement plan) code” or “zip code” is the American equivalent of the English “post-code” or “postal code”.

zipper.“Zipper” used to be the American equivalent of the English “zip” or “zip fastener”, but now also occurs in England.

55. Good Usage.“Good” is a rather vague word, isn't it? By good usage I mean the usage of ordinary prose. I might call it “Literary usage” in the sense that it is the usage of written English; I avoid that term lest the word “literary” should be misunderstood to mean peculiar to pure literature as distinct from practical writing.

I have said “ordinary prose”; for we are not concerned with verse and elevated prose, in both of which many archaic expressions are still freely used.

56. Expressions Outside of Good Usage.Colloquialisms, vulgarisms, provincialisms, slang, and cant are generally considered below the dignity of good usage.

A colloquialism is a word or phrase used in familiar conversation, or rather acceptable in both ordinary speech and informal writing.

look alive (be brisk; act or work fast)

A vulgarism, otherwise called an illiteracy, is a word or phrase characteristic of the language of uneducated people.

that there boy (ued in the sense of the boy there)

A provincialism, otherwise called a localism or a dialect word or phrase, is a word or phrase peculiar to some particular place and used chiefly by the “lower classes”.

smart (used in the sense of considerable or numerous).

Slang is colloquialisms of an ephemeral nature.

bread (money).

(Notice that “slang”, unlike “colloquialism”, “vulgarism”, and “provincialism”, is an uncountable noun. We do not say “a slang” and “slangs” except when we mean a kind of slang and kinds of slang.)

Cant is the language peculiar to a definite group of people.

prancer (horse, in thieves' cant).

(Like “slang”, “cant” is an uncountable noun.)

57. Colloquialisms Etc in Written English.It is not to be supposed, however, that the various kinds of words and phrases that have been mentioned as being generally considered below the dignity of good usage should never be written. Colloquialisms may be used in dialogue, familiar letters, and any other kind of informal writing. It is often necessary to use slang in dialogue by way of characterizing the kind of speaker concerned. An occasional use of a slang word or phrase, preferably enclosed in quotation marks, gives life and zest to composition. Vulgarisms, provincialisms, and cant are appropriate in reproducing the language of the persons who use them.

It may be difficult to draw the line between these kinds of expressions, especially between slang and colloquialisms. Authorities may often differ. Besides, as language is constantly changing, what was outside of good usage not many years ago may be in it today. Dictionaries, therefore, are not always a safe guide. When you have found that an expression, though marked by a cautionary label in one or more dictionaries, is commonly used in serious current literature, you need not hesitate to use it.

58. You are Quite Safe.After all, as you learn English mainly from books instead of from personal contact with English-speaking people, you are in little danger of using colloquialisms etc. If you do not write English correctly, you violate usage in other ways than that of using colloquialisms etc.; you would, if you please, find it practically impossible to learn to violate usage that way.

Since you are quite safe so far as the use of colloquialisms etc is concerned. I do not think it desirable to give lists of them by way of warning.

59. How You Violate Usage.Experience tells me that, being the kind of student you are, you violate usage by making mistakes in grammar and idiom, many of the latter kind being due to using words and phrases in senses that do not properly belong to them. A very large number of points of grammar and idiom are discussed in the next chapter, which is the longest in this book and may be regarded as the most important.

I have just spoken of using words and phrases in senses that do not properly belong to them. This results from the fact that many of the so-called Han equivalents as given in English-Han dictionaries are as misleading as they are popular among many Chinese students of English. (Not that compilers of such dictionaries know too little English, but that they often find it very difficult or even impossible to explain a certain word or phrase with a Han expression that is both accurate enough to be rightly understood and simple enough to be easily remembered.) Therefore I cannot advise you too strongly to use dictionaries with English explanations.

(As has been said towards the end of the previous chapter, the present one contains no exercises.)

[1] The book first appeared in 1935. Horwill died in 1952. On 30 December, 1939, I wrote to him: “When you revise your Dictionary, I think one of the things you will have to do is to use the dagger more liberally and to change many a dagger into a double dagger”. In his reply of 20 May, 1940, he said: “I agree with you that, in the event of a revision, several of my daggers will have to become double daggers. Some items, too, marked with a double dagger will have to be deleted altogether as the usages thus marked have by this time become fully acclimatized here”. A dagger denotes in the Dictionary that the word or usage was apparently becoming naturalized in England (when the author of the Dictionary wrote his Preface to it) and a double dagger denotes that the word or usage had become naturalized in England since the beginning of the present century.

CHAPTER Ⅴ WRITING CORRECTLY (CONTINUED)

60. Grammar.“Grammar” in its broadest sense means the science of language. It includes pronunciation, spelling, inflexion, syntax, etymology, and some other things. Most people, however, seem to regard pronunciation (or spelling), inflexion, and syntax as the whole of grammar. Again, most books of grammar seem to treat of inflexion and syntax only. It is in this sense that the term “grammar” is used in this book. “Inflexion” is the technical term for changes in word form. “Syntax” is the technical term for sentence construction or the arrangement of words in sentences; it is far more important than any other part of grammar in its broadest sense.

61. Idiom.“Idiom” has various senses. It may be applied to a whole language as peculiar to a people, to a dialect as peculiar to a district, to a technical vocabulary as peculiar to a profession, to a manner of expression as peculiar to an author, to a set of uses as peculiar to a word or a class of words, and to a form of expression as peculiar to a language (that is, an idiomatic expression or point). In this book, it means the genius or habit of the English language, and may be considered the same as racy or natural or unaffected English. In this sense the word is an uncountable noun; we say “idiom”, but do not say “an idiom” or “idioms”. When “an idiom” and “idioms” are used, they mean an idiomatic expression or point and idiomatic expressions or points respectively.

62. Grammar and Idiom.Grammar and idiom do not always agree. What is grammatical is not necessarily idiomatic; what is idiomatic is not necessarily grammatical. To give a few illustrations: “I is a student” is neither grammatical nor idiomatic; “I enjoy to read” is grammatical but unidiomatic (I enjoy reading” is idiomatic); “Who do you take me for?” is idiomatic but ungrammatical (“Whom do you take me for is grammatical); “I am a student” is both grammatical and idiomatic. Any expression that is ungrammatical and yet idiomatic may be regarded as constituting an exception to a rule of grammar.

When grammar and idiom do not agree, follow idiom. Fortunately, what is idiomatic is far more often grammatical than ungrammatical. The important thing for you to keep in mind is that as English is not your mother tongue, you are liable to write sentences that are quite grammatical, but for different reasons unidiomatic — and therefore incorrect.

A mistake in grammar or idiom is called a solecism. It is sometimes loosely called “bad grammar” or “not grammar”.

While grammar and idiom are theoretically independent, it does not seem to be always possible to draw the line between points of grammar and those of idiom. Number, for example, is undoubtedly a grammatical term, but whether the verb in a particular case should be singular or plural may be considered a matter either of grammar or of idiom by different persons. To take another example, “had better” may be regarded either as a special use of the subjunctive mood or as being purely idiomatic.

Many of the points dealt with from Section 68 to the end of the chapter are of this indefinite kind. Suffice it to say that whether a certain expression is correct or not is a far more important question than whether the point is a grammatical or an idiomatic one. For convenience' sake the points discussed are grouped under various grammatical categories. (A classification according to idiom is hardly possible.)

63. About the Study of Grammar.This not being a text-book of grammar, I am not going to give a full treatment of the subject, a fair knowledge of which you will have already acquired. I shall omit all defi-nitions and rules, of whatever absolute importance, that I suppose you must have learnt from lessons in grammar.

Perhaps you are studying a grammar or two. If so, you are doing something helpful in learning English composition. But I think I must say a few words of warning.

First, don't look upon the study of grammar as all or nearly all that you have to do in learning to write correctly. Important as it is, grammar is not everything. As I have said in Section 50, a form of expression may be perfectly grammatical and yet incorrect.

Secondly, don't indulge in much reasoning from the definitions; that would be sheer waste of time and energy. For instance, you know what a common noun is and what a proper noun is, but you might get them confused by reasoning in the following way, which is apparently sound. If a common noun is one that does not name a particular person or thing, then we might call “Ge” (my surname) a common noun, because a great many persons have the same surname as I have, If a proper noun is one that names a particular person or thing, then we might call “father” a proper noun when anybody uses it to denote his own father, because he has only one father. Similarly, we might call “Oxford” a common noun, because there are several places named “Oxford” in the world; on the other hand, we might call “sun” and “moon” proper nouns, because there are only one sun and one moon.

Thirdly, don't be a slave to grammatical terms, about which uniformity does not prevail. The same term may be used in different senses in different books, and the same thing may be called by different terms in different books. For instance, in one book “prepositional phrase” may mean a phrase beginning with a preposition, such as “at home”, but in another it may mean a phrase ending in a preposition, such as “because of”; in one book such a word as the “sir” in “Yes, sir” may be called the vocative, but in another it may be called the nominative of address. When you study a book of grammar, learn the terms used in that book, but do not trouble about the terms in any other.

Fourthly, don't draw hasty conclusions from one or two examples. For instance, when you have learnt the construction in which an infinitive is used as the object of a transitive verb, you must not therefore conclude that every infinitive may be used as the object of every transitive verb.

Fifthly, don't cling to any narrowly grammatical point of vie at the expense of idiom. There are many idiomatic constructions that do not admit of grammatical analysis. As I have said in Section 62, when grammar and idiom do not agree, follow idiom. To follow grammar instead of idiom is to change natural English into unnatural English.

Sixthly, don't treat the study or grammar merely as something curious or fascinating, though you may delight in the philosophy or science of the language. You must bear in mind the purpose for which you study it; you might lose sight of it through the very efforts to master grammar itself.

Seventhly, don't content yourself with knowing the rules of grammar. To know a rule is one thing; to keep it is another. Students of advanced grammar can break even the elementary rules if they do not take due care. By careful and constant practice, and by this alone, you may learn to keep the rules almost unconsciously, so that it would be hardly possible for you to break any of them. Incidentally, the whole question of writing correct English may be considered a matter of habit; careful and constant practice may enable you to write correct English with so little conscious effort that you could hardly try to write incorrect English.

64. About the Study of Idiom.“Idiom” in its broadest sense is the sum total of “idioms” in its broadest sense. The study of idiom and the study of idioms, therefore, may be regarded as practically the same thing.

In its narrowest sense “idioms” means established metaphorical expressions:

blow one's own trumpet (praise oneself)

bury the hatchet (make peace)

by leaps and bounds (very rapidly)

leave no stone unturned (try every means)

make (both) ends meet (live within one's means)

man in the street (ordinary man)

not worth a straw (worth nothing)

rain cats and dogs (rain heavily)

sow ones wild oats (indulge in youthful follies)

wolf in sheep's clothing (hypocrite)

In a broader sense “idioms” includes all fixed common expressions with senses that cannot be easily gathered from the individual words:

after all (in spite of all that has happened or been said or done or expected)

come of (remit from)

go into (investigate)

have on (be wearing)

How are you? (What is your state of health?)

in time (early enough)

look up to (respect)

of course (naturally)

see to (attend to)

take on (undertake)

In a still broader sense “idioms” includes certain words followed by certain prepositions:

In a still broader sense “idioms” includes idiomatic uses or meanings of words:

above (too proud for, as in “He is above asking ray help.”)

arrange (take steps, as in “Will you arrange to make another attempt?”)

better (less unwell, as in “The boy is a little better today.”)

by (not later than, as in “I shall finish the work by the end of the month”)

catch (apprehend, as in “I did not catch his meaning.”)

do (serve the purpose, as in “That will do”)

get (become, as in “When did she get married?”)

in (clothed in, as in “The girl in blue is my cousin”)

matter (be of importance, as in “It does not matter whether you know him or not.”)

once (if ever, as in “Once you lose it, you will never get it again”)

In a still broader sense “idioms” includes all “proper words in proper places”. It is the same as “idiom” in its broadest sense, that is, racy or natural or unaffected English.

In studying idiom (or idioms) the important thing is to read with the idiomatic eye open, preferably with the aid of dictionary and grammar (though no book ever written explains all points of idiom), and to memorize as much as possible. A few words of warning:

First, don't try to find out how or why a particular idiom has come into existence; that would be sheer waste of time and energy. This work is for linguistics experts, not for students of composition; and even linguistics experts may fail to discover the origin of many common idioms.

Secondly, don't try to alter any idiom. Idioms are usually of a cast-iron nature; they may break a rule of grammar or a rule of logic, but they must not be altered or “corrected” in any way. Any attempted change will make a natural expression unnatural or even ridiculous.

Thirdly, don't invent any idiom by analogy. Because of the cast-iron nature of idioms, any invention by analogy is out of the question. It is a wrong assumption that because a particular idiom consists of certain words arranged in a certain order, a similar idiom may be made by arranging certain words similar in sense and grammar in exactly the same order.

Fourthly, don't neglect any expression because you do not think it has its Han equivalent. On the contrary, pay special attention to it. The use of expressions that are not easily translated into Han will help you to write idiomatically.

65. Some Books Recommended.Besides the five dictionaries recommended in Section 26, the following books, which are obtainable in China and are not very expensive, may be read and consulted with profit for grammar and idiom:

A Grammar of Contemporary English, by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik; Longman Group Limited, London.

A University Grammar of English, by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum; Longman Group Limited, London.

A Communicative Grammar of English, by Geoffrey Leech and Jan Svartvik, Longman Group Limited, London.

Essentials of English Grammar, by Otto Jespersen; George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.

A Handbook of English Grammar, by R W Zandvoort, Longmans, Green and Co., London.

A Dictionary of Modern English Usage, by H W Fowler, Second Edition, Revised by Sir Ernest Growers; Oxford University Press.

Practical English Usage, by Michael Swan; Oxford University Press.

Oxford Dictionary of Idiomatic English, Volume I, by A P Cowie & R Mackin; Oxford University Press.

A Dictionary of American idioms, by Maxine Tull Boatner and John Edward Gates, Revised Edition, Edited by Adam Makkai; Barron's Educational Series, Inc., Woodbury, New York.

Exercise 13

Read the following selections “with the idiomatic eye open”, and note down as many idioms as you can:

1.

The smoke-room was full of men with cigarettes. Nearly all had a look of the theatre about them, something clean-shaven, something in the eye, in the fatness in the lower jaw, and in the general exaggeration of the bearing. Something loud and unreal. The pretty girls at the bar were busy, expending the same smile, and the same charm of manner, on each customer, and dismissing him, when served, with an indifference which was like erasure. The friends lighted fresh cigarettes and shared a bottle of Perrier water. The pretty, weary-faced waitress looked at Roger intently, with interested sympathy. She had seen the dress rehearsal, she was one of his admirers. — JOHN MASEFIELD, Multitude and Solitude.

2.

He was a clerical gentleman of about thirty-eight. There was something exasperatingly dry about his appearance. His clothes were very dusty and he had a habit of working his mouth open and shut as though his throat were dusty too. Round the ends of his trousers were khaki leggings of the type affected by marines. His hands and the cuffs of his shirt were sadly dirty. In one hand he held a spanner, not aggressively but as one would hold a pencil. In contrast, however, to his deplorable condition his manner seemed philosophically hearty; and his eyes, magnified by large gold-rimmed spectacles, seemed positively to flash forth sparkling beams of good cheer. — BEN TRAVERS, A Cuckoo in the Nest.

3.

It did not take Laura very long to arrange her belongings, for she had brought little. Soon after supper, which consisted of rabbit, bread and cheese, and table-beer, she went upstairs to bed. Moving about her small cold bedroom she suddenly noticed that the wind had fallen, and that it was no longer raining. She pushed aside a corner of the blind and opened the window. The night air was cold and sweet, and the full moon shone high overhead. The sky was cloudless, lovely and serene; a few stars glistened there like drops of water about to fall. For the first time she was looking at the intricate landscape of rounded hills and scooped valleys which she had chosen for learning by heart. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER, Lolly Willowes.

4.

There are two kinds of charity; more, no doubt, if you are analytically inclined; but at any rate two, of which a particular person may have both in various degrees, or one, or neither, call them the charity of the purse, and the charity of the heart. The distinction may prove inconvenient and complicate matters in the piece of sell-examination I have in hand; but at least it should secure me against any dearth of material. I am extremely defective in both, but perhaps not absolutely destitute or either. — H W FOWLER, If Wishes Were Horses.

5.

He died on June 9, 1870, and history will tell you how, when the news came as a shock to the world, a wave of sympathetic grief passed over the country. One instance of this is typical of the whole. A very dear friend of mine told me that he happened to be in a tobacconist's shop that day. Whilst there a working man came in for a screw of tobacco, and as he threw his twopence on the counter he said: “Charles Dickens is dead. We have lost our best friend”. That was undoubtedly true. It is equally true, however, that this sense of “personal loss” was by no means confined to the working class, for, judging from the enormous number of letters of sympathy we received at the time from total strangers, as well as from others published in the papers at the time, it was made perfectly plain that the same feeling was shared alike by people of all creeds and of all stations in life. — SIR HENRY DICKENS (the sixth son of Charles Dickens'), in The Times.

66. Make Your Own Dictionary of Usage.To quote from my A Word to the Wise:

“Now I think that every student could make his own dictionary of usage. He could keep a notebook in which to record, in alphabetical order, such points of usage as he might find of particular interest to him. Such a book would serve him as a constant companion to composition, though many things in it might seem quite dull or useless to others.

“And I think that every student could make his dictionary of usage as large as the sum total of the books he reads. I mean that he might make a usage index, so to speak, to those books. For a particular point he would have to record only the book, the page, and the line concerned. He would some day be able to point to his library and say: ‘This is my dictionary of English usage’. What a great work!”

Such a dictionary might prove of greater use to you than any book of grammar or idiom ever published. By the way, even if the whole or parts of the dictionary should be lost or destroyed before you had made any use of them, you would have profited by the very process of making them; for it must have helped to fix many valuable points in your memory.

67. Exercises in Grammar.Before I go on to discuss points or grammar and idiom, I shall give a number of exercises (Exercises 14—25) that you are supposed to be able to do without much difficulty. These exercises will serve you as a reminder of the fundamentals of grammar. In order to save time you may do some of them orally.

Exercise 14

Tell which of the following groups of words are sentences and which are not, and point out the various kinds of phrases and clauses:

1. This is a biography of a lexicographer greater by far than Dr Johnson, though he lacks the lustre and legend associated with Johnson, and perhaps greater than any lexicographer of his own time or since in Britain, the United States, or Europe. — R W BURCHFIELD.

2. If we regard it as the triumph of culture to fit means perfectly to ends, and to do the most with the greatest economy of means. — LOGAN PEARSALL SMITH.

3. The policeman had at last approached the woman with a step that spoke of a formed decision. — ANTHONY HOPE.

4. His principal ally in a struggle which seemed to disturb him so little was his wife. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

5. In a quarter of an hour the room was in such a state of havoc as might have resulted from the passage through it of a cyclone. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

6. I fled at once through the gateway and down to the ship, and even as I ran I thought that I heard far off on the hills. — LORD DUNSANY.

7. When he went upstairs to her all he could do was to kneel down at the bedside and press his lips to her stretched hand. — JAMES HILTON.

8. The afternoon wears on, and the evening passes into the night. — ELEANOR THORNE.

9. It had come at last — the day which she had forgotten for three months and dreaded for a week, the day when they must go home. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

10. There was nothing in the whole universe again but the black ruin and the black spot where the corpse had lain. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

11. If things don't change, and change for the better, and change soon. — A E COPPARD.

12. Though the sun was shining sickly and uneasily, as if it had done something it was ashamed of and though sullen clouds with edges delicate as the fronds of maidenhair were gathering over the valley from opposite quarters of the sky, and the birds twittered forlornly or with shrill alarm. — L A G STRONG.

13. From this refuge he caught stray words of the men's conversation. — FRANCIS BRETT YOUNG.

14. We held on to each other, arms and legs, our eyes streaming tears, our sides aching, and laughed, and laughed, and laughed. — JACK LONDON.

15. The engines of the cars whirred idly, their drivers' faces set towards the space withheld from them; a girl on a bicycle looked vacantly about her, grasping the back of the van, where a youth sat sideways with his legs stretched out towards her. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

16. I was sent abroad to a Convent at the age of five; I suppose I learnt to read and write; a great war broke out, which meant less than nothing to me, except that I realize how fortunate. — OLIVE MOORE.

17. He sorted out from his papers two or three photographs of the sort that are taken casually with hand cameras in a holiday crowd. — G K CHESTERTON.

18. As soon as I learnt to form letters on paper, at about three years, I began to write stories, and this has been the basic and absorbing occupation, the intact line of my life which directs my actions, determines my point of view, profoundly affects my character and personality, my social beliefs and economic status, and the kind of friendships. — KATHERINE ANNE PORTER.

19. My tramp friend, who looked by no means old, but had a queer battered greenness like a youngish tree that has stood bad weather. — ROMER WILSON.

20. He felt a bustle going on all round him. — PADRAIC COLUM.

21. In those days there was often a fine friendship between an editor and his contributors. — JEROME K JEROME.

22. I do not believe in admiration, but when I am asked whom I admire. — LAURA RIDING.

23. Before I was ten I knew Nature and I loved every tree and flower and bird and brute. — LEW SARETT.

24. It was during this period that the young English lord found hidden in the back of one of the cupboards in the cabin. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

25. An awkward silence fell between them for a minute, and these two old creatures, who for more than fifty years had felt no constraint in each other's presence. — SIR A T QUILLER-COUCH.

26. You have made it perfectly plain how it is that you are here. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

27. She wondered what this name she most liked sounded like. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

28. Soon after the young ones left her she fell asleep and slept on without a break till, just after midnight, as I was sitting by her bed. — MARTIN ARMSTRONG.

29. Readers of today generally like to know something of the personal appearance and personality of a new author. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

30. I only wish that I had more space in which to tell what my heart is full of in connection with this subject. — ROBERT C BENCHLEY.

31. I can hardly believe I am at sea, except when I climb on deck and note that neither behind or in front nor at the sides is any land visible — an impossible situation anywhere but in mid-ocean. — J B MORTON.

32. Devoting himself wholly to this sacred undertaking, and being by nature generally equipped towards the task. — ERNEST BRAMAH.

33. That morning just before luncheon the weather began to show signs of clearing, and by half past one the sun was shining. — EVELYN WAUGH.

34. I had had a very inferior holiday; I had come back to too many letters and more than one worrying complication, and was therefore perhaps less master of myself than usual. — E V LUCAS.

35. At breakfast she had received an important letter from Helen, who had decided to come down with Walter on Sunday, two days hence. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

36. Judy reached London at ten o'clock one night, tired but in the best of spirits.— SUSAN ERTZ.

37. Both as a public personality and as an artist he stands out very prominently in my mind's gallery of the people who have interested me, though until quite recently. — ETHEL MANNIN.

38. He stood, forgetting who he was, pressing nearer and nearer, until now he became aware that he was so close that the eyes of many fell upon him as they wept. — PEARL S BUCK.

39. As she stood, with the palms of her hands pressed down on the table and her little face thrown back. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

40. He did not catch what she said above the hubbub that broke out then, for a moment, on the lower deck, or if he did he was too far away in spirit to realize instantly what was said to him. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

41. You may be rightly proud of the gifts which enable you to win your own way in the world, and there is no reason anywhere why you should not place yourself by the side of men in any sphere in which you can hold your own. — ARTHUR MEE.

42. A minute or two later he returned in triumph. — BEN TRAVERS.

43. She watched the dancers go by and wondered what the enchantment was which they felt and she could not. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

44. The first time I visited New York City, I was thirteen and went with my father. — JOHN UPDIKE.

45. Not knowing what to say, he kept silent. — H E BATES.

46. The meal at an end, they went, as a matter of course, to a cinema. — R H MOTTRAM.

47. The wish to write merely for the sake of being a writer, if I may so describe a vague ambition which vexes many young persons. — HENRY VAN DYKE.

48. I do not know if I care so much as I once did. — ROBERT LYND.

49. Such are the pleasures we may take in a London fog. — G S STREET.

50. Certain it is that almost all that be foretold in regard to the East thirty or forty years ago. — R B CUNNINGHAME GRAHAM.

51. The letter on League policy, extracts from which appear on another page, will command attention because of the variety as well as the authority of the signatures attached to it.— The Times.

52. On a cold and frosty morning a little while ago my car refused to start, and before catching the train.— Punch.

53. A magistrate declares that no woman, whether she is a film star or not, should be allowed to marry for the fourth time. — London Opinion.

54. Thousands of campers sleep in the open air every night in the summer, and they don't seem to suffer. — Answers.

55. While on circuit once he returned to the house where he was staying rather late, and, as he was wearing a cap. — Pearson's Weekly.

56. The writer of a letter in a contemporary says that he simply has no idea where he will be spending his holiday this year. — The Humorist.

57. In spite of the grave results attending our weather this month, we have but to look to other parts of the Empire to realize how thankful we should be. — The Children's Newspaper.

58. Two men, returning from a banquet in the early hours, were arguing whether it was the sun or the moon that was appearing in the sky. — Tit-Bits.

59. In our time we have seen but few scenes of anything approaching violence. — Judge.

60. After all, marriage is a serious business, even if it's a happy one — and one doesn't like the dignity taken from the occasion by irritatingly hearty practical jokers, even when they mean to add jollity to the festivities! — Woman.

Exercise 15

Write twenty simple sentences, twenty compound sentences, and twenty complex sentences.

Exercise 16

Supply the correct case of some pronoun in each of the following sentences:

1. My brother is as tall as ________________.

2. I do not know ________________ they are talking about.

3. ________________ did you say wanted to see me?

4. The boy went away without ________________ parents' consent.

5. If any one of you knows about the village, let ________________ tell me.

6. They are brother and sister; he is not so clever as ________________, but she does not study so hard as ________________.

7. What do you think of ________________ going abroad?

8. It is his father, not ________________ that has written the essay.

9. She was one of the few women ________________ he considered his friends.

10. She was one of the few women ________________ he thought were his friends.

11. ________________ do you think will win the first prize?

12. I did not think it could be _______________.

13. I wonder ______________he took me to be.

14. Such a bright boy as ________________________________ought to learn very quickly.

15. His house is opposite ________________.

16. A friend of ________________called on me yesterday.

17. That is the same person ________________I spoke of.

18. He guessed her to be ________________whom he had seen in the park in the morning.

19. It is for ________________and ________________family that we ask your help.

20. I found only one person in the room, and ________________a very old man.

Exercise 17

Supply a relative pronoun in each of the following sentences:

1. This is all I know about the matter.

2. The girl I mentioned in my last letter is a foreigner.

3. This is one of the books I bought at the shop last week.

4. They live in a house their family have owned since the end of the eighteenth century.

5. The typewriter I wrote the letter on the other day is now out of order.

6. Is this the pen you are looking for?

7. The only man I know in this town is a doctor.

8. What is the subject you are going to deal with in your lecture?

9. I do not know the woman you shook hands with.

10. The Englishman she is teaching the Han language came to China only a few days ago.

11. This is not exactly the kind of information I want.

12. The party they are looking forward to with so much pleasure will take place next Saturday.

13. This is the best I can do for the present.

14. As soon as he fell asleep, he began to dream of the tiger he had seen in the picture.

15. Having made some purchases, he returned to the hotel, where his wife was waiting for him to go to see the play they had both expressed a desire to see.

16. There are many things I shall talk to you about.

17. They spoke English, which was the only language they both knew.

18. She sang in a voice we should call perfect.

19. Thank you very much for answering the questions I sent you last month.

20. It was a beautiful morning, and nothing he had feared happened.

Exercise 18

Write twenty sentences each with an adjective in the comparative degree and twenty sentences each with an adjective in the superlative degree.

Exercise 19

Some of the verbs in the following sentences are wrong in tense; correct them:

1. I have received a letter from him three days ago.

2. He told me that he could go with me.

3. If you do not work hard, you will not succeed.

4. They study together when they were in the country.

5. She went to the hall and put on her coat.

6. We were talking together when a stranger comes into the room.

7. The sun went down, and in a little while we saw the moon rising.

8. We were taught at school that the earth was round.

9. As soon as I heard that he was in hospital, I went over to see him.

10. Can you tell me when he was born?

11. The cat slept in the chair.

12. I hope I have finished the task by the end of the month.

13. Did she ring you up yesterday?

14. You will hear from me again before you will leave this city.

15. The boy was playing in the garden, and the nurse is chatting with a young man.

16. That made him what he is today.

17. The horse ran as fast as he could.

18. I made his acquaintance long after I have heard of him.

19. Am I to understand that you actually saw an owl last night?

20. If it will rain tomorrow, I shall not start.

Exercise 20

Some verbs in the following sentences are wrong in number; correct them:

1. Truth is often more romantic than fiction.

2. This is one of the most interesting stories that has ever been published in our school magazine.

3. Some students think that the only thing they have to do to master English are to study grammar and to memorize rules of grammar; this is not true, however.

4. I hope you will look into the matter as soon as you receive this, and that you will take steps to settle it to the satisfaction of all concerned.

5. In a quarter of an hour the bell rang again, and some more guests arrived.

6. I do not think luck count for so much as hard work.

7. One of the difficulties in English composition are the various uses of simple words.

8. Nothing but a few pieces of furniture were found in the house.

9. There seems to be several persons involved in the affair, which, however, he does not think have anything to do with either himself or his brother.

10. It was out of curiosity that I went out of my room to see who was shouting.

11. That clouds are vaporized water is known to us all.

12. It is very kind of you to tell me so much about the city.

13. To these books are to be added a copy of a large dictionary compiled by one of the greatest lexicographers who have ever lived.

14. The couple live simply and quietly in a cottage by the sea.

15. There was a silence for a full minute before the old woman, who was the grandmother of the children, were heard saying something to herself.

16. The white and the black cat love each other, and often play toge-ther.

17. His knowledge of French and German are not so good as that of his father, whose interest in these two languages are very keen.

18. The death of her mother and sister seem to have affected her greatly.

19. No letter had come from him ever since the outbreak of the war.

20. There does not seem ever to have been two boys who looked so much alike as these two who, strange to say, is not of the same nationality.

Exercise 21

Change the following sentences from the active voice to the passive (remember that intransitive verbs cannot be put in the passive, and that a change in voice, though correct in grammar, may turn natural English into unnatural English):

1. I had seen part of that wedding. — SARAH GERTRUDE MILLIN.

2. He knew it by heart. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

3. We stood on a small balcony. — J B PRIESTLEY.

4. His diligence was exceptional even on that staff to which Hart set such a severe example. — G G COULTON.

5. The republication of this book in a translation which has been carefully revised affords me particular pleasure. — AYLMER MAUDE.

6. Now they were hoisting the sails. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

7. He dug me in the ribs, and went off into fresh peals of mirth. — RICHARD HUGHES.

8. She thought of the lion and the mouse. — JOHN COLLER.

9. He saw through her. — LOUIS GOLDING.

10. She had hardly taken two steps on to the bridge when she was startled by the loud quacking of innumerable ducks. — WILLIAM PLOMER.

11. Far off, the clouds looked heavy with spring snow. — H E BATES.

12. We stood watching and listening and then suddenly, after a long time, Hal touched me on the arm. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

13. He took a large gold watch from his pocket. — JAMES GOULD COZZENS.

14. The princely secretary ate and drank with fair appetite but severely discouraged conversation. — SAKI.

15. They were going to bicycle all along the south coast. — ROSE MACAULAY.

16. A bachelor uncle was the only relative she had possessed. — EDGAR WALLACE.

17. He looked amused, but agreed lazily, and strolled off again through the moonlight. — RUBY M AYRES.

18. Camphor, our own brand, cures cold and kills beetles. — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

19. He was merely eccentric and ingenious and unconventional. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

20. The dealers laughed at him. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

Exercise 22

Write twenty sentences each with a present participle, twenty sentences each with a past participle, twenty sentences each with a gerund, and twenty sentences each with an infinitive.

Exercise 23

Turn the following sentences into the negative.

1. When he heard this he was very pleased. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. The bruise on his left side was caused by a hobnailed boot. — E M DELAFIFLD.

3. Charity appeals that come by post I always destroy. — ROBERT GRAVES.

4. He suddenly realized that everything had gone silent. — JOHN LE CARR.

5. I asked him to get me tea. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

6. I suppose I must go on like this for ever. — SUSAN ERTZ.

7. He rose from his chair and looked miserably down on us. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

8. I have always been fortunate in my friends. — ETHEL MANNIN.

9. I heard his soul go over the river at sunset. — LORD DUNSANY.

10. She was quite serious and solemn. — MAY SINCLAIR.

11. Everyone stood up[1]. — MARY WEBB.

12. You could lift the whole with a finger. — C E MONTAGUE.

.13. She had looked up and seen him. — L A G STRONG.

14. He scrambled to his feet and rushed towards her. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

15. They walked back together and entered the garden. — PEARL S BUCK.

16. Now come along. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

17. To leave home should have been the last thing for you to think about. — ELEANOR THORNE.

18. Do you believe in ghosts? — P G WODEHOUSE.

19. I want to hurry over as quickly as possible what now happened. — A S M HUTCHINSON.

20. This is my first visit to the United States. — IAN HAY.

Exercise 24

Turn the following sentences into the indirect form:

1. “I have no possible use for it” my poor friend replied. — LORD DUNSANY.

2. “Why did you do that?” I asked crudely. — STELLA BENSON.

3. “It depends on what she is like” I said airily. — AUSTIN FREEMAN.

4. “I will attend to everything myself, sir” said Benson. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

5. “What did you do then, James?” inquired the doctor. — E CE SOMERVILLE and MARTIN ROSS.

6. “The things are curious documents” I said. — H G WELLS.

7. He said: “I had a small baby”. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

8. “You should go out more” said Mr MuIready. “Have you a bicycle?” — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

9. “Did he say anything about the porters?” asked Mallinson eagerly. — JAMES HILTON.

10. “You talk as though you had been at it yourself” said Miss Lenning. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

11 “Oh, don't let's talk business at dinner I tell you about it afterwards” she said.— ANTHONY HOPE.

12. “You mustn't take me too seriously” he said in his decent smiling way. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

13. “Miss Dartmouth,” said the man “I can easily prove to you that I am not a burglar”. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

14. “I think they have great qualities” he said. “You can't walk through those crowded streets of theirs without having that impression on you.” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

15. “Are you a real farmer's boy?” I asked him. — JEROME K JEROME.

16. “Let me go” she growled. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

17. “You must not go — from me” he said. “I cannot live without you. You are my life.” — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

18. “We are only bride and groom” she was saying. “Everything is so wonderful!” — PEARL S BUCK.

19. “Tell me something” she said. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

20. “Well, you go into the kitchen and make it”, said his mother “since you're the only one who's doing nothing”. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

Exercise 25

Write sentences containing the following words and phrases:

a few, ago, a little, as if, as though, at all, both ... and ..., but, can, could, either ... or ..., else, few, however, lest, little, may, might, must, neither ... nor ..., not only ... but also ..., ought, shall, should, since, than, though ... yet ..., unless, whether, will, would, yet.

68. Proper Nouns Used as Common Nouns.Though there does not seem to be a hard and fast distinction between proper nouns and common nouns, we can nearly always tell whether a particular noun is a proper or a common one.

That proper nouns may often be used as common nouns may be proved by the fact that there are a number of common nouns that were originally proper nouns. Most of these generally begin with a small letter.

china(porcelain, named after China).

guinea(former British gold coin and now only British money of account, named after Guinea, formerly a part of now a country in West Africa).

maverick(person who refuses to conform and acts independently, named after Samuel Augustus Maverick, a Texas rancher, who did not brand his cattle).

watt(unit of electric power, named after the Scottish inventor James Watt).

In addition to such nouns there are established noun phrases in which one of the words is a proper noun, such as “Jack of all trades” (person who can turn his hand to anything) and “Adam's apple” (prominence in a man's throat).

A proper noun is used as a common noun when it denotes a class of persons or things.

1. Two Liberal papers described the stories as masterpieces; one compared them to the best things in Poe and de Maupassant; and another called him a second Rudyard Kipling. — JOHN GALSWORTHY. (a second Rudyard Kipling ＝ an author comparable to the famous English author Rudyard Kipling.)

2. A Cellini by instinct, I was, in actual fact, an engineer. — AUSTIN FREEMAN. (a Cellini ＝ an artist in metal comparable to the famous Italian goldsmith and sculptor Benvenuto Cellini.

3. It is the boy who will go forward that the world is waiting for — the livingstone, the Columbus, the Wilberforce, the Shaftesbury of the future. — ARTHUR MEE. (the Livingstone, the Columbus, the Wilberforce, the Shaftesbury of the future ＝ the boy who will become a man comparable to the famous Scottish explorer in Africa David Livingstone, the famous Genoese discoverer of America Christopher Columbus, the famous English philanthropist and statesman William Wilberforce, or the famous English philanthropist seventh earl of Shaftesbury.)

4. St Bernard dogs are usually acknowledged to be among the most sagacious of all four-footed creatures; and every now and then the world is amazed at some wonderfully clever dog, a Rin-tin-tin which seems almost human. — ARTHUR MEE. (a Rin-tin-tin ＝ a dog comparable to the famous Hollywood dog star Rin-tin-tin.)

5. They had visited his shop and pretended to discover a Rembrandt on his walls — MANUEL KOMROFF. (a Rembrandt ＝ a picture painted by the Dutch painter Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn.)

6. The critics usually headed their reviews of her stories with the words:

ANOTHER PINCKNEY

or sometimes, more offensively:

ANOTHER PINCKNEY!!! — P G WODEHOUSE. (another Pinckney = another story written by Pinckney, a fictitious novelist.)

7. The woman was the completed Ottalie. — JOHN MASEFIELD. (was the completed Ottalie ＝ had such an appearance as the young lady Ottalie would have had if she had lived to be as old as the woman.)

8. When in the early morning Mr Travers came from Brighton in this Farman in which I flew, I could hear the hum of the great insect when it still seemed abreast of Beachey Head, and a good two miles away. — H G WELLS. (this Farman ＝ this water-plane manufactured by the French aviator Henri Farman.)

9. My own car, a Daimler, was made in this city, and so after lunch I went out to see how they did it. — J B PRIESTLEY. (a Daimler = a motor car manufactured by the German engineer Gottlieb Daimler.)

10. She had no more use for her as a confidant and spy, and Ethel lived in a back den off Hippistey's study with her Remington, and displayed a convenient apathy in allowing herself to be ignored. — MAY SINCLAIR. (her Remington ＝ her typewriter designed by the American inventor Philo Rmington.)

The name of an author used to denote his writings may be con-sidered a proper noun used as a common noun.

(1) She read Mark Twain, Dickens, and Kipling before she was ten — all of their writings. — WILLIAM ALLEN WHITE.

(2) I was reading a little Shakespeare to the cat. — JOHN CHEEVER. (Here “a little Shakespeare” means a little bit of what Shakespeare wrote.)

The “Fawcetts” in the following sentence, meaning members of the Fawcett family, might also be considered a proper noun used as a common noun:

They have been beautiful and noble, these Fawcetts. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

It is different from the other examples, however; for “Fawcett” denotes persons actually named “Fawcett” instead of any person or thing else. More examples will be found in Section 143.

Exercise 26

Write ten sentences each with a proper noun used as a common noun.

69. Nouns Used as Adjectives.The use of nouns as adjectives is a very common and very useful English usage. Examples may be found in every modern book or newspaper or magazine.

1. Have you ever travelled with a film star? — REGINALD DENHAM.

2. He had escaped from the close, shut-up, student life. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

3. I met them when I was staying with a cousin in a little country village in Sussex. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

4. The fast spring sun had tanned her slightly, and her extended throat and arms showed a warm yellowish brown against her white muslin night-dress. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

5. He recognized his red hatchet face and dark sloe eyes. — HERBERT READ.

6. He bought a large piece of land on a hill on the other side of the river and put up bungalows which he sold one by one to the missionaries as summer resorts; and he owned a large store in which he sold everything, from picture postcards and curios to Worcester sauce and knitted jumpers, which a foreigner could want. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM. (Worcester sauce is a pungent sauce originally made in Worcester, England.)

7. His hand went into his breast pocket from time to time to touch her letter to him. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

8. She flew towards the kitchen door. — PEARL S BUCK.

9. It is a question of sex appeal in our poor, dilapidated modern phraseology. — D H LAWRENCE.

10. With an idea as to the publicity value of the Ball I began my campaign. — Pals.

11. I usually set my watch by the town clock and let it go at that. — ROMER WILSON.

12. No real woman had naturally such a moonlight look. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

13. I was on a lecture tour through Germany, France, and Hungary, and one night my agent and I were seated in a beerhouse in Munich. — MANDER ROSS.

14. Recently I was with a group of officials of the French construction unions who had pledged themselves and their men to get ahead with the work at the Exhibition. — Time and Tide.

15. They might then take a different view about the entertainment tax or fine. — Punch.

16. In the lane she met Mr Day, who was stepping upon the stone path just as carefully as if the winter puddles were still there. — T F POWYS.

17. That romantic seaport town of the Orient made him uneasy. — H M TOMLINSON.

18. Yet, in point of fact, one never heard much of him after those Oxford days. — JAMES HILTON.

19. The Madon farm was higher than any other and backed by the higher level of the bogs which made a dark thread between the unearthly earth and sky. — KATHLEEN COYLE. (“Madon” is a surname.)

20. In the Richardson sentence also the “it” should go — H W FOWLER and F G FOWLER. (“Richardson” is a surname here standing for the eighteenth-century English novelist Samuel Richardson.)

21. What a pleasant contrast to the Ramsay MacDonald trick of evading an awkward question by elaborate and ambiguous phrases which can be interpreted in five ways and all denied, if necessary, afterwards. — New Statesman and Nation. (Ramsay MacDonald was a British statesman.)

22. He is in the rare-book-and-first-edition branch of the trade, which has suffered a great deal from the depression in America. — J B PRIESTLEY.

It is interesting to compare the four following sentences:

1. But these are purely business undertakings. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

2. Kindly point out to him that these beds are for spring display purposes and not for canine recreation. — Punch.

3. He was stoutly opposed to the idea of marrying anyone; but if, as happens to the best of us, he ever were compelled to perform the wedding glide, he had always hoped it would be with some lady golf champion who would help him with his putting, and thus, by bringing his handicap down a notch or two, enable him to save something from the wreck, so to speak. — P G WODEHOUSE.

4. So soon as that Evening News tale began to run about, no less than four citizens, dwellers upon the Heath, addressed me at once, calling for my aid. — OSWALD BARRON. (The underlined words are italicized in the original.)

In the first sentence the noun “business” is treated almost as a pure adjective so that it is modified by the adverb “purely”. In the second sentence the noun “display”, which is used as an adjective modifying the noun “purposes”, is modified by another noun used as an adjective, “spring”. In the third sentence the noun “golf” is used as an adjective modifying the noun “champion”, and the noun “lady” is used as an adjective modifying not the noun “golf” but the noun phrase “golf champion”. In the fourth sentence the noun “Evening” is used as an adjec-tive modifying the noun “News”, and the noun “tale” is modified not by the noun “News” but by the noun phrase “Evening News”, which is the name of a newspaper.

It is to be noted that some of the words that I have given as nouns used as adjectives are called adjectives as well as nouns in some dictionaries. But this is simply because those nouns have come to be commonly used as adjectives; it does not mean that they were originally adjectives as well as nouns.

That nouns are so freely used as adjectives is due not only to the fact that many nouns have no corresponding adjectives, but also to the fact that many adjectives either ore not in common use or have not the same sense as the corresponding nouns used as adjectives, and to the fact that many terms in which a noun is used as an adjective qualifying another noun are fixed idioms.

1. “Film” used in the sense of cinema has no adjective. (“Filmy” has a very different sense.)

2. “Student” has the adjective “studentlike”, which, however, is not in common use.

3. “Country” has no adjective. (“Countrifield” does not quite correspond with “country”, and has a very different sense).

4. “Spring” has the adjective “springlike”, which, however, is not in common use.

5. “Hatchet” has the adjective “hatchety”, which, however, is not in common use. (“Hatchet face” is an idiom.) “Sloe” has no adjective.

6. “Summer” has three adjectives, “summerlike”, “surnmerly”, and “summery”, none of which, however, are in common use. “Picture” has three adjectives, “pictured”, “picturelike”, and “picturely”, none of which, however, are in common use; “picturesque” does not quite correspond with “picture”, and has a very different sense. (“Picture postcard(s)” is an idiom.) “Worcester” has no adjective. (“Worcester sauce”, also called “Worcestershire sauce”, is an idiom.)

7. “Breast” has no adjective.

8. “Kitchen” has no adjective.

9. “Sex” has the adjective “sexual”, but “sex appeal” is an idiom. (“Sexual appeal” is quite correct so far as the sense is concerned, but does not seem to be ever used.)

10. “Publicity” has no adjective.

11. “Town” has four adjectives, “townish”, “townlike”, “townly”, and “towny”, none of which, however, are in common use, and each of which has a different sense from that of the noun used as an adjective.

12. “Moonlight” may be regarded as having two adjectives, “moonlit” and “moonlighted”, which, however, are not in common use.

13. “Lecture” has no adjective.

14. “Construction” has two adjectives, “constructional” and “constructive”; but the former is not in common use and the latter has different senses from that of the noun used as an adjective.

15. “Entertainment” has no adjective. (“Entertaining” corresponds with “entertain”, not with “entertainment”.)

16. “Stone” has the adjective “stony”, which, however, is not in common use in the sense of made of stone. “Winter” has three adjectives, “winterlike”, “winterly”, and “wintry”; but the first two are not in common use and the third has different senses from that of the noun used as an adjective.

17. “Seaport” has no adjective.

18. “Oxford” has the adjective “Oxonian”, which, however, is not in common use.

19. “Madon”, being a surname, has no adjective.

20. “Richardson”, being a surname, has no adjective.

21. “Ramsay MacDonald”, being a Christian name and a surname, has no adjective.

22. “Rare-book-and-first-edition”, being a phrase, has no adjective.

There are a number of proper nouns that have their adjectives. But in nearly every case the adjective has a different sense from that of the noun used as an adjective.

1. “China English” is English words and phrases peculiar to speech or writing dealing with China and Chinese Life; it is correct English. “Chinese English” is English spoken or written according to Han idiom; it is incorrect English. (“Chinese English” is often called “Chinglish”.)

2. An “England team” does not necessarily consist of English people only. An “English team” does.

3. A “Johnsonian sentence” is one that reads as if it had been written by Samuel Johnson, the famous English author of the eighteenth century, whose style is characterized by long words and long sentences. A “Johnson sentence” is one written by Johnson (not necessarily Samuel Johnson).

4. A “Rome correspondent” lives in Rome, but is not necessarily a Roman. A “Roman correspondent” is a Roman, but does not necessarily live in Rome.

5. Both a “Shakespeare quotation” and as “Shakespearian quotation” mean a quotation from Shakespeare. There are many nouns each of which consists of a proper noun used as an adjective modifying a common noun, such as “Worcester sauce”. Below are some more examples:

China orange (sweet orange).

Diesel engine (a kind of internal combination engine, invented by the German scientist Rudolf Diesel).

Eton jacket (or coat) (boy's short coat reaching only to the waist formerly worn by pupils at Eton College, England's most famous public school for boys.).

Yorkshire terrier (a kind of small, long-haired dog).

Exercise 27

A.

With the aid of one or more dictionaries strike out the less correct word in parentheses in each of the following sentences:

1. The Englishman has lived in China for nearly thirty years, and is considered an old (China, Chinese) hand.

2. There were no (women, womanly) police in this city fifty years ago.

3. We need more and better (continuous, continuation) schools.

4. It is spring, but we still have (wintry, winter) weather.

5. They studied together at (Oxonian, Oxford) University.

6. He is a (collegiate, college) student.

7. Their (married, marriage) life was not happy at all.

8. Is this watch a (gold, golden) one?

9. Both of them are said to be engaged in purely (governmental, government) work.

10. The old man is fond of (homely, home) life.

B.

Write ten sentences each with a noun used as an adjective.

70. Singulars and Plurals.Number is not so simple a matter as it may seem to you. It is usage rather than logic that governs the use of singulars and plurals. You must not suppose that you will never make mistakes in number so long as you remember the definitions of the singular and plural numbers and the rules for forming plurals. (Here is an interesting point. I have written “the singular and plural numbers”; if I had used another “the” before the “plural”. I should have written “number” instead of “numbers”. The point will be discussed in Section 81.)

There are various classes of nouns that deserve special attention as regards number.

71. Nouns Singular Only.There are a number of nouns that are not at all used in the plural.

furniture.Instead of “a furniture and “furnitures”, the correct expressions are “a piece of furniture” and “pieces of furniture”, “an article of furniture” and “articles of furniture”, and, less commonly, “a bit of furniture” and “bits of furniture”, as in “Every drawer in every piece of furniture had been ransacked and emptied”. — ARNOLD BENNETT, and “The big bits of furniture and china we left to the dealers, but there were no very sensational prices”. — LORD PONSONBY. Several pieces of furniture belonging together are called “a set of furniture” or “a suite of furniture”.

information.Instead of “an information” and “informations” the correct expressions are “a piece of information” and “pieces of information”, “a bit of information” and “bits of information”, and less commonly, “a scrap of information” and “scraps of information”, as in “It consisted of scraps of gossip, scraps of news and scraps of information”, seasoned with imperial feeling”. — JOHN MASEFIELD

knowledge.“Knowledges” is very seldom used, but “a knowledge” is very common, as in “On the other side of his life, Mr Large is a chemist specializing in agricultural research, with a knowledge of plant diseases which is both wide and deep”. — Now and Then.

laughter.Instead of “a laughter” and “laughters”, the usual expressions are “a laugh” and “laughs”, as in “She gave him a laugh soft with apology” — PEARL S BUCK. When “laughter” is used, it almostly always neither is preceded by “a” nor ends in “s”, as in “Then suddenly he burst into loud and prolonged laughter”. — BOOTH TARKINGTON. In “In a flash her lips broke into a low clear laughter.” — WALTER DE LA MARE, the “a low clear laughter”, which seems to be meant to emphasize the length of the laughter, is surely a rare usage.

luck.Instead of “a luck” and “lucks”, the correct expressions are “a piece of luck” and “pieces of luck”, “a stroke of luck” and “strokes of luck”, and “a bit of luck” and “bits of luck”, as in “With a bit of luck we may bring him round”. — JAMES HILTON.

luggage.Instead of “a luggage” and “luggages”, the correct expressions are “a piece of luggage” and “pieces of luggage”, “an article of luggage” and “articles of luggage”.

news.Instead of “a news” and “newses”, the correct expressions are “a piece of news” and “pieces of news”, “a bit of news” and “bits of news”, and, less commonly, “a scrap of news” and “scraps of news”, as in “Mrs Rachel prided herself on always speaking her mind; she proceeded to speak it now, having adjusted her mental attitude to this amazing piece of news” — L M MONTGOMERY, and “It consisted of scraps of gossip, scraps of news, and scraps of information, seasoned with imperial feeling”. — JOHN MASEFIELD. Though plural by etymology, “news” is considered singular in present-day usage.

poetry.Instead of “a poetry” and “poetries”, the correct expressions are “a piece of poetry” and “pieces of poetry”, “a poem” and “poems”, as in “Is it nothing that you can walk along repeating the poems that you have actually made yourself, or that you can delight your friends with them?” — JAMES STEPHENS. When “poetry” is used, it neither is preceded by “a” nor ends in “s”, as in “I am thinking especially of poetry”— STEPHEN LEACOCK.

prose.Instead of “a prose” and “proses”, the correct expressions are “a piece of prose” and “pieces of prose”.

slang.See Section 56.

sleep.“Sleeps” is very seldom used, but “a sleep” is very common (meaning a period of sleep), as in “He woke much refreshed after a sleep of about eight hours”. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

stationery.Instead of “a stationery” and “stationeries”, the correct expressions are “an article of stationery” and “articles of stationery”.

Below are some other nouns that are not at all used in the plural:

baggage, behaviour, clothing, conduct, dust, fun, humour (facetiousness), progeny, scenery, wit (amusing ingenuity of speech or ideas).

72. Nouns Plural Usually or Plural Only.The italicized nouns in the following sentences are either very seldom or not at all used in the singular:

1. People began, unobtrusively, to gather their belongings together. — W A DARLINGTON. (The singular form “belonging” is hardly ever used.)

2. We had less than five hundred a year with our joint earnings.” — ETHEL MANNIN.

3. I eventually found him in a cottage on the outskirts of the city. — SEYMOUR HICKS. (The singular form “outskirt” is hardly ever used.)

4. She felt that she was returning, thanks to Stephen, to a new life. — SUSAN ERTZ.

5. At half past seven on the following evening, Miss Mott tidied her desk, locked up her valuables, and descended to the lift. — E PHILLIPS OPPENHEIM. (The singular form “valuable” is hardly ever used.)

6. We cannot tell yet how much of the winnings of catastrophe still remain to be gathered in.— H G WELLS. (Belonging as it does to “much”, which is singular, “remain” ought to be changed to “remains”. This point, however, has nothing to do with the purpose for which the sentence is here quoted.)

These plural forms are not plural in the same sense that “books” and “men” are plural. We can answer the questions “how many books?” and “how many men?”, but we cannot answer the questions “how many belongings?”, “how many earnings?”, etc.

Below are some other nouns that are very seldom or not at all used in the singular:

amends (the singular form “amend” is hardly ever used), annals (the singular from “annal” is hardly ever used), banns, barracks (the singular form “barrack” is hardly ever used), bellows, bowels (the singular form “bowel” is found in medical use only), breeches, chattels (the singular form “chattel” is hardly ever used), clothes, entrails, environs, gainings, gallows, goods, headquarters, intestines, links, measles, mumps, nuptials, obsequies, odds, pincers, proceeds, remains (the singular form “remain” is hardly ever used), scissors, shambles, snuffers, sweepings, theatricals, tidings, tongs, trappings, trousers, tweezers, victuals, weeds (widow's mourning dress), whereabouts.

The above-given nouns are all true plurals (that is, the final “s” is actually the sign of the plural). But it does not follow that they are always treated as plural in usage. Below are some notes on some of these words:

amends.Treated as either singular or plural in usage, as in “an amends” and “these amends”; it is more commonly considered singular. It is to be noted that while an amends” is correct, two amendses” is impossible, and that while “these amends” is correct, “two amends” is impossible.

barracks.“A barracks” is sometimes used.

bellows.Often treated as singular in usage. “A pair of bellows” is usually used when the machine is portable, and “(the) bellows” is usually used when it is fixed. “A bellows” is also sometimes used.

gallows.“A gallows” is often used.

headquarters.“A headquarters” is often used.

links.“A links” is often used.

measles.Usually treated as singular in usage.

mumps.Usually treated as singular in usage.

odds.Sometimes treated as singular in usage.

scissors.“A scissors” is often used.

shambles.Often treated as singular in usage. “A shambles” is often used.

tidings.Sometimes treated as singular in usage.

whereabouts.Usually treated as singular in usage.

73. Nouns Plural in a Special Usage.Read the two following sentences:

1. Well, give her my very kind remembrances. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. She was a pretty girl, but with no morals. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

Both “remembrances” and “morals” are plural. Like the nouns given in Section 72, they are not plural in the same sense that “books” and “men” are plural. We can answer the questions “how many books?” and “how many men?”, but we cannot answer the questions “how many remembrances?” and “how many morals?”

Each of the italicized words in the following sentences takes the plural form in the particular usage concerned:

1. Mr Bones nodded his acknowledgements with a little grunt, and struck Forth into the night. — BEN TRAVERS.

2. I will, then, call early next week and ask permission to pay you my addresses, dearest. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

3. Arrangements have been made to admit me into an almshouse. — STELLA BENSON.

4. He behaved just as I should have expected a great, fat, self-indulgent man to behave under trying circumstances. — H G WELLS.

5. And what congratulations he had received as the boy's father! — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

6. He did not want to talk to anybody or to receive condolences; he wanted to get used to things, if he could, before facing the kind words of others. — JAMES HILTON.

7. No, he could not make difficulties now. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER. (“Make difficulties” means raise objections.)

8. We wished to spare your feelings as long as possible, Daddy. — H A VACHELL.

9. I hear someone walking somewhere in the grounds. — ARNOLD BENNETT. (“Grounds” means a piece of enclosed ground attached to a house.)

10. Well, make inquiries about him. — EDGAR WALLACE.

11. I was conscious of this and took some pains to avoid any seeming scrutiny of him. — ALLAN N MONKHOUSE.

12. I was to stay with the head of the mission till my own quarters were ready. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

13. Helen was in raptures. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

14. I am fortunate in having the privilege of your personal friendship, which enables me to speak more frankly than I could if our relations were merely official. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

15. When we left the restaurant we went to his hotel and had our coffee sent up to his rooms. —MANUEL KOMROFF. (“Rooms” means a set of rooms occupied by a person or family in a large house.)

16. Plainly he had gone the right way to work to bring such a fellow as Filer to his senses. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

17. Having had another look at the mysterious cupboard, I thought it best to obtain the services of a lawyer before proceeding further; and together we looked for the will. — E V LUCAS.

18. Please take steps. — Punch.

19. For some strange reason her thoughts instantly ran to Homer. — HUGH WALPOLE.

20. But those times are gone. — SARAH GERTRUDE MILLIN.

Below are some other nouns that take the plural form in the particular usage concerned:

acquirements (mental attainment), advances (personal overtures), airs (affected manners), arrears (outstanding debts), attainments (personal accomplishments), attentions (ceremonious politeness; courtship), auspices (patronage, in the phrase “under the auspices of”), authorities (persons in authority), bearings (relative position), beginnings (origins), bounds (limitations; restraints), chances (probability), communications (various means of communication, now especially science and practice or transmitting information), compliments (formal greetings), costs (legal expenses), creeps (shuddering horror, preceded by “the”), damages (sum claimed or adjudged for damage), dealings (personal or business relations), effects (property), features (face), forces (troops), funds (pecuniary resources), gardens (piece of ground laid out for public enjoyment), glasses (pair of spectacles), greetings (complimentary message), honours (special distinction for proficiency beyond that required to pass an examination; also in such phrases as “funeral honours” and “military honours”), hostilities (acts of warfare), instructions (directions), letters (literature), looks (personal appearance), makings (essential qualities), matters (state of affairs), negotiations (meeting to negotiate), nerves (bodily state in regard to sensitiveness; nervousness), pictures (moving pictures in general, preceded by “the”), proceedings (legal steps), provisions (supplies of food), rags (old clothes), resources (means of supplying a want), respects (greetings), returns (proceeds; set of tabulated statistics), spectacles (pair of lenses to correct or assist defective sight), spirits (state or cheerfulness or despondency: distilled alcoholic liquor), terms (relations; phraseology; conditions offered or accepted; payment offered or asked), things (state of affairs), works (activities; various operations of engineering; structures for defense; acting parts of a machine; factory, as in “a steel works”)

Exercise 28

Correct the mistakes in number in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. How many furnitures are there in the house?

2. I have an important news to tell you.

3. The story is full of colloquialisms and slangs.

4. She had a stroke of luck last week.

5. We shall be pleased to supply informations on all these points.

6. The luggages will be sent to you this afternoon.

7. The diplomatic relation between the two countries will improve in the near future.

8. Arrangements for the conference have just been completed.

9. The manager was sorry to have to dispense with the service of the typist.

10. Suddenly he heard a laughter in the next room.

11. The author wrote a poem and a prose last week.

12. Where do you keep your valuable?

13. I hope I did not hurt your feeling last night.

14. He has been much in my thought during the past few months.

15. Her attainment in English is much admired by all her friends.

16. The shop sells stationery only.

17. The girl is in low spirits today.

18. The old man's offsprings are three sons and two daughters.

19. Such sceneries are well worth seeing.

20. His father is a well-known man of letters.

21. The magazine contains a page of wits and humours.

22. I do not know her whereabouts.

23. Please accept my congratulation on your promotion.

24. He has remarkable knowledges of both English and French.

25. His uncle is working in the Ministry of Communication.

26. A sleep of five hours gave him enough rest.

27. The arrears will be paid within this week.

28. Both boys are praised for their good behaviours.

29. The letter is written in very polite terms.

30. The children are having great funs under the trees.

74. Nouns of Multitude.A noun of multitude may denote either a single entity or the individuals composing it. In the former case it is singular; in the latter case it is plural.

1. Outside, unknown to the lunchers, a small crowd, headed by several men with cameras, was already gathering. — FRANK SWINNERTON. (Singular)

2. Our party of destroyers means to clear away garden and meadow in that place. — OSWALD BARRON. (Singular)

3. The whole staff was against it, and the School, if its opinion could have been taken, was probably against it too. — JAMES HILTON. (Singular)

4. In this atmosphere of change, the present intellectual youth of China has grown up. — PEARL S BUCK. (Singular)

5. After that there was no one to deal with except Mrs Tippet, who always arrived late, partly because she took so long to lace up, and partly because she had read in the pages of Charles Garvice that the aristocracy were never punctual. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS. (Plural)

6. That night, in the dead of darkness, while the crew were busy at the pumps, the Captain and I built a raft. — STEPHEN LEACOCK. (Plural)

7. One of the witnesses was drunk, and the jury were laughing. — JOHN MASEFIELD. (Plural)

8. The river police are searching. — EDGAR WALLACE. (Plural)

When you come to think about it, the distinction is often a very delicate one, so that while there are always a better and a worse in the matter, there are seldom a right and a wrong. It is important, however, to remember that a word should as a rule be treated in the same sentence as singular or plural consistently. This rule is broken in each of the two following sentences:

1. I have had an offer from a cinema company, the managing director of which, oddly enough, is called Sir Solomon Philbrick, who wish to buy the Castle. — EVELYN WAUGH. (The use of “which” and “who” raises a question of gender as well as a question of number. Three ways of correcting are possible: by changing “which” to “whom”, by changing “who wish” to “which wishes”, and by changing “the managing director of which” to “whose managing director”. The last is the best.)

2. The public is naturally much impressed by this evidence, and in considering it do not make the necessary allowances. — The Times. (Either “is” should be changed to “are” or “do” should be changed to “does”.)

Below are some other nouns of multitude:

army, artillery, assembly, association, audience, band (group of persons or musicians), board (committee), cabinet, cavalry, class, clergy, clientele, clique, club, commission, committee, congregation, corporation, council, delegation, faculty (department of university teaching; teaching staff), family, firm, fleet, flock, force (body of soldiers, sailors, etc.), government, group, herd, household, majority, mess (persons feeding together), ministry, mob, multitude, nation, navy, people (nation), personnel, populace, population, poultry, sex, squad, squadron, throng, tribe, troop.

75. Abstract Nouns in Plural.Abstract nouns take the plural form when instances are meant.

1. Kruger is one of the most tragic figures; all the more tragic for his narrownesses and crookednesses. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

2. Never mind her extravagances, her follies, or her sins. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

3. He has scarcely tasted sweet air yet, and the great freedoms of the world that science has enlarged for him. —H G WELLS.

4. How little in all these years he has learnt, how slightly he has crept from the shell of his fears, his greeds, his jealousies. — HUGH WALPOLE.

5. Here is a man, honest and conscientious as a parent, who is torn between two points of view and two loyalties, and in his confusion is endeavouring to compromise between an imaginary right and wrong. — Tit-Bits.

6. When one does public work, the world of private mortifications fades away and one is permeated with a sense of importance. — E V LUCAS.

7. I was like a sailor, who, wandering in a tropic sea, has known the lazy loveliness of coral islands and the splendours of the cities of the East, but finds himself once more in the dingy alleys of a Channel port. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

8. His weaknesses will be forgotten. — R B CUNNINGHAME GRAHAM.

Below are some other abstract nouns that I have found used in the plural:

absences, absurdities, adversities, aggressions, ardours, births, brightnesses, callousnesses, confusions, cruelties, deaths, discontents, dullnesses, frenzies, hypocrisies, inaccuracies, injustices, kindtresses, loves, lucidities, negligences, queernesses, refinements, revenges, shames, simplicities, stupidities, subtleties, superficialities, tyrannies, vanities, vilenesses, villainies, zests.

You are advised not to use any abstract noun in the plural without having seen the usage in your reading.

76. Material Nouns in Plural.Material nouns take the plural form when kinds or varieties are meant.

1. In the matter of foods that are rationed, such as sugar, butter, and bacon, economy is forced upon us, but there are very many possible economies which escape the notice of the general public. — Answers.

2. Nine out of every ten plants on earth are grasses. — ARTHUR MEE.

3. The other side of the street was lined by a dismal brick wall, decorated with optimistic advertisements of various patent foods, musical comedies, and beauty-ensuring soaps. — Answers.

Below are some other material nouns that may be used in the plural.

barleys, brasses, coffees, coppers, corns, irons, linens, meats, millets, oats, peppers, ryes, silks, steels, teas, wheats, wools.

77. Nouns Ending “-ics”.Nouns ending “-ics” (“acoustics”, “dynamics”, “ethics”, “mathematics”, “politics”, etc.) are plural by etymology, but are not always plural in usage. A few general rules may be given (which, however, are not always kept by good writers):

1. Singular for an ordinary scientific name.

It may be said that mathematics is, for most of us, a thing apart. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

2. Plural for the name of a science more loosely used (often preceded by a possessive adjective or by “the”, “such”, etc.)

One's ethics are entangled — the artist is torn. — LEONARD MERRICK.

3. Plural for the name of a matter of practice or the like.

(1) Aerobatics take a lot of learning. — Listener.

(2) They would have thought it bad form to touch upon the abstract and there were no politics for them to discuss. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

78. Some Miscellaneous Nouns.The following are a number of miscellaneous nouns that deserve attention as regards number.

advice.Either the singular or the plural form may be used in the sense of information. In the more general sense of counsel, only the singular form is in common use. In either sense, “an advice” is never used; the correct expressions are “a piece of advice” and “a bit of advice”.

ash(es).Both forms are used. The plural is the commoner. When tobacco is spoken of “ash” is usually used, as in “tobacco ash,” “the ash of cigarettes,” and “an ash from his cigar”. While “a few ashes” is occasionally used, “two ashes” or “three ashes” is not used at all.

assets.Singular by etymology, but treated as plural in usage. A new singular, “asset”, which is a false form, has come to be generally used in the sense of advantage or resource, as in “Moreover, Mrs Jackson realized what an asset Nancy was to the Vicarage Ménage” — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

beard.One man can have only one beard. “His beards” is wrong. When more than one man is in question, the plural form is used as in “Old men, too; men with beards”. — E V LUCAS.

billiards.Plural. The singular form, “billiard”, is used only attributively, as in “billiard ball”, “billiard room”, and “billiard table”.

bread.When the plural form is used, the sense is portions of bread, not slices or leaves of bread.

brother.

1. Two plural forms: “brothers” and “brethren”. In present-day usage, the latter is used only in ecclesiastical language and in the sense of the members of a society, club, guild, profession, etc, as in “Dr Marford was credited with having been the recipient of secrets which it would have terrified his more opulent brethren ever to hear” — EDGAR WALLACE.

2. “The Smith brothers” and “the brothers Smith” are both correct.

cake.The singular form is used in the sense of cakes as an article of food.

cannon.There is the plural form “cannons”, but the singular form is generally used in a collective sense (treated as either singular or plural), as in “There was a crowd of little black cannon on deck and looking out of her portholes, and she was anchored at each end to the hard ground” — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

cash.(former Chinese copper coin). The same form is used for both numbers, as in “From a drawer in his roll-top desk he took a few cash, and handing them to her, sent her away” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM. The word is etymologically unconnected with the common word of the same spelling (meaning money), which is not at all used in the plural.

cattle.No plural form. Usually treated as plural, but occasionally as singular.

chalk.“A piece of chalk” and “pieces of chalk” are the correct expressions, not “a chalk” or “chalks”. In the phrases “by a long chalk” and “by long chalks” (both meaning by far), however, “a chalk” and “chalks” are used. In the following sentence “chalks” means pieces of chalk of different colours: “After some time, in which Mrs Platts and the girl did their best to soothe her. Clara consented to receive a shilling box of chalks as her present, and was led back still sobbing”. — E V LUCAS.

cheese.“A cheese” and “cheeses” may be used in the senses of a cake or ball and cakes or balls of cheese respectively. Both “much cheese” and “many cheeses” are correct, though the former seems the commoner.

classic.“The classics” means the languages and literature of ancient Greece and Rome or the books of them, as in “I am not referring to the classics alone” — STEPHEN LEACOCK. As a college or university subject, however, “classics” is usually used instead of “the classics”, as in “a degree in classics” and “Is classics a compulsory subject in your department?”

coal.“A coal” and “coals” may be used in the senses of a piece and pieces of coal respectively, as in “The bargees could not resist shying coals at them”. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

coin.The singular form is used colloquially in the sense of money, not necessarily of coins; “much coin” may or may not mean many coins.

content.The plural form is used in the sense of what is contained in something, whether material or non-material, as in “the contents of the bottle” and “the contents of the book”. The singular form is used in the senses of the holding capacity of a vessel and the essential elements of a piece of writing. The contents of a bottle are not the same thing as the content of a bottle, nor are the contents of a book the same thing as the content of a book. (The contents of a bottle whose content is a pint may be only a drop of water at the moment. The contents of a book whose content is the advocacy of a policy or a reform may be a series of essays, stories, or plays.)

corn.The singular form is used in the collective senses of seeds of cereal plants and cereal plants while growing, as in “a quantity of corn” and “a field of corn”. “A corn” and “corns” are used in the senses of a grain and grains of corn respectively.

corps.The same form is used for both numbers (though the “s” is silent in the singular but is sounded in the plural).

counsel.The singular form may mean either one or more legal advisers in a lawsuit. “His counsel” may mean either one person or more than one. “His three counsel” is the correct expression, not “his three counsels”. I do not think I have ever seen “a counsel” or “one counsel” used.

It is interesting to compare the two following sentences:

1. Counsel for the defence was Sir Robert Hempidge, K C, whose name had been associated with some of the most famous eases, civil and criminal, during the past dozen years. — JAMES HILTON.

2. Counsel stated that the, prisoner's mother was in court. — E V LUCAS.

In the first sentence “counsel” denotes one person, for the verb “was” is singular. In the second sentence “Counsel” may denote one person or more than one, for the verb stated may be either singular or plural.

couple.Two plural forms: “couple” and “couples”. The latter seems to be the commoner.

“Couple” used in the sense of a man and his wife is usually followed by a plural verb, as in “The couple are honeymooning”. Often a singular verb is used, however, as in “The couple goes to bed early to save candles and ends up with twins”. — a proverb.

cow.“cows”, not “kine”, is the usual plural form in present-day usage, as in “She fed them and fed the cows in the barn, fed the pigs, the horses, and the chickens” — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

craft.(vessel(s)). The same form is used for both numbers, as in “all kinds of craft”. “Crafts” is hardly ever used. “Aircraft” is also both singular and plural, as in “As you probably know, there is a natural limitation to the speed of aircraft in the forms in which we know them today”. — Listener.

custom.The plural form “customs” is used in the sense of the payment levied upon imports from foreign countries. It is interesting to note that while both “custom-house” and “customs-house” are used, the plural form is invariably used in “customs officer”, “customs law”, etc.

deal.“A great (or good) deal of” is always singular, as in “There was a great deal of chattering”.— JOHN MASEFIELD, “There is a great deal of noise and a great many coloured lights, but there is not much fun”. — J B PRIESTLEY, and “Sanders made an attractive addition to our small company, and we all drank a great deal of beer together”. — JAMES HILTON. (In the following sentence “a great deal of” is followed by a plural noun: “Before I was twelve I had visited Paris, Berne, Vienna, Budapest, Berlin, and Amsterdam, and seen a great deal of the countries of which these cities are capitals” — ROMER WILSON; notice that “a great deal of the countries” has a different meaning from that of “a great many of the countries”, the difference being similar to that between “I have seen much of them recently.” and “I have seen many of them recently”.)

deer.The same form is used for both numbers, as in “Many red deer have been killed of late, but their venison is not popular” — Answers.

die.Two plural forms: “dice” and “dies”. The former is used in the sense of the bone or ivory cubes used in games of chance and also as the name of such a game. The latter is used in the other senses of the word. Incidentally, when one cube used in dice is meant, “die” is far less usual than “one of the dice”.

dozen.Two plural forms: “dozen” and “dozens”. The former is used adjectivally, as in “three dozen eggs” and “several dozen eggs” (notice that “some dozen eggs” means not some dozens of eggs but about a dozen eggs, and that “some dozens of eggs” is the only correct expression for some dozens or eggs). It is also used (1) in cases where “of” represents an ellipsis (as for “bottles”), as in “five dozen of port”, (2) before “of” and a pronoun, as in “two dozen of them” and “three dozen of these”, and (3) before “of” and “the”, “these”, or “those” with a noun, as in “ten dozen of the(se) eggs”. The plural form is used in all other cases, as in “dozens of eggs” and “dozens of them”.

dress.The singular form with no “a” or “the” preceding it means clothes in general. The singular form with “a” or “the” preceding it means an outer garment worn by a woman, a girl, or sometimes an infant, as in “She loved clothes and colour, and was never more contented than when trying on a new dress”. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS, and “When the girl turned him about he wanted to protest, but he only gazed intently at the magnificent dress of green silk with edges of silvery, glistening sequins reaching to her ankles, and the pure white fan in her hands” — H E BATES. The plural form means outer garments worn by women, girls, or sometimes infants.

duck.Two plural forms: “duck” and “ducks”. The former is used as the name of an object of sport, as in “I go hunting for duck with old Peter”. — ROLAND PERTWEE; often in the compound word “wild duck”.

eaves.Singular by etymology, but treated as plural in usage. Since “eaves” is now always considered plural, a new singular, “eave” is sometimes used, as in “He found himself sitting under the eave of a barn”. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

enemy.Though “an enemy” always refers to a single person, “the enemy” may be used in the sense of a hostile force.

fish.Two plural forms: “fish” and “fishes”. The former is far commoner than the latter, as in “At the tail of the pool two sound fish were rising with regularity, but in the backwater beyond the eddy the surface was still and unbroken”. — ROLAND PERTWEE. The latter is used usually of two or more kinds of fish.

folk.Both the singular and the plural form are used in the sense of people in general or people of a special class. In the following sentence the plural form is preferred to the singular because of the “these”: “‘in America,’ says Mr Coleridge ‘these folks would own Fords'.” — SUSAN ERTZ. In the following sentence “a folk” means a people or rather a large community: “He explained, however, that the Cape Dutch, who were the largest landowners in the country, were a suspicious folk who never did business with an Englishman, except to the latter's disadvantage.” — EDGAR WALLACE.

foot.

1. Three plural forms: “feet”, “foot”, and “foots”. The first is the most usual one, as in “Every person has two feet” and “The stick is two feet long”. The second means foot-soldiers, as in “five thousand foot”. (The singular “foot” is never used in the sense of a single foot-soldier; “a foot” or “the foot” means a regiment of foot-soldiers.) The third form means dregs. “Foot” is often used instead of “feet” in measurements, as in “I'm short and thickset and he's over six foot and about as far through as a wireless pole”. — LESLIE HALWARD.

2. In the following phrases the singular form alone is used: “on foot”, “set foot on”, “put one's foot down” (meaning take up a firm position), “put one's foot in it” (meaning blunder).

formula.Two plural forms: “formulae” and “formulae”. The former is now far commoner than the latter, which is restricted to mathematical and scientific English.

fowl.Two plural forms: “fowl” and “fowls”. The former is used chiefly as the name of an object of sport, especially in the compound words “wildfowl” and “water-fowl”. In the following sentence “fowls” is clearly not an object of sport: “He bought a score of fowls” — H E BATES.

friend.In the phrases “be friends (with)” and “make friends (with)”, the plural form alone is used, as in “She was glad still to be friends with Titus”. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER, and “In a low, confidential voice, interrupted at frequent intervals by loud, petulant questions from her listeners, she began an unenterprising and deplorably uninteresting story about a little girl who was good, and made friends with everyone on account of her goodness, and was finally saved from a mad bull by a number of rescuers who admired her moral character”. — SAKI.

fruit.The singular form is often used collectively for the whole product of a plant or tree and for various fruits, as in “Others, again, searched the surrounding trees for fruit nuts, small birds and eggs.” — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS. “Fruits” is rarely used in the sense of various kinds of fruit.

game.The singular form is often used in the collective sense of animals and birds hunted for sport or food, as in “There is nothing of monotonous sameness in tracking down big game in the wilds, but generally a number of acute surprises.” — Answers.

genius.Two plural forms: “geniuses” and “genii”. The former means persons having genius. The latter is now used only as the plural of “genie”.

grain.Generally speaking, “grain” means corn, “a grain” means a corn, and “grains” means corns.

grammar.“A grammar” means a book of grammar, and “grammars” means books of grammar.

grouse.The same form is used for both numbers, as in “I mentioned that I was haying a day's fishing here on my way to Donegal to shoot grouse, but did not add that Philippa, to whom I was newly engaged, was implicated in the grouse party, still less that it was my intention to meet her the next afternoon at Carrow Cross Junction, an hour away, and proceed with her to the home of her uncle, an hour or so further on”. — E CE SOMERVILLE and MARTIN ROSS.

hair.In present-day usage, the singular form, not the plural, is used in a collective sense, as in “She had white hair and a black silk dress up to her neck”. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM, and “She was standing now, quite naked, as she brushed out her long hair”. — PEARL S BUCK. Even when more than one person is in question, the singular form is used instead of the plural, as in “These old men have white hair”. “A hair” and “hairs” mean a thread and threads of hair respectively. In the phrase “grey hairs” (meaning old age or old people), however, the plural form alone is used.

half.When “half” is followed by “of” and a singular noun or pronoun, it is considered singular, as in “Half of it is good”. When “half” is followed by “of” and a plural noun or pronoun, it is considered plural, as in “Half of them are good”.

head.When “head” means an individual animal in a herd or flock, the same form is used for both numbers, as in “every head of cattle” and “a thousand head of cattle”.

headquarters.Plural by etymology, but often considered singular in usage, as in “a headquarters”.

holiday.The singular form often means not a single day but a vacation of any length, as in “During the first few days of the holiday Gerda felt that she would never be able to carry it through to the end”. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST. The plural form means a vacation, as in “the summer holidays”, which has the same meaning as “the summer holiday”. The use of a numeral before “holidays” to denote a vacation of so many days is incorrect, as in “thirty holidays”; the correct expressions are “a holiday of thirty days”, “a thirty-day holiday”, and “thirty days of holiday(s)”.

horse.The singular form is used in the sense of horse-soldiers, as in “a thousand horse”.

hundred.Two plural forms: “hundred” and “hundreds”. The former is used when preceded by a numeral, as in “three hundred men”, “several hundred men”, “three hundred of them”, ad “several hundred of them”. The latter is used in “hundreds”, “some hundreds”, “several hundreds”, etc, followed by “of”. (Both “several hundred of them” and “several hundreds of them” are correct. “Six hundreds”, “seven hundreds”, etc. are not impossible, but they mean not six hundred, seven hundred, etc. individual units, but six, seven, etc. separate aggregates each of which is a hundred individual units. “Some hundred” means not some hundreds, but about a hundred.)

hundredweight.The singular form is usually used instead of the plural after a numeral, as in “a few hundredweight of coal”.

ice.The plural form is used in the sense of portions of any kind of frozen confection, as in “Till then she was free to wander about as she chose, provided she made herself occasionally useful at the jumble stall, and saw that Dora and Evelyn did not eat too many ices”. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

index.Two plural forms: “indexes” and “indices”. The former is used in more general senses; the latter in mathematics.

lot.“A lot of” and “lots of” may both be singular and plural; it is not true to say that the former is always singular and the latter is always plural. The two phrases, both of which are more or less colloquial, may be used interchangeably; the number of the verb depends on that of the noun after the “of”, “A lot of paper” and “lots of paper” are singular; “a lot of people” and “lots of people” are plural. “Please, sir, there are a lot of letters for you.” — JAMES HILTON. “Of course, lots of it is, as you say, silly and bad, because people are largely silly and bad”. — ROSE MACAULAY. (The italics of “are” are the author's, not mine, and have nothing to do with the point that the sentence is quoted to illustrate.)

man.The singular form not preceded by “a” or “the” is used in the sense of the human race, as in “A Negro sailor, hideously drunk, addressed Paul in no language known to man, and invited him to have a drink”. — EVELYN WAUGH. The plural form “men” is sometimes used in almost the same sense, as in “Men will turn again with renewed interest to the animal world”. — H G WELLS. The singular form is also used in contrast to “woman” used generically, as in “So woman domesticated man, as she domesticated the cow and the pig”. — WILL DURANT.

manner.In the phrase “all manner of”, the singular form alone is used, though the sense seems as if it required the plural form, as in “He had seen all manner of things, quaint, impressive, terrible, amusing, and unexpected”. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

mass.“The masses” means the ordinary people, as in “In a series of poems he had satirized the rapacity of minor officials and called attention to the intolerable sufferings of the masses”. — ARTHUR WALEY.

means.Plural by etymology, but considered either singular or plural in usage. In the sense of income etc, it is always plural, as in “My means are limited”. In the sense of method(s), it is either singular or plural, as in “a means”, “this means”, “every means” (all singular), and “all means”, “these means”, “such means” (all plural). “Means” and “the means” are treated as singular or plural according as one way or more than one way is meant. “In these days of vulgar competition such means were not to be despised”. — SUSAN ERTZ.

million.Two plural forms: “million” and “millions”. See hundred.

Miss.To say “the Miss Smiths” is now more usual than to say “the Misses Smith”; the latter form is used chiefly in formal invitations and replies, printed lists of guests, etc. Of course, “the Misses Ann and Jane Smith” is the only form possible.

money.The plural form “moneys” (also “monies”) is used in legal language in the sense of sums of money.

Mr.The plural form is “Messrs” (the abbreviation of the French word “Messieurs”), as in “(the) Messrs Smith”, and “If Messrs Shaw and Garratt would take a glance at the biographical introduction to the last-named volume they would learn that Nesbitt was an Italian, so it was not unnatural for him to ‘attach himself to the interests of Italy’,” — Now and Then. When a numeral is used, “It is correct to say “(the) Mr Smiths”. “The” is added at the beginning, as in “the two Mr Smiths”.

Mrs.The plural form of “Mrs Smith” is either “the Mesdames Smith” or “the Mrs Smiths”. (“Mesdames” is the plural form of the French word “Madame”.) When a numeral is used, “the Mrs Smiths” is the only form used, as in “the two Mrs Smiths”.

noise.“Noise” (as in “much noise”), “a noise”, and “noises” are all correct. “There was a noise like huge sheets of paper being torn up by an angry man.” — HUGH WALPOLE.

number.“A number of” is always plural, as in “Down in the safe there are a number of manuscripts”. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

order.The plural form alone is used in the phrases “the higher orders” and “the lower orders” (meaning “the higher and the lower classes of society” respectively), as in “Whatever the reason, the wedding was certainly an unparalleled success among the lower orders” — EVELYN WAUGH. The plural form is also used in the phrase “take orders”, meaning become a clergyman.

pair.Two plural forms: “pair” and “pairs”. The latter seems to be the commoner, as in “The smooth bow wave hove it up as it for a closer inspection, and then the ship, brought again to her course, turned her back on it with indifference, while twenty pairs of eyes on her deck stared in all directions trying to see — what they could see”. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

paper.“A paper” and “papers” are not usually used in the sense of sheet(s) or piece(s) of paper, but in the sense of newspaper(s), essay(s), document(s), etc.

part.When “(a) part” is followed by “of” and a singular noun or pronoun, it is considered singular, as in “(A) part of it is good”. When “(a) part” is followed by “of” and a plural noun or pronoun, it is considered plural, as in “(A) part of them are good.”

penny.Two plural forms: “pennies” and “pence”. The former is used of coins, and the latter of value, as in “Gone too are sundry minor pleasures, such as listening for the radio Time Signal and leaping up to make a half-minute adjustment; and, better still, squandering pennies in a lordly way on inquiring the hour of the telephone-operator”. — Punch, and “I am therefore deducting sixpence” — E V LUCAS.

people.“A people” or “one people” means a nation, as in “The girl was virginal, and that attracted greatly the man of a people who cherish and reverence only one quality — maternity — more in tensely than they do virginity”. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN, The plural form is “peoples”, as in “It must be wise and penetrative in its understanding, for the Chinese have been above all peoples wise and penetrative in the understanding of the human heart”. — PEARL S BUCK. It is in this sense only that “peoples” is used. The singular form may be used in the sense of persons, as in “many people”, but mot in the sense or a person. (Incidentally, “one or two people” means one or two persons, but “a people or two”, if ever used, means one or two nations.)

pick.When “pick” means the best ones (not one) of a group of things or persons, it is plural in usage; as in “But only the very pick are chosen to stay here at home”. — JAMES AGEE.

plate.The singular form is used in the collective sense of table utensils of metal, as in “My wife keeps her jewels here too, and some of the gold plate”. — HARRY GRAHAM.

property.(possession (s)). “A property” and “properties” are not used except when a landed estate and landed estates are meant; the correct expressions are “a piece of property” and “pieces of property”. We say “The books and furniture are his property (not properties)”.

proportion.When “proportion” is followed by “of” and a singular noun or pronoun, it is considered singular, as in “A large proportion of it is good”. When “proportion” is followed by “of” and a plural noun or pronoun, it is considered plural, as in “To this it must be added that a considerable proportion of the newspaper extracts are, as is sometimes apparent, not from the editorial, but from the correspondence columns; the names attached are merely an assurance that the passages have actually appeared in print, and not been now invented to point a moral”. — H W FOWLER and F G FOWLER.

rain.“The rains” means the rainy season, especially in a tropical country. “A rain” means a fall of rain; “rains” means falls of rain.

rank.“The ranks” means common soldiers, or the lower classes of society.

rest.Singular or plural according to the sense, as in “The rest of my history consists of a list of my publications”. — GERALD BULLETT, and “Outside were the rest of the wild dogs”. — JACK LONDON.

riches.Singular by etymology, but treated as plural in usage.

rickets.Treated as either singular or plural in usage.

sail.The singular form is often used as a collective term for ships, as in “a fleet of thirty sail”.

salmon.The same form is used for both numbers.

score (twenty). Two plural forms: “score” and “scores”, for the use of which see dozen.

series.

1. The same form is used for both numbers.

2. “A series of”, “this series of”, and “that series of” are singular, as in “There was a big series of nineteenth-century baffle scenes, mostly good prints from pictures by Edith Thompson”. — LORD PONSONBY.

sheep.The same form is used for both numbers, as in “She came out of it the next moment, as a flock of sheep met her in Sandhurst”. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

shell.(explosive projectile). The singular form is often used in a collective sense.

shot.There is the plural form “shots”, but the singular form is generally used in a collective sense (treated as either singular or plural), as in “Tis true the guns were shotted, and one of the round shot knocked a hole in Farmer Johnstone's barn, but nobody thought much of that in such a season of rejoicing”. — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

sister.See brother 2.

species.The same form is used for both numbers.

stock.The singular form is often used in the collective sense of domestic animals kept on a farm etc, as in “Then she settled down to feed stock”. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

stone(weight). The same form is usually used for both numbers, as in “Now she weighed eleven stone, which was too much, but not, on the whole, a very great price to pay for peace of mind.” — MARGARET KENNEDY. “Stones”, however, is also used.

store.The plural form is used in the sense of a supply of goods of a specific kind, or needed for a specific purpose, as in “military stores”. It is also used in the sense of a large shop selling goods of various kinds; when used in this sense, it is preceded either by “the” or by “a”, as in “I was in a large stores the other week, buying a birthday present for a little friend, and the girl in the toy department persuasively tried to sell me a certain grotesque creature which she assured me was the ‘very latest’, and most fashionable toy of the moment.” — Pearson's Weekly.

summons.Singular. The plural form is “summonses”.

swine.The same form is used for both numbers, as in “It is, as you know, said of the Lady Circe that she turned men into swine, but this lady turns swine into men, and what could be more agreeable than that?” — MICHAEL ARLEN.

tear.“A tear” means a tear-drop; “tears” means tear-drops. Unlike “sweat”, “saliva”, “urine”, etc, “tear” is not the name of a liquid, but the name of a drop of a liquid. “Have you any personal objection to my dropping a tear?” — ANTHONY HOPE. “She shook in a passion of tears. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

thousand.See hundred.

troop.The singular form means a cavalry unit. The plural form preceded by a low numeral means units of cavalry artillery or soldiers in answered vehicles, But the plural form preceded by a high numeral means soldiers; thus, “a thousand troops” means a thousand soldiers.

trout.The same form is used for both numbers, as in “For, save at eventide, or in very special circumstances, trout of personality do not frequent open water where they must compete for every insect with the wind, the lightning-swift sweep of swallows and martins, and even the laborious pursuit of predatory dragon-flies with their bronze wings and bodies like rods of coloured glass.” — ROLAND PERTWEE. The plural form “trouts” is sometimes used, but only of two or more kinds of trout.

vermin.The singular form is used usually in a collective sense, and is treated usually as a plural.

woman.

1. For “woman” used generically see man.

2. Nouns in which “woman” is used attributively take “women” in the plural, as in “women students”.

3. “Woman's” and “women's” are often used without real distinction.

work.“A work” and “works” used in the sense of a task and tasks are far from common, though not impossible.

Exercise 29

Correct the mistakes in number in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. His teacher has given him a very valuable advice on the study of English.

2. The old man has grey beards.

3. The girl is writing on the blackboard with a red chalk.

4. The company has decided to dismiss their chief clerk.

5. My brother works in the customs-house.

6. I found a great deal of boys in the garden.

7. The young man is fond of fine dresses.

8. Her family sold its old house, and went to live with an old friend of theirs.

9. He is said to be no longer friend with her.

10. The boy is tending five sheep.

11. Most Chinese people have black hairs.

12. We shall have twenty holidays in the winter vacation.

13. The committee that was appointed yesterday will hold its first meeting this afternoon.

14. A number of letters has been received in answer to the advertisement for a translator.

15. An his properties are kept at home.

16. The whole staff was very busy and so they were not in a position to do any extra work.

17. Her eyes seemed about to shed much tear.

18. Riches are not what they want.

19. The army, which is a large one, are eating their breakfast.

20. The teachers are going to write two series of English readers.

21. I have some dozen eggs; you may take twenty of them.

22. The whole class is writing their exercises.

23. Where is the fleet going?

24. This college used to admit woman students only.

25. The rest of my books has been contributed to the local library.

26. They have a great many works to do in the office.

27. The public is watching the situation with intense interest.

28. I correspond with one or two people in Africa.

29. Half of the party were foreigners.

30. The nation is noted for their perfect social institutions.

79. Numerals in Plural.It is perhaps peculiar to English that numerals may take the plural form.

1. China produced a profusion of beautiful art, some delightful poetry, astonishing cookery, and thousands of millions of glowingly pleasant lives from generation to generation. — H G WELLS.

2. Hundreds of ancient trees are to be cut down; where stood and stands Heathfield House the new plan will demand room for seventy villa residences. — OSWALD BARRON.

3. Lombardy poplars rose out from the elms, near and far, in twos and threes, in longer or shorter lines, and at one point grouping themselves like the pinnacles of a cathedral. — EDWARD THOMAS.

There is the phrase “at sixes and sevens”, meaning in confusion.

All the people who were interested in these league of nations projects were at sixes and sevens among themselves because they had the most vague, heterogeneous, and untidy assumptions about what the world of men was, what it had been, and therefore of what it could be. — H G WELLS.

In mathematics, such expressions as “two threes” and “four sixes” are used.

It is interesting to note that “the twenties”, “the thirties”, etc mean the years between 19 and 30, between 29 and 40, etc. in a person's life or a century, also, in the range of temperature.

1. In profile, Hellmut was an ageless and contemplative warrior: in full face a terrified, but determined and rather grasping, young man in the twenties. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

2. The doctor often came in to chat with the old man, to hear stories of dead and forgotten celebrities whose names were famous in the eighties and the late seventies. — EDGAR WALLACE.

80. Number in Nouns Used as Adjectives.A noun used as an adjective sometimes takes the singular form even if it takes the plural form when used as a noun, as in “billiard ball” and “customhouse”. The plural form, however, is often used, as in “clothes brush”, “goods train”, and “savings bank”. Both “trouser pocket” and “trousers-pocket”, are used.

In such expressions as “ten-dollar note”, “five-year-old boy”, and “sixty-mile journey”, the singular form is far more usual than the plural.

When a noun in the possessive case is used as an adjective, it is usually singular or plural according as the noun it modifies is singular or plural. This is not at all logical, but such is usage. “Bird's nest” and “birds' nests” are used as singular and plural respectively, though one nest may contain more than one bird. “Printer's error” and “printers' errors” are used as singular and plural respectively, though a number of errors may have been made by a single printer. “Woman's college” is found along with “women's college”, though such a college certainly is not a one-woman one. Incidentally, in “lovers' quarrel”, the singular form “lover's” cannot be used because it takes more than one person to quarrel.

81. Number and Articles.In Section 70 I have written “the singular and plural numbers”. This is similar to the “the second and third centuries” in the following sentence.

By the second and third centuries A. D. the overtaxed and overstrained imperial machine was already staggering towards its downfall. — H G WELLS.

According to usage, both “the singular and plural numbers” and “the singular and the plural number” are correct; similarly, both the second and third centuries” and “the second and, the third century” are correct. The general rule is that if the “the” is not repeated, the plural form is required, and that if the “the” is repeated, the singular form is required. With regard to “a”, however, the article is always repeated and the singular form is always used, as in “a black and a white cat” (not “a black and white cats”).

In order to avoid ambiguity, we sometimes have to depart from what I have called the general rule. “The black and the white cat” undoubtedly means two cats, one black and one white. But “the black and white cats” may have several meanings: (1) two cats, one black and one white, (2) two cats both of which are both black and white, (3) more than two cats some of which are black and some of which are white, (4) more than two cats all of which are both black and white. For the first meaning, “the black and the white cat” is recommended. For the second meaning, “the two black-and-white cats” is recommended. For the third meaning, “the black and the white cats” is recommended. For the fourth meaning, “the black-and-white cats” is recommended. (The fourth form may also be used for the second meaning when it is not necessary to say whether two or more than two cats are meant.)

82. Plural Subject with Singular Verb.When a plural subject denotes a single conception, it takes a singular verb.

1. Three thousand a year was certainly worth having, and she knew already that should she desire, she could be his wife. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. I think sevenpence was a fair price for what we saw. — J B PRIESTLEY.

3. Even the fifteen shillings was more than many Kaffirs were prepared to spend on sanctifying their unions, and most of them in those days came together like any other of the earth's creatures, hoping vaguely that the Lord would understand how hard it was for a Kaffir to save fifteen shillings for a wedding in the church, and would excuse them. — SARAH GERTRUDE MILLIN.

4. You know, I lived in China all my life practically, and the eleven months I spent in America when I came before was the longest period I'd been here since college days. — World-Telegram.

5. A few lives saved here and there is no small reckoning to a chap's credit. — ELEANOR THORNE.

6. Naturally the Five Towns was tickled. — ARNOLD BENNETT. (The Five Towns are a pottery district in Staffordshire, England, represented in Bennett's stories by Turnhill, Bursley, Hanbridge, Knype, and Longshaw. Here the term is treated as singular because their inhabitants are meant as a whole. Elsewhere Bennett wrote “The Five Towns seem to cling together for safety”)

7. Too much brain and brawn is going to waste in British prisons today. — Answers.

8. But getting up and landing upon fairly smooth water is easier than getting into bed. — H G WELLS.

9. Going to bed early and starting work early next day is part of that efficiency.— ETHEL MANNIN.

10. To insure jewellery and to pretend that it has been stolen is common enough still, though it has become a game full of hidden dangers. — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

“The United States” used as the name of a country is considered singular.

The United States is constitutionally incapacitated, therefore, from the kind of foreign policy that has kept Europe for so long constantly on the verge of war. — H G WELLS.

The following phrases are all considered singular:

bread and butter. end and aim. the long and the short of it. slow and steady. sum and substance. truth and honesty.

In colloquial English, “there is” or “there's” is often used before a plural noun instead of “there are”.

There's many feeling that way. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

This construction had better be avoided in formal writing.

In the following sentence, “was” was used instead of “were” because only one of the ideas was in the author's mind at the time:

In that world, then, there was once upon a time a Commanding Officer and a Northman. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

“Were” would have been more natural, however. Of course, the author would not have written “A Commanding Officer and a Northman was ...”.

83. Some Knotty Points of Number.Below are some knotty points of number:

1. In mathematical formulas usage varies in such sentences as “Four times six — twenty-four” and “Four and six — ten”. Both “is” and “are” are correct. (We say “Four sixes make twenty-four”, however, not “makes”.)

2. “More than one” is singular, agreeing with a singular noun and taking a singular verb, though its sense is necessarily plural.

More than one meadow was trenched, apparently by a dried watercourse, showing flags, rushes, and a train of willows. — EDWARD THOMAS.

In the following sentence, which is quoted from the preface to Professor's H C Wyld's The Universal English Dictionary: “are current” should be changed to “is current” (“are current” is used perhaps because “both are” follows.):

The pronunciations indicated are those current in good society, and where more than one pronunciation of the same word are current, both are given, that preferred by the Editor being put first.

3. “One and a half” agrees with a plural noun but takes a singular verb.

4. “One or two” is plural, agreeing with a plural noun and taking a plural verb.

There were one or two things she had to see to in Brighton, so I came on ahead — to break the news, as it were. — Tit-Bits.

5. “Many a(n)” is singular, agreeing with a singular noun and taking a singular verb.

Many an honest Inn calls itself an hotel. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

6. “Every” followed by two or more nouns is singular.

(1) Every attitude and movement was expressive of perfectly organized activity. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

(2) Actually the most cheerful “prison” in the world is Bolshevo, a garden city just outside Moscow, where every man, woman, and child is a criminal. — Answers.

7. “No” followed by two or more singular nouns is singular.

And, secondly, there has hitherto existed in the United States no organization for and no tradition of what one may call non-assimilable possessions. — H G WELLS.

Exercise 30

A.

Write ten sentences each containing a plural subject with a singular verb.

B.

Write sentences containing in the subject (1) “more than one”, (2) “one and a half”, (3) “one or two”, (4) “many a”, (5) “every” followed by two or more nouns, and (6) “no” followed by two or more singular nouns.

84. Gender and Sex.Gender, as you must know, indicates sex. But gender does not always agree with sex. Male or female beings may be considered of the neuter gender. They may be considered masculine or feminine without reference to their real sex. Sexless things may be considered masculine or feminine.

85. Male or Female Beings Considered Neuter.All living things have sex. But animals are often considered neuter when they are treated as mere things and their sex is disregarded.

1. The valiant little beast was striving hard for life; its red back writhed and strained. — OSWALD BARRON.

2. One of the oldest, certainly one of the best-known, of all stories is of the dog which ran off with a piece of meat and saw its reflection in a stream. — ARTHUR MEE.

When thought of as intelligent beings, animals are not considered neuter.

1. The brown owl nibbled his fingers in greeting. — H M TOMLINSON.

2. The little goose, delighted that people were again kind and respectful to her, waddled down to the gate, making happy noises. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

It is interesting to note that the same animal may be considered neuter in one sentence and considered masculine or feminine in the next.

One of the oldest, certainly one of the best-known, of all stories is of the dog which ran off with a piece of meat and saw its reflection in a stream. Thinking the piece of meat in the water to be bigger than the one he held in his mouth, he tried to seize it, and in doing so lost the good dinner he might have had. — ARTHUR MEE.

Young children in general are often considered neuter and referred to by “it”. The same may be said of even an individual child, though the child's parents or nurse generally uses “he” or “she”.

1. I should like every child to have its peculiar spoon. — R W CHAPMAN.

2. It needs no blight psychologist to point out that a child may bear the scars from this kind of treatment for the rest of its life. — Answers.

3. That was the nature of Cork Concannon; if he had seen a baby crying for milk, he would have shed tears, too, and bought it a bottle of champagne. — GERALD KERSH.

86. Animals Considered Masculine or Feminine Without Reference to Sex.When thought of as an intelligent being, an animal is considered not neuter but masculine or feminine — often without reference to sex, however. This is no doubt due to the difficulty of finding out the sex of many animals; for instance, when you see a cat, or a sparrow, you do not know its sex at all. The fact is that some animals (for example, dogs) are usually considered masculine and some (for example, cats) are usually considered feminine (perhaps there are more animals of the former kind than those of the latter).

87. Sexless Things Considered Masculine or Feminine.There are sexless things that are treated as if they had sex. The best-known of such things is a ship or a boat, which is usually considered feminine (even when it has a masculine name).

1. So I'll just tell you that the ship was of a very ornamental sort once, with lots of grace and elegance and luxury about her. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

2. I was shown one tidy-sized vessel, in dock not far away, that has a very odd routine of her own. — J B PRIESTLEY.

When a relative pronoun is required to refer to a ship or a boat, however, “which” is used instead of “who” or “whom”.

A month later they arrived at Freetown, where they chartered a small sailing-vessel, the Fuwalda, which was to bear them to their final destination. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

Railwaymen often use “she” or “her” to refer to a train or a locomotive. Motor car owners often use “she” to refer to their car. Some people use “he”, “his”, or “him” to refer to their pipe or watch.

When a country is regarded as a personal agent, it is considered feminine.

England, as she is today, may well be regarded as the product of persons of the most disagreeable type. — BEN TRAVERS.

Unlike a ship or a boat, a country may be referred to by “who” or “whom”.

Viborg, the Finnish port which has been the scene of so much fighting, formerly belonged to Sweden, who founded it in 1293. — Answers.

The world and any city or town may also be considered feminine.

In no mood does Rome ever betray dose who love her. — ETHEL MANNIN.

Nature (personified) is considered feminine.

Why David or anyone else should have chosen to fall in love with Dinah was one of those mysteries which Nature keeps secret in her own heart. — SARAH GERTRUDE MILLIN.

Of other personified sexless things it may be mentioned that the sun is masculine and the moon is feminine, that “time” and “love” are masculine, and that abstract notions are mostly feminine. (Such perso-nification is not common in ordinary prose.)

88. Masculine and Feminine Nouns Used as Nouns of Common Gender.There are a number of nouns of the masculine and nouns of the feminine gender that are used as nouns of the common gender when the question of sex is not important.

bee (feminine), cat (feminine), colt (masculine), dog (masculine), duck (feminine), goose (feminine), horse (masculine), Jew (masculine), lion (masculine), tiger (masculine).

We may also say that these nouns are properly of the common gender but are also used to denote one particular sex.

For the generic use of “man” and “men” see man in Section 78. In this use “man” is still considered masculine. Similarly, when “a man” is used in the sense of a person and “no man” is used in the sense of no person, they are still considered masculine.

89. Feminine Nouns Ending in “-ess”.As you must know, “actor” and “author” are masculine, and “actress” and “authoress” are feminine. Below are some more pairs:

1. For one incredible year I was fashion editress of a society journal. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

2. One is a nurse and gymnastic instructress, three are tailors, one a bookkeeper, and one a shirtmaker. — The Children's Newspaper.

3. I am not surprised that some of her friends have already hoisted her flag on the poems; for, though the fact was generally unknown or neglected, Mary Coleridge was a poetess. — ROBERT BRIDGES.

With some of these pairs the masculine form is usually used of a woman instead of the feminine when there is no special reason for indicating her sex. Among these masculine forms may be mentioned “author”, “editor”, “instructor”, “manager”, “poet”, and “proprietor”.

Among the masculine forms that are not used of women may be mentioned “actor”, “god”, “heir”, and “waiter”. This is apparently because the indication of sex is considered quite important in regard to these pairs of nouns; for instance, whether a dramatic performer is a man or a woman is usually of sufficient importance for mention.

There are some feminine forms ending in “-ess” that are hardly ever in any but facetious use, such as “doctress”, “singeress”, and “teacheress”. You had better not use them.

90. Nouns Ending in “-man”.Some nouns ending in “-man” denote males only.

kinsman, madman, nobleman. (The feminine equivalents of these words are: kinswoman, madwoman, noblewoman.)

Some nouns ending in “-man” may denote either sex, though they have their feminine equivalents.

chairman, horseman, spokesman, statesman. (The feminine equivalents are: chairwoman, horsewoman, spokeswoman, states-woman.)

The following nationality-names denote males only:

Dutchman, Englishman, Frenchman, Irishman, Scotsman or Scotchman. (Their feminine equivalents are: Dutchwoman, Englishwoman, Frenchwoman, Irishwoman, Scotswoman or Scotchwoman. Incidentally, the words beginning with “Scotch-” are not used in Scotland.) In the plural (“-men”), however, these words may be used of both sexes when the people are mentioned as a whole.

It is to be noted that the last syllable of the two following words is not the English word “man”, and that they are of the common gender:

German, Ottoman. (The plural forms of these words end in “mans”, not in “men”.)

91. Words of Common Gender Made Masculine or Feminine.There are occasions when a noun of the common gender that has not its masculine or feminine equivalent has to have the sex indicated. This can nearly always be done by using “male” or “female” before the noun:

male artist, female artist. male cousin, female cousin. male fox, female fox. male lecturer, female lecturer. male rat, female rat. male typist, female typist.

For men, “man”, “gentleman”, and “boy” may be used instead of “male”. For women, “woman”, “lady”, and “girl” may be used instead of “female”. Below are some notes on these words:

1. “Man” seems to be little used except in the compound word “manservant” and in “man cook” and “man friend” (meaning a male friend of a woman's).

2. “Gentleman” seems to be little used except in “gentleman friend” (meaning a male friend of a woman's). (It is indeed much used in such expressions as “gentleman farmer” and “gentleman scho-lar”, but here the use of “gentleman” indicates social position rather than sex.)

3. “Boy” is applied to boys only, as in “boy-child” and “boy cousin”. (Often the use of “boy” emphasizes age rather than sex; thus, “boy actor” means an actor who is under age rather than an actor who is a male. “Boy-friend” means a young male friend of a woman's or girl's.)

4. “Woman” is used interchangeably with “female”. See woman in Section 78. (“Woman friend” means a female friend of a man's.)

5. “Lady” as applied to names indicating “higher” vocations, as in “lady doctor” and “lady clerk”, is as much used as “woman” and “female”, though it is sometimes objected to. “Lady” as applied to “lower” vocations, as in “lady cook” and “lady nurse”, implies that though the employment is usually regarded as involving “inferiority” in social position, yet the woman in question is to be treated as a lady because of her status, education, or refinement. (“Lady friend” means a female friend of a gentleman's.)

6. “Girl” is applied to girls only, as in “girl worker” and “girl baby”. (Often the use of “girl” emphasizes age rather than sex; thus, “girl musician” means a female musician who is under age rather than a musician who is a female. “Girl-friend” means a young female friend of a man's or boy's.)

92. Gender and Number.The use of “which” and “who” in the sentence quoted about “company” in Section 74 raises a question of gender as well as a question of number. Care should be taken in using pronouns to refer to nouns of this kind.

Exercise 31

Write sentences containing (1) a masculine noun considered neuter, (2) a feminine noun considered neuter, (3) the name of a ship or a boat considered feminine, (4) the name of a country considered feminine, (5) “man” used generically, (6) the plural form of “German”, (7) a noun of the common gender made masculine, and (8) a noun of the common gender made feminine.

93. Possessive Case and Of-phrase.The possessive, as you must know, is the only case in nouns that is indicated by a case-ending, which is “s”, or simply the apostrophe. As you also know, the possessive case and an of-phrase often have the same meaning. It does not seem possible to give any hard and fast rules as to when to use which form. The fact seems to be (1) that with living beings the choice usually depends on euphony where there is no question of meaning, and (2) that with lifeless things the possessive case used to be less used in ordinary prose than in poetry and higher literary style, but today it is much used by many writers, especially in journalistic literature.

94. Subjective and Objective Meanings.English not being a perfectly logical language, the possessive case and the of-phrase have both subjective and objective meanings. “John's fear” means the fear felt by John: the meaning is subjective. “The fear of John” means either the fear felt by John of somebody or something or the fear felt by somebody else of him: the meaning is either subjective or objective. “A fear of failure” can of course mean only a fear felt by one or more persons of failure: the meaning is objective. “John's arrest” means John's being arrested: the meaning is objective. “The arrest of John” also means John's being arrested: the meaning is objective. Both “John's arrival” and “the arrival of John” means John's arriving: the meaning is subjective. Both “John's education” and “the education of John” means John's being educated: the meaning is objective. “The love of John” means either the love felt by John or the love felt by somebody else for John: the meaning is either subjective or objective. It depends on the particular word concerned whether the meaning is subjective or objective or capable of being of either nature.

95. Possessive Plurals.In “John's books” and “my brother's books”, we have the possessive singular. In “my brothers' books”, we have the possessive plural. The possessive plural is seldom used, perhaps because the plural is usually pronounced exactly the same as the singular. “The books of my brothers” is generally preferred to “my brothers' books”. Below are more examples:

The caps of the boys; the boys' caps

the cottages of the villagers; the villagers' cottages

the opinions of the experts; the experts' opinions

the children of our friends; our friends' children

I do not mean to say, however, that the possessive plural should never be used. It is generally avoided only when actual possession is denoted. In certain more or less fixed phrases it is the only form possible, as in “schoolboys' clothes” and “birds' nests”.

96. Noun Phrases and Possessive Case.A noun phrase can be put in the possessive case.

1. But the chairman of the committee's triumph is so gentle and unchallenged, and his sway is absolute. — E V LUCAS.

2. Another unprofitable raid was made on the Earl of Suffolk's collection. — Answers.

The possessive case of a noun phrase, however, is usually avoided when it looks or sounds awkward. Thus, “the chairman of the committee of inquiry's triumph” is to be avoided, though correct, and “the triumph of the chairman of the committee of inquiry” is to be preferred. Below are more examples:

the father of our teacher of English; our teacher of English's father.

the reputation of the author of the dictionary of present-day English usage; the author of the dictionary of present-day English usage's reputation.

“Anyone else”, “everybody else”, etc have the possessive forms “anyone else's”, “everybody else's”, etc, which are far more idio-matic than the pedantic “anyone's else”, “everybody's else”, etc.

It was her pavement as much as anyone else's. — P S PRITCHETT.

A noun phrase put in the possessive case sometimes leads to ambiguity. Thus, “the son of John's daughter” means, if “son of John's” is used as a noun phrase, John's granddaughter, but the whole expression means John's grandson, if the “of” is, as it should be, regarded as governing the “daughter”.

The following sentence contains an interesting point:

“Y'are very snug in here” piped old Mr Woodifield, and he peered out of the great, green leather armchair by his friend, the boss's desk, as a baby peers out of its pram. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

“His friend's, the boss's”, “his friend's, the boss”, and “his friend's desk, the boss” would all be incorrect.

97. “'S” Repeated and “Of” Repeated.“'S” repeated once or more times and “of” repeated once or more times are both possible, as in “my friend's brother's daughter's teacher's son” and “the son of the teacher of the daughter of the brother of my friend”. Of course, both constructions are awkward. When there is any choice, the repetition of “of” seems less awkward than that of “'s”.

98. Possessive Case and Lifeless Things.Grammars in general say that the possessive case is not usually used of lifeless things; they call such expressions as “the hill's top” and “my room's door” incorrect. There is a tendency, however, to use it of lifeless things among a great many present-day writers, especially journalists.

1. America's oldest town is Panama. — Answers.

2. Liverpools' Chinatown is rapidly dwindling. — J B PRIESTLEY.

3. One citizen climbed alone to the mountain's top, and the rest hid themselves in sheltered places. — LORD DUNSANY.

4. The ship's course was altered to pass the object close; for it was necessary to have a good look at what one could see. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

5. Gerda came down to the water's edge and stood looking across the landscape, over which evening had settled as it were the soft white palm of a hand. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

6. He had, besides, a deeper dread of the world's contaminations. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

With ultra-fashionable journalists it seems as if every noun could be put in the possessive case. You are advised, however, not to use the possessive of any noun that you have not seen treated in that way.

99. Idiomatic Uses of Possessive Case.Apart from the above-mentioned free use, there are certain idiomatic uses of the possessive case with names of lifeless things. The most important one is in the indication of measure or extent, mostly of time and space.

1. It was a day by itself, coming after a fortnight's storm and rain. — WILLIAM HALE WHITE.

2. His stillness was so intense that when, after an hour's silence, he spoke, the effect was extraordinary. — ROSITA FORBES.

3. On a moment's reflection it had the proper inevitability of tragedy. — ANTHONY HOPE.

4. They offered a three years' (or probably more) engagement in Washington and two hundred pounds a years. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

5. He had been left a vision that grew clearer with each year — of an England for whom days of ease were nearly over, of a nation steering into channels where a hair's breadth of error might be catastrophic. — JAMES HILTON.

6. Instantly he cheered up; he held her at arm's length. — MARY ARDEN.

7. Happily the fire was of no importance, and it was extinguished before it had done more than about five pounds' worth of damage and alarmed more than about five thousand visitors to the City. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

8. In one case, a young man of eighteen was charged with attempting to steal one shilling's worth of cigarettes. — Answers.

The possessive case is also used of nouns denoting time without any idea of measure or extent.

1. I'd give all the books in your library for this morning's Herald Tribune. — JAMES HILTON.

2. I will agree to this year's dividend on condition that we drop this foreign business in future, lock, stock, and barrel. — JOHN GALS-WORTHY.

3. You ought — forgive me for saying so — to give the boy promotion for this afternoon's work. — H A VACHELL.

4. So ended the first day's play. — W A DARLINGTON.

5. Upon my return from the desert or the sea, I would try to remedy the lack by glutting myself with daily news, only to discover one day's facts to be next day's fiction. — ZANE GREY.

Below are some of the fixed phrases in which the possessive is used:

There is the formula “for ... 's sake”, such as “for God's sake”, “for mercy's sake”, and “art for art's sake”. It is interesting to note that when the word in question ends in the s sound the “s” is not used and the apostrophe either stands alone or is itself omitted, as in “for conscience' sake” and “for conscience sake”, and that some writers omit the “'s” even when the noun does not end in the is sound, as in “for brevity sake” and “for fashion sake”.

100. Noun Omitted after Possessive.After a possessive the noun denoting a house, a shop, etc is often omitted if it may be readily understood.

1. No, Ma'am — he's lunching at Mr Staple's — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. How kind of you to remember — with such violets — our meeting at Miss Townsend's. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

3. The seated company at a big sale at Christie's is as unchanging as an ordinary congregation. — E V LUCAS. (Christie's is a centre of art sales in London. James Christie was an auctioneer, and his eldest son, also called James Christie, took over his father's business, and moved to the present premises in King Street in 1824.)

4. The sales were at Barker's and Derry and Tom's. — ROSE MACAULAY.

5. After that I was engaged in selling small boats on commission in a yacht-broker's. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

6. The boat that brought the meat from the butcher's must have shot along those lanes of rippling silver with the strange smoothness of the gondola. — G K CHESTERTON.

101. “Of” before Possessive.“A friend of the farmer's”, “a relative of John's”, “a phrase of Shakespeare's”, etc illustrate a very common usage. Its origin may be doubtful. But it is such a fixed construction that in most cases “a friend of the farmer”, “a relative of John”, “a phrase of Shakespeare” are no more English than “a friend of me”.

1. A cousin of his father's had offered him a place there and it seemed the only chance of getting a paying job. — MARTIN ARMSTRONG.

2. This picture was made from a drawing done by a friend of my father's four months before I was born. — EDGAR LEE MASTERS.

Often there is a distinction between “of ...” and “of ...'s”. Thus, “a story of Smith” means a story told about Smith, but “a story of Smith's” means a story told by Smith.

102. One Noun in Two Cases.As there is no difference between the nominative and the objective form of a noun, it does not seem to be possible to go wrong in the use of a noun in either of these two cases. It is a not very uncommon mistake, however, to place a noun in such a manner that it acts both as subject and as object.

The occupation of the mouths of the Yalu, however, his Majesty considered undesirable, and should only be carried out in the last resort. — The Times.(“Occupation” is first the object of “considered” and then the subject of “should only be carried out”. The mistake can be corrected by merely changing “should only be” to “only to be”.)

Exercise 32

Write ten sentences each with the possessive of a noun denoting something lifeless, ten sentences each with a noun omitted after a possessive, and ten sentences each with “of” before a possessive.

103. Pronoun and its Antecedent.The antecedent of a pronoun, as the very name indicates (“ante” means before), precedes it.

1. The old woman had to get back before darkness came if she could. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

2. On a summer afternoon an old man was walking along the narrow stony road that led from his village to the sea. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

3. Novelists, although they do not much like one to say so, are terribly conventional, especially when they write about men. — E M DELAFIELD.

But there are sentences in which the pronoun precedes its ante-cedent.

1. We see also into a charming, simple family life, an expression at its modern best of the old Chinese family, which has stood for centuries, as the basis of the world's most lasting civilization. — PEARL S BUCK.

2. There, in one corner, his head resting on a window-ledge set out prettily with pink and white geraniums and a solitary rich blue gloxinia, an old man was sitting. — H E BATES.

3. When he was talking to her the newspaperman was greatly struck by the beauty of her face and hands, and he put her in touch with a noted commercial photographer who was a friend of his. — Answer.

This construction should be avoided when possible. But I do not think it a good rule always to avoid it. To take the three above-quoted sentences separately: (1) “An expression of the old Chinese family at its modern best” could be used, but then the noun “family” would be a little too far off from the relative pronoun “which”. (2) “An old man was sitting” could be used immediately after “in one corner”, but then the sentence would be more loosely constructed; to change “his” to “an old man's” and to change “an old man” to “he” would be impossible. (3) It would be correct to write “When the newspaperman was talking to her he was ...”, but the sentence seems better with the noun used in the principal clause.

(The term “principal” is occasionally used instead of the far commoner “antecedent”, no doubt owing to the fact that what the pronoun represents may occur after, not before, the pronoun.)

104. Lack of a Common-gender Third-person-singular Pronoun.It is curious that the English language has no pronoun standing for he-or-she, his-or-her, or him-or-her.

If anyone therefore is bent, for want of other occupation, on writing an autobiography, he or she will find on my list a precedent. — AUGUSTINE BIRRELL.

Here “he” or “they” might have been used instead of “he or she”. In such cases usage seems to point to the conclusions (1) that “he or she” is recommended only when the question of sex is important; (2) that “he” is recommended when the question of sex is not important (“he” may be regarded as standing for the common gender); and (3) that “they” should always be avoided because it is ungrammatical.

105. A Question of Person.“Each of you”, “many of you”, “most of us”, “some of us”, etc are, strictly speaking, in the third person. The “yourself” and “our” in the following sentences, therefore, should he changed to “himself” and “their” respectively:

1. Each of you must work that out for yourself. — The American Magazine.

2. It is no exaggeration to say that most of us use twice as much water in our baths as is necessary for cleanliness and comfort. — Answers.

It is illogical, though common, to treat “... of you” as if it were in the second person and to treat “... of us” as if it were in the first person.

Exercise 33

Correct the mistakes in the use of pronouns in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. Everybody should love their country.

2. Each of us is anxious to hear from each of you.

3. Anybody who devotes himself to the subject ought to have a copy of the book.

4. I am afraid that most of you have forgotten about your lessons.

5. Some of us lost our belongings during the storm.

6. As anybody can see for themselves, our terms are quite acceptable.

7. All of you are expected to hand in your exercises by the end of the week.

8. Thank you very much for your kindness in sending your comments to us.

9. Each of us may find ourselves famous some day.

10. Everywhere you look you can find subjects for composition.

106. Case in Pronouns.Case in pronouns is not so simple a matter as it may seem to you. You are supposed to have learnt grammar enough to have done Exercise 16 correctly. But there are certain points that you have to take care of before you can write idiomatically.

107. Objective Used as Predicate Nominative.According to grammar, the “me” in the three following sentences should be changed to “I” because the form required is the nominative, not the objective:

1. That's me. — RICHARD HUGHES.

2. It may be me next time. — EVELYN WAUGH.

3. Ethel says if she were me she wouldn't stand it. — MAY SINCLAIR.

In colloquial usage, however, “It is me”, “That is him, “if you were me”, etc. are the usual forms, and “It is I”, “That is he”, “If you were I”, etc are hardly ever said, though the former are ungrammatical and the latter are grammatical.

Incidentally, “me” is much used in colloquial English instead of “I” when the form required is not clearly the subject.

1. We've had our little differences, you and me. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

2. “What did you say?” he muttered after some time.

“Me?” said Martin. “I said nothing.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

108. Interrogative “Who” Used as Objective.According to grammar, the “who” in the two following sentences should be changed to “whom” because the form required is the objective:

1. Who do you mean? — RUBY M AYRES.

2. Who did you go out with on Wednesdays? — DYLAN THOMAS.

3. He needn't say who it was from, and she would appreciate it far more than any number of letters. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

In colloquial usage, however, the interrogative pronoun “who” is nearly always used instead of the grammatical “whom”, so that such sentences as “Whom is the letter for?” and “I don't know whom the letter is from” are hardly ever said.

In colloquial usage, there is also a tendency to use the relative pronoun “who” instead of “whom” as the objective; but the tendency is not so strong as with the interrogative pronoun and the use is still generally considered a mistake rather an idiom.[2]

109. Relative “Whom” Used as Nominative.As the form

required is used as the subject instead of the object of a verb, the “whom” in the two following sentences should be changed to “who”:

1. Irmin is resolved to discover the murderer, whom he realizes from the start is almost certainly a Jew, not an Arab. — The Times.

2. Morrison said goodbye at the moment when the Silvertons returned — two mysterious lodgers whom he was certain were the cause of Julia's fears. — Pearson's Weekly.

This use of “whom”, which is rather common in journalistic English, is quite incorrect. Compare the two following sentences:

1. He is a man whom I believe (to be) honest.

2. He is a man who I believe is honest.

110. “Whom” Used after “Than”.Whatever grammarians may have to say against the prepositional use of “than”, “than whom” is to be preferred to “than who” unless both are avoided.

111. Nominative or Objective after “But”?In such sentences as “All but ... are wrong” and “No one saw it but ...”, either the nominative or the objective may be used. It seems, however, that in writing the nominative is now the usual form though both cases are common enough in colloquial English. (Of course “he” cannot be used instead of the “him” in such a sentence as “I saw no one but him”, whether the “but” is considered a preposition or a conjunction.)

Nobody but he knew of its existence. — RUBY M AYRES.

112. A Curious Case of Agreement.Have you ever considered the grammatical construction of the idiom “it is ...” in such sentences as the following?

1. It is embarrassment that kills a man, in mind and body and soul. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. They would not, I think, have achieved it so well alone, and it is the West which has helped them. — PEARL S BUCK.

In each sentence, the relative pronoun refers to the “it”, not to the noun preceding it.

By strict grammatical analysis the “who are” in the following sentence should be changed to “that is” or “which is”:

It is all these people who are obstructing. — V S PRITCHETT. Likewise, the “have” in the following sentence should be changed to “has”:

Pedants say that football should be a game for the players without reference to the spectators, but it is the cheers of the spectators that have often decided the result of the match. — New Statesman and Nation.

As a matter of fact, either change would make the sentence unidiomatic. Usage has decided that in this construction the relative pronoun and the verb agree not with the “it” but with the noun or pronoun used as the subjective complement.[3]

Exercise 34

Correct the mistakes in the use of pronouns in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. It is a friend of mine that has written the letter for me.

2. It is I that has written the letter for my friend.

3. Here is a boy whom I hope can tell you all you want to know.

4. The man who you have mentioned is a merchant.

5. A little girl came up and asked me: “Who are you looking for?”

6. 1 told my father who I had met on my way home.

7. We have never had a quarrel, she and me.

8. It was not the farmer himself but his wife who sold me the corn.

9. One of the persons whom I had asked to call on me wrote to say that he could not come.

10. He is the only man than who I believe I run faster.

113. National, Editorial, and Generic Uses of “We”.The three following sentences illustrate the national, editorial, and generic uses of “we” respectively:

1. Why, when you lived in caves and clothed yourselves with skins we were a cultured people. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

2. Today we publish photographs of the new coinage together with an article on what is new in the designs and what is linked with the past. — The Times.

3. For instance, we often hear grown-up people complaining having to hang about a railway station and wait for a train. — G K CHESTERTON.

Two warnings: (1) The three uses must not be confused in the same sentence or context. (2) The editorial “we”, which represents the whole editorial staff, must not be used in an ordinary piece of composition signed with one name.

114. Generic Use of “You” and “Your”.The generic use of “you” has an emotional colouring because of its appeal to the person addressed.

1. Pamela was distinguished-looking, and so welt-bred that you never got through her guard; she never hurt the feelings of others or betrayed her own. — ROSE MACAULAY.

2. The very chairs were part of it — deep, luxurious chairs in which you felt that you hadn't any bones at all. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

3. You cannot have great football without cheering. — New Statesman and Nation.

4. But your poor man cannot even conceive what the necessities may be. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

5. A noise that set your teeth on edge — ELIZABETH TROOP.

This generic use of “you” occurs in such proverbs as the following:

1. You cannot eat your cake and have it.

2. You may take a horse to the water, but you can't make him drink.

115. Indefinite Use of “They”.“They” sometimes means people in general, especially in “they say”.

1. Yes. I am much better, but they say my arm is going to take a long time to get well. — RUBY M AYRES.

2. Again, they talk of sex as an appetite, like hunger. — D H LAWRENCE.

The indefinite use of “they” as illustrated in the following sentence is generally condemned.

I had been busy with a wistful reverie centring around coming to a store where they sold ice-cream. — JAMES GOULD COZZENS. (“Where ice-cream was sold” is preferred.)

“They who ...” is far less used than “those who ...” in present-day English.

116. Generic Use of “One” and “One's”.“One” often means any person or the average person. In this use “one” is referred to by “one”, “one's”, and “oneself” in present-day English, though in older English it used to be referred to by “he”, “him”, “his”, and “himself”, as is still the usual practice in Scotland and America.

1. To learn about a country while one learns its language is useful in more than one sense. — Times Literary Supplement.

2. She had been so ill that one marvelled at her daring to face the strain of a winter transatlantic crossing. — REGINALD DENHAM.

3. She has your way of understanding what one wants to say almost before one has said it. — SUSAN ERTZ.

4. I hate travelling on Boxing Day, but one must occasionally do things that one dislikes. —SAKI.

5. With this book in one's pocket one should never be at a loss for the right pronunciation. — Notes and Queries.

6. It does one good in a place like this, so far away from civilization, to exchange ideas with one's intellectual equals. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

7. On the contrary, it does no harm to remember that one has a tendency in a certain direction; then one is careful to keep a watch on oneself and not overdo it. — ANTHONY HOPE.

8. One had to do all the morning's work oneself. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

The following is an American example:

There is no word more terrifying than “I” when one must write an autobiographical sketch. For one knows that its single letter is sure later to deliver him into the power of chagrin and regret. — CALE YOUNG RICE.

The generic “one” must not be mixed up with the generic “you”. The “tells you what you know already” in the following sentence should be changed to “tells one what one knows already”:

If one has an opinion on any subject, it is of little use to read books or papers which tell you what you know already. — The Times.

The generic “one” must not be confused with the numeral pronoun “one”.

1. He spoke in the tone of one who at last allows himself to air a long-standing grievance. — W A DARLINGTON.

2. He stood in the doorway diffidently, as one not sure of his welcome. — P G WODEHOUSE.

3. The Misses Brown-Jones, even while they had admitted her talents — they were scrupulously just ladies, these — had deplored the fact that one who was after all little better than a menial should have given herself such airs. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

You may easily gather from Section 104 that it is incorrect to refer to the generic “one” by “they”, “there”, “their”, and “themselves”. Nor is it correct to refer to “anyone”, “no one”, “everybody”, etc by “one”, “one's”, and “oneself”.

There is a modern use of the generic “one”, that is, its use as a kind of disguised “I”.

“Of course,” I went on “one has read stories...”. — P G WODEHOUSE.

Though this use is fairly common in journalistic English, it had better be avoided.

Exercise 35

A.

Write sentences containing (1) the national use of “we”, (2) the generic use of “we”, (3) the generic use of “you”, (4) the indefinite use of “they”, and (5) the generic use of “one”.

B.

Correct the following sentences in the light of what you have learnt from Section 116 (some of which, however, contain no mistakes):

1. Of course one never forgets his own name.

2. One of my friends has just had his photograph taken.

3. One of my friends will soon visit the city with one's brother and sister.

4. As one is very busy at present, I am sorry I cannot go with you.

5. One of the men is missing, and his family are very anxious about him.

6. As one who has done one's best, I am very happy now.

7. One has already made up his mind to do so, but the other has yet to consult his parents.

8. I know everything about the old man; for one has lived with him these fifteen years.

9. One must take care of their health.

10. If you ask anyone to help you, speak to one politely.

117. Idiomatic Uses of “It”.The little word “it” has various idiomatic uses besides being used to refer to a noun going before.

1. It refers to the person in question.

It may be me next time. — EVELYN WAUGH.

2. It refers to a circumstance or an action mentioned in the context.

(1) I was a young, nervous new member, and he saw it. — H G WELLS.

(2) He was different; everyone noticed it. — JAMES HILTON.

(3) She looked her best, and she knew it. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

3. It is used as the subject of an impersonal verb, and refers to the weather, time, space, etc.

(1) It was so cold in the fog. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) It was very cool and fragrant on the porch. — P G WODEHOUSE.

(3) It may rain, blow, or freeze, or shine; nobody cares. — GEORGE STURT.

(4) It must be quite seven o'clock, and she had a lot to do before she started. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

(5) It was a cold night. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(6) But it's a long way to the sea? — T F POWYS.

(7) It would have been different if Elijah had been here. — H E BATES.

(8) “It says in the paper” that over two million volumes have been presented to the troops by the public. — J C SQUIRE. (“It says in the paper” is an idiomatic way of saying “The paper says”.)

(9) Had it not been for her eyes, still open and fixed upon the tree-tops, she would have said she slept. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

(10) Authors, beyond a doubt, go very long indeed when it comes to husbands in fiction. — E M DELAFIELD.

4. It is used as an indefinite object in some idioms (most of which seem to be slang or colloquialisms):

at it (occupied with some particular work, mischief, etc)

beat it (go away)

catch it (be scolded or punished)

face it out (persist boldly)

fight it out (fight until some definite result is reached)

go it (act vigorously)

have it out (settle a dispute by discussion or a personal contest)

in for it (involved in something unpleasant)

lord it over (domineer over)

make a clean breast of it (make a full confession)

make a night of it (spend a night in festivity)

put one's foot in it (make a gross mistake) (Notice the comic effect produced by “it” in such a sentence as: “He never opens his mouth but he puts his foot in it”.)

rough it (do without ordinary conveniences)

run for it (run away)

star it (figure as the centre of attraction)

There is nothing for it but to ... (One can only ...)

This indefinite use of “it” frequently follows verbs derived from nouns, as in “cab it”, “bus it”, “tram it”, “hotel it”, and “weekend it”.

5. It is used as the subject or object anticipating an infinitive.

(1) It was William's ambition to act in a play. — H E BATES.

(2) It's a very difficult thing to tell stories that children can both understand and appreciate. — SAKI.

(3) It is already a great thing to be a poet. — JAMES STEPHENS.

(4) They were old friends, and they never found it incumbent to be very conversational. — STACY AUMONIER.

(5) I think it my duty to tell you there is a great deal of dissatisfaction among the men. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

(6) And I felt it necessary to put the murderers off their guard. — E V KNOX.

6. It is used as the subject or object anticipating a gerund (which may or may not have a modifier before it). (This use is much less common than No 5. As a general rule, the infinitive denotes an idea, and the gerund denotes a fact.)

(1) Well, Mr Chang, it's a pleasure being shown all these things, I'm sure, but you won't convince me that a place like this does any real good. — JAMES HILTON.

(2) It's not much of a life running up and down stairs punching tickets. — H V MORTON.

(3) Even now it's no use trying to tell myself that I wasn't disturbed by this change in my life. — ALAN SILLITOE.

(4) It made him feel such a fool, this being in love. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

(5) It's no good my pretending I knew them or can place them, but, being a journalist, I was interested, and being also a writer of stories, I was ever on the look-out for colourful background. — MANDER ROSS.

(6) As if it was a crime my going to a vaudeville matinée with a man kind enough to notice that my husband never takes me anywhere! — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

(7) “She finds it hard work coming upstairs” she explained, as he brought in the tray with its very ordinary white cups and saucers. — The Children's Newspaper.

(8) I hope you don't find it hard taking orders from me. — SAUL BELLOW.

7. It is used as the subject anticipating a noun, or sometimes more than one noun.

(1) It has a curious history, that knife. — D H BARBER.

(2) It was deeper and blacker than ever now, that hole in his life. — ETHEL MANNIN.

(3) And how unendurable it would be to most of us, this life of theirs, abounding in crowds and in strangers, with masses of flags at their approach! — Truth.

(4) So clearly it lingered, that time of dizzy happiness, those evening strolls by the waterside, her cool voice and her gay laughter. — JAMES HILTON.

(5) She liked it a lot, this remaining fishing-boat picture. — ALAN SILLITOE.

8. It is used as the subject or object anticipating a that-clause (the “that” is sometimes omitted).

(1) For a long time it seemed certain that the gosling was on the point of death. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

(2) It is very commonly supposed, or taken for granted, that a man comes out of college with his mind hopelessly impaired. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

(3) It was then that the unfortunate incident occurred. — STACY AUMONIER.

(4) But it is as a sensitive, fragrant flower, that Berenice grows from infancy to childhood. — ELEANOR THORNE.

(5) It was while I was teaching at Illinois that I began to write poetry. — LEW SARETT.

(6) It is a pity \[that\] they did not come. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

(7) It is clear \[that\] you are determined to be disagreeable. — Punch.

(8) It was with unspeakable gratitude \[that\] she rose to go away with the policeman when he came again. — V S PRITCHETT.

(9) I take it that this is of grave disadvantage to the State; for the whole amount of first-rate matter in verse or prose is exceedingly small. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

(10) I take it \[that\] you are unable to throw any light upon the matter. — Punch.

(11) And yet Marford had given it as his opinion that the woman was not an addict and that it was only the second time that the needle had been used. — EDGAR WALLACE.

(12) It is customary for the happy pair celebrating their anniversary to let it be understood that for 25 years “we have never had a cross word.” — A P HERBERT.

9. It is used as the subject or object anticipating a noun clause not beginning with “that”.

(1) It was curious how women developed. — EDGAR WALLACE.

(2) It was strange how in a few hours he felt he could call this place home. — PEARL S BUCK.

(3) It now suddenly came to him why it was that he disliked her so much. — P G WODEHOUSE.

(4) But it is not known to the Papagoes what happened after that. — MARY HUNTER AUSTIN.

(5) It may be doubted whether the deceased uncle had ever created so much excitement while he lived. — ANTHONY HOPE.

(6) She had many times heard it said how dangerous it was to waken a sleep-walker; she had heard her mother say that the best way was to take the sleeper by the hand and gently lead her hack to bed; she was quite close to Drusilla when a sudden thought struck her. — RUBY M AYRES.

10. It is used as the antecedent to a relative pronoun separated from it by the predicate containing a noun or a pronoun as the subjective complement. For examples see Section 112.

118. Two Distinct Constructions of “It ... That”.Compare the two following sentences:

1. It is embarrassment that kills a man, in mind and body and soul. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. It was then that the unfortunate incident occurred. — STACY AUMONIER.

Both sentences contain “it ... that”, and both are emphatic constructions. (The first sentence = “Embarrassment kills a man, in mind and body and soul”. The second sentence = “The unfortunate incident occurred then”.) But the two constructions are grammatically distinct. In the first, “that” is the relative pronoun introducing an adjectival clause modifying “it”; in the second, “that” is the conjunction introducing a noun clause in apposition to “it”. In the first, what follows the verb in the principal clause is a noun or noun-equivalent; in the second, what follows the verb in the principal clause is an adverb or adverb-equivalent. In the first, “that” could almost always be replaced by “who” or “which”.

Exercise 36

Write sentences illustrating the various idiomatic uses of “it”.

119. Defining and Non-defining Relative Clauses.Before you can use relative pronouns idiomatically, you must learn to distinguish between two kinds of relative clauses: defining (or restrictive) and non-defining (or non-restrictive). The relative clause in the following sentence is a non-defining one:

The man, who was a stout, thick fellow, gave a jump in the air and turned round. — HUGH WALPOLE.

Now omit the commas after “man” and “fellow”, and the relative clause becomes a defining one.

The man who was a stout, thick fellow gave a jump in the air and turned round.

In the first sentence, the subject “man” is not defined or restricted by the clause, and needs no definition or restriction; the clause merely adds a fact or a description or an explanation, and can be removed without destroying the meaning of the antecedent. In the second sentence, the subject “man” is defined or restricted by the clause, which cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the antecedent. In the first sentence, “the man” refers to a man already particularized; he is the only man that has just been mentioned. In the second sentence, “the man” has not been particularized yet; he is one of the two or more persons that have just been mentioned.

There is no great difficulty about deciding whether a relative clause is a defining or a non-defining one. Just remove it and see whether the meaning of the antecedent is destroyed or not.

The following sentences contain defining relative clauses:

1. This was the beginning of my acquaintance with the man whom I shortly afterwards married. — ROMER WILSON.

2. Then he must belong to the minority whom you don't know. — JAMES HILTON.

3. They had no duties to those who were near and dear to them. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

4. She had been all that makes woman wonderful. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

5. All that she knew was that she liked them and they liked her. — E V LUCAS.

6. He was standing before her with the happy look of a man to whom happiness is something strange and new. — ANTHONY HOPE.

7. There was accommodation for a good number of commercial travellers in the hotel I stayed in, but they were not there. — J B PRIESTLEY.

8. The things they had not said and could not say — they could say them now! — NAOMI MITCHISON.

9. What is it they want to tell me? — ARNOLD BENNETT.

10. The first is to choose something you think they would like; the second, something you would like yourself; the third, something you think they ought to have. — Punch.

In the following sentence there is a defining relative clause within another defining relative clause (one introduced by “which” and the other introduced by “who”).

This is a change which only those who knew Mrs Buck on her first visit here can really appreciate. — World-Telegram.

In each of the two following sentences there are two defining clauses, the second defining the noun (“nobody” and “questions”) as already defined by the first:

1. And there is nobody on earth who knew him that did not love him. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

2. There were questions she wanted to ask him which her tongue refused to frame. — EDGAR WALLACE.

In each of the following sentences the relative clause is a defining one although it is preceded by a comma, which is used because there is a parenthetic word or phrase or clause before it:

1. And there were other things, occasionally, that were serious. — JAMES HILTON.

2. A civilization, today common to the whole world, that allows such crimes to proceed unchecked deserves to perish, and inevitably will. — Spectator.

3. It was just the sort of place, he reflected whimsically, which his aunt had loved to write about in her books. — P G WODEHOUSE.

The following sentences contain non-defining relative clauses:

1. He saluted Roger, who leant on a gate, staring uphill towards the house. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. With one hand he shielded his eyes from the sun, with the other he dug about in the hot dry sand, which slipped through his fingers like some sort of tangible air. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

3. But poetry, which I had really begun to read for the first time, was a still stronger lure. — CALE YOUNG RICE.

4. This was far more satisfactory, and Mr Dowdall beamed as he passed the letter to his wife, who beamed again as he handed it back. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

5. Mallinson, who had watched the incident, was only partly satisfied. — JAMES HILTON.

6. Mary, the maid of all work, who trudged two miles every morning to help the farmer's wife, was hanging out clothes to dry. — L A G STRONG.

7. It was a strange experience for the rest of us, who stood and watched them. — H M TOMLINSON.

8. Take my cane — which is in that corner — and kill the reptile. — H A VACHELL.

9. And then Gwen, who had been speechless, burst into laughter and interrupted her father at the door. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

10. They stared blankly at the house, whose form was clearly revealed in the misty moonlight, but none of whose windows showed the slightest glimmer of light. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

11. Even more than our parents, whose work took them daily to New York, it was our seventy-year-old grandmother who ruled this precarious ménage. — SEYMOUR FREEDGOOD. (the relative clause “who rules this precarious ménage” is a defining one.)

12. Mrs Wilmington, who as for as she knew had not used the phone for months, with trepidation sought the number of a hairdresser. — MAEVE GILMORE.

In the following sentence a non-defining relative clause follows a defining one (the defining one introduced by “that” and the non-defining one introduced by “which”):

But this wasn't the only reason for her happiness; there was another that gave Mrs Moggs pleasure, which was that the postmaster had apparently forgotten the village. — T F POWYS.

Note that there is a comma before the non-defining clause, and that “which” refers to the same word as “that” (“another”), not to “pleasure”.

Exercise 37

Point out the defining and non-defining relative clauses in the following sentences:

1. He watched Leslie Fawcett, whose face was so like hers, and old Mr Laramie, who had won the beauty of her time, and an old uncle Fawcett, who had fought in Africa, sixty years before. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. For short distances the speeds at which we now travel are quite adequate. — Listener.

3. It shuts a man off even from enjoying the things that money can buy. — New Statesman and Nation.

4. Bray, who had searched the yard, came back with his report. — EDGAR WALLACE.

5. I know that for a long time I tried hard to see anything in her that would tarnish the image I had formed of her. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

6. The centre of Newcastle, into which we had now landed, has a certain sombre dignity. — J B PRIESTLEY.

7. Do you think it is necessary to do all you did? — PEARL S BUCK.

8. No one else we saw listened for a moment. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

9. Two students had shot one another by mutual arrangement; it was a case of a Suicide Pact, by no means an uncommon thing in the world into which she had grown up. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

10. People don't trouble to talk about things that have no significance. — Truth.

11. It was kept in one of the sheds at the back of the house — sheds which did not belong to the Armstrongs but to the smallholder who rented the steading. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

12. The pleasure politicians take in their limelight pleases me with a sort or pleasure I get when I see a child's eyes gleam over a new toy. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

13. The Chargé d'Affaires of Montenegro, who flattered himself that he was the best dressed man in the diplomatic body, but was not quite sure whether the first secretary of the British Legation thought him so, fluttered up to ask his candid opinion of the frilled shirt he wore. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

14. Miss Murray was sitting reading in the little bar parlour, which is typical of all old English inn parlours of the eighteenth century. — H V MORTON.

15. The place was an endless pleasure to him, who to the last preserved his power of taking interest, not only in great, but in little things. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

16. Those people who are for ever telling of the efficiency of aircraft make a great point of the successes achieved by these bombers, but there are some points that need considerations. — Horse and Hound.

17. The book in my hand was a third edition of her latest novel, and at the end of it were numerous press-notices, at which I glanced for confirmation. — MAX BEERBOHM.

18. But I mustn't dwell on the days that followed — the long, quiet days of lazy dreaming on the raft, during which I slowly built up my strength, which had been shattered by privation. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

19. Among the many living forms of human speech, and those countless others which, have arisen and perished in the past, the English language, which has now spread over so large a portion of the world, is as humble and obscure in its origin as any other. — LOGAN PEARSALL SMITH.

20. However, it appeared that he was awake and quite conscious of the things he was saying. — A A MILNE.

21. The forts, which were extremely expensive and quite useless, occupied his working hours; his leisure he devoted to acts of charity and to religious contemplation. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

22. There is a story that he was in the habit of reading his poems to an old peasant woman and altering any expression which she could not understand. — ARTHUR WALEY.

23. The utmost you can do is to try to make the pupil sensitive to words. — CHRISTOPHER MORLEY.

24. I opened the first volume that came to my hand. — ALDOUS HUXLEY.

25. She fought against his fascination, the fascination he exerted over her. — D H LAWRENCE.

26. Whitman, who was to influence future generations so profoundly in Europe as well as in America, had already appeared. — LOUIS UNTERMEYER.

27. Most of the views he formed at this period remained unchanged throughout his life. — K ELIZABETH MURRAY.

28. It is interesting to compare these two Anglo-Irish writers, who never lose an opportunity of reviling Ireland and of working rebelliously for her interests as against those of England. — ERNEST BOYD.

29. And the poet who is aware of this will be aware of great difficulties and responsibilities. — T S ELIOT.

30. But certainly, in addition to all this, meter has another function, on which I shall touch in a minute or two. — LASCELLES ABERCROMBIE.

120. The Relative Pronouns “Who”, “Which”, and “That”.As you must have learnt from lessons in grammar, “who(m)” is of the masculine and feminine genders, “which” is of the neuter gender, and “that” is of all genders. Before I give any further rules, I have to point out that according to present-day usage, while all three words are used in defining clauses, “that” is not commonly used in non-defining clauses. The “that” in each of the four following sentences had better be changed to “which”:

1. The War, that had wounded her so deeply where she was most vulnerable, was kind to her in little things. — R H MOTTRAM.

2, Here a railway whistle made a thin bar of sound somewhere out under the low moon, that had now lifted herself clear of the haze. — E CE SOMERVILLE & MARTIN ROSS.

3. She kept telling herself that she would give him a good scolding and beating when he came in, but at the same time her heart was thumping with anxiety and she started at every sound, rushing out to the door and looking down the winding road, that was now dim with the shadows of evening. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

4. Nancy was wearing her white drill frock with no jewels at all except the emerald cross, that shone like green leaves on snow. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

Dismissing “that” as being unidiomatic in non-defining clauses, we have only “who” and “which” to choose between in such clauses — which is doubtless easy enough for you to do. We shall now be concerned with defining clauses only.

If I call “that” unidiomatic in non-defining clauses, it does not follow that “who(m)” and “which” are unidiomatic in defining clauses. In fact, all three relative pronouns are used in defining clauses, and it is very difficult to draw any distinction between “that” and “who(m)” or “that” and “which” that is consistently supported by usage. All that I can do is to give a few simple rules.

1. As “that” cannot be preceded by a preposition, “which” or “whom” is used when a preposition is needed before a relative pronoun.

(1) It seemed more and more advisable to the writer to get together maps and notes, read rather systematically than he had hitherto done, and clear up for himself a number of historical issues upon which he was still extremely vague. — H G WELLS.

(2) The conversation, it appeared, had been carried on chiefly in French, a language with which Mr Stewart was perfectly acquainted, and which he spoke not only elegantly, but, what is better, intelligently. — E F BENSON.

(3) He is never called in to a murder case at all, and indeed the only cases of which much notice is taken in the book are confinement cases. — E M DELAFIELD.

(4) Here at last was the thrill for which everybody had been hoping. — W A DARLINGTON.

(5) It had been decided, it appears, to build a school on a certain desirable spot which the doctor had hit upon, and in a crowded Chinese city it is never very easy to find building land, but when the mission, after much bargaining, had eventually bought this, the discovery was made that the owner was not the Chinese with whom the negotiations had been conducted, but the doctor himself. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(6) And the man from whom I got it told me that on the strict Q. T. it came from the cellars at Windsor Castle. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

If “that” were used instead, it would have to go at the beginning of the clause, as in:

(1) ... historical issues that he was still extremely vague upon.

(2) ... a language that Mr Stewart was perfectly acquainted with ...

(3) ... cases that much notice is taken of in the book ...

(4) ... the thrill that everybody had been hoping for.

(5) ... the Chinese that the negotiations had been conducted with ...

(6) ... the man that I got it from ...

But, as you can see, this construction is often far from natural, especially in long clauses. Besides, there are certain prepositions that are very seldom or not at all used at the end of a clause; among these may be mentioned “besides”, “beyond”, “concerning”, “regarding”, and “round”.

When a preposition forms a more or less fixed phrase with one or more words preceding it, it is usually placed at the end of the clause no matter what relative pronoun is used.

(1) He had a trick, which often exasperated his acquaintances, of declaring that he had “never heard” of things that everybody else was very well aware of. — EDMUND GOSSE.

(2) She gave us a look through her eyeglass which even the fear of Mrs Tower's wrath could not prevent me from laughing at. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(3) When Tim went back to France she contrived to fill her days with those little details that are all lonely women have to fall back upon. — J B MORTON. (Here the relative pronoun is omitted after “all”. In colloquial usage the relative pronoun “that” in the first sentence and the relative pronoun “which” in the second sentence would usually be omitted.)

Among such more or less fixed phrases may be mentioned “come across”, “do without”, “fall in love with”, “make use of”, and “take care of”.

2. Euphony demands that “that which” should be preferred to “that that”.

Into the presence of their God also, without that which passes for a hat, they do not go. — MARY HUNTER AUSTIN.

3. “Those who” and “all who” are always used rather than “those that” and “all that”.

(1) I understand the attitude of those who objected to my beliefs and writings. — World-Telegram.

(2) Do you believe that it is possible for a malign influence to envelop a place, and work a spell on all who come within its radius? — P G WODEHOUSE.

4. “That” is to be preferred to “which” with the antecedent “it”.

It is the weapon in our hands that finally destroys us. — MELVILLE DAVISSON POST.

5. “That” is to be preferred to “which” after a superlative or other word of exclusive or comprehensive meaning, such as “only” or “all”.

(1) We have here probably the most remarkable book that has ever been devoted to the art of expression in English. — Observer.

(2) Now, if you will think of it, railways are the only institutions that give us that advantage. —HILAIRE BELLOC.

(3) We are losing our hold, on all that is most precious. — E V LUCAS.

(4) Fortunately the weather kept fine, the conditions indeed being all that could be desired. — A A MILNE.

(5) There was no social function, no town council, no committee of importance that was not driven to meet at “The Love-a-duck”. — STACY AUMONIER.

6. “That” is less applied to persons than to things; it is unnatural except in cases in which the antecedent is “it”, or has attached to it a superlative or other word of exclusive meaning, or is the interrogative pronoun “who” or “which”, and in such idiomatic constructions as “fool that I was” and “Mrs Brown, Miss Johnson that was”.

Each of the following proverbs has the relative pronoun “that”:

(1) He that promises too much means nothing.

(2) He that respects not is not respected.

(3) He that seeks trouble never misses.

(4) He that will not be counselled cannot be helped.

(5) He is happy that thinks himself so.

(6) He is idle that might be better employed.

(7) He cannot speak well that cannot hold his tongue.

(8) He laughs best that laughs last.

Exercise 38

Fill each blank in the following sentences with “who(m)”, “which”, or “that”:

1. These are the only books ________________ have been left after the fire.

2 . My brother, ________________ is a good scholar, keeps a diary in English.

3. Who ________________ has ever seen him does not like him?

4. All ________________ have heard her sing call her a genius.

5. The audience were completely absorbed in the play, ________________ was acted in a perfectly satisfactory manner.

6. Can you tell me anything about the man ________________ was sitting here all the morning?

7. He has three daughters ________________ are married.

8. He has three daughters, ________________ are married.

9. I spoke to all I met ________________ I found to be From North China.

10. I spoke to all I met, ________________ I found to be from North China.

11. Is she the girl ________________ you spoke of yesterday?

12. This is the best book of its kind ________________ has yet appeared this year.

13. As she is convalescing, she has plenty of spare time, part of ________________ she spends in knitting.

14. Hundreds of newspapers and magazines require good articles for every issue ________________ they produce.

15. Nobody ________________ I have ever talked to could tell me so much about the mountain you write about.

16. Please inquire of the first man ________________ you meet.

17. Knock at the first door to ________________ you come.

18. Knock at the first door, ________________ you will find open.

19. I did not see the mistake, fool ________________ I was.

20. I wish to thank you for your kind help, ________________ I do not think I could have received from anybody else, though I have quite a few friends ________________ are always ready to help me.

121. Three Points of Choice between “Who(m)” and “Which”.

1. As I have said in Section 74, there are a number of nouns that are singular when a single entity is meant and plural when the individuals composing it are meant. Now an entity is a thing, and the individuals are persons. The former should be referred to by “which”, and the latter by “who(m)”. See the sentence quoted about “company” in Section 74.

2. An animal is often referred to by “which” even when it is treated as masculine or feminine in the context. See the quotation from Arthur Mee in Section 85.

3. A ship or a boat is always referred to by “which” though it is commonly treated as feminine. See the quotation from Edgar Rice Burroughs in Section 87.

122. Two Relative Clauses Linked by “And” or “But”.Two defining relative clauses may be linked by “and” or “but”, and so may two non-defining ones, but a defining and a non-defining must not. Of the three following sentences, the first is correct because both its clauses are defining, the second is correct because both its clauses are non-defining, and the third is incorrect because its first clause is defining but its second is non-defining:

1. In fact, it became their regular practice, a sport to which they all looked forward, and on which bets were laid. — DESMOND MAC-CARTHY.

2. Before we can understand the qualities of Christianity, which must now play a large part in our history, and which opened men's eyes to fresh aspects of the possibility of a unified world, we must go back some centuries and tell of the condition of affairs in Palestine and Syria, in which countries Christianity arose. — H G WELLS.

3. From doing this they were prevented by the disgraceful scene which took place, and which the leader of the Opposition took no steps to avert. — The Times.

The second clause in the third sentence is non-defining because it is not, as it seems to be, intended to distinguish the “scene” from those that the leader of the Opposition did take steps to avert. Thesentence may be corrected by merely omitting the “and”, but it may be improved by not only omitting the “and” but also changing the first “which” to “that”.

If “and” were inserted before the “which” in the following sentence, there would be the same kind of mistake as that contained in the third sentence quoted above.

But this wasn't the only reason for her happiness; there was another that gave Mrs Moggs pleasure, which was that the postmaster had apparently forgotten the village. — T F POWYS.

It need hardly be said that while it is possible to make the mistake of writing a defining clause followed by a non-defining one linked with it by “and” or “but”, it is impossible to make the mistake of writing a non-defining clause followed by a defining one linked with it by “and” or “but”.

123. Omission of Relative Pronouns.It is in defining clauses only that the relative pronoun may be omitted. To omit it in any non-defining clause would be a very bad mistake.

A relative pronoun omitted is usually in the objective case.

1. Well, look at the Nature novels ∧ we get. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

2. However, it is facts ∧ I am asked for. — GERALD BULLETT.

3. It's a very good deal ∧ they're offering you. — JOSEPH HELLER.

4. Thus the argument followed the course ∧ it had taken earlier in the morning, this time without any pacific restraints from Nurse. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

5. That picture, cut out of the magazine and pasted on the wall opposite his bed, was the last thing ∧ he saw at night and the first thing ∧ he saw on waking. — ETHEL MANNIN.

It must not be supposed, however, that a relative pronoun omitted must be in the objective case.

A relative pronoun in the nominative case is often omitted:

1. As the subjective complement.

(1) You said he was everything ∧ a man should be. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

(2) This shows you the kind of aunt ∧ Miss Patterson was. — E V LUCAS.

(3) Marriage, alas, was not all ∧ it might be; his wife and his mother quarrelled unendingly. — A E COPPARD.

(4) But college is not the universal Athens ∧ I thought it was. — HELEN KELLER.

(5) It seemed to her impossible that any being so full of charm and courtesy could be the hard-headed egotist ∧ Julian was represented to be. — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

2. As the subject of a clause subordinate to one containing “there is”, it is”, etc.

(1) There aren't many men in England ∧ can say that they've caught fish from their bath room window. — WILLIAM PLOMER.

(2) Now it would be some fresh insect ∧ won its way to a temporary fatal new development. — H G WELLS.

In ordinary prose this omission of a relative pronoun is not so common as it used to be.

3. As the subject of “there is”, “there are”, etc.

(1) But we didn't mix much with the ghosts at any time, all except an idiot lad ∧ there was in the village, and he didn't know the difference between a man and a ghost, poor innocent! — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

(2) His father wanted to solve all the problems ∧ there were in the world, and then some. — ELIZABETH TROOP. (“And then some” means and plenty more than that, originally American.)

The omission of the relative pronoun in the following sentence is rather unusual, though not uncommon today; the authors have omitted it probably because they thought it was in the objective case (see Section 109):

1. Her method of teaching was to ask the printed questions from the quarterly and look sternly over its edge at the particular little girl ∧ she thought ought to answer the question. — L M MONTGOMERY.

2. Grace would look up things ∧ she thought would take his interest. — NORMAN MAILER.

Exercise 39

Write ten sentences in which two relative clauses are linked by “and” or “but”, and ten sentences in which the relative pronoun is omitted.

124. “Which” without Definite Antecedent.The relative pronoun “which” is very often used without a definite antecedent, referring vaguely to the preceding phrase or clause or rather its idea. In this use it is always singular and the clause it introduces is always a non-defining one.

1. He took an aspirin tablet to soothe his nerves, which was a proceeding so unusual with him that Margaret, in mild alarm, forwent her reading and turned out the light at once. — W A DARLINGTON.

2. Louisa must have turned him out as usual, and the servants have forgotten to let him in again, which was careless of them. — F ANSTEY.

3. He replied that it was to be very informal, which was reassuring. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

4. At the end of the day's work I told my crew that they were showing improvement already (which was not true), and that all they wanted was plenty of hard work and practice (which was approximately correct). — IAN HAY.

5. And if Americans lack style it is partly because they have been taught for a generation that good writing is clear writing, which is true, and that clear writing must be excellent writing, which is false. — HENRY SEIDEL CANBY.

6. In other words I succeeded in making the best of things, which as much as anything else means eating a good meal at the canteen every midday. — ALAN SILLITOE.

In this use “which” is sometimes placed at the beginning of a sentence, referring vaguely to what is said in the preceding sentence and starting a new one. It is often slightly humorous.

1. So I said: “Because it isn't in him. He's a bounder and a rotter”. Which was true. — MAY SINCLAIR.

2. From Paris he telephoned the friend of his youth, one Harry Palk, instructing that chronic reveller in the turn of events, and calling on him to relinquish forthwith the flat and domestic staff in Half-Moon Street; such premises being kept warm (very warm at times) by the aforesaid Harry Palk during Hugo's absence. After which Hugo crossed the Channel, and this story, more or less, begins. — SELDON TRUSS.

“Which” is sometimes placed even at the beginning of a paragraph.

Young Mr Martin Dicksee, a great-limbed, blue-eyed, rough-haired games expert, reassured Flimsy that in his case this was no mere passing flirtation, which statement he illustrated by crushing such portions of the young lady as may legitimately be crushed at this stage of the proceedings.

At which she, a sparkling little vixen with mischievous dark eyes and a boyish shingle, said “I simply must go in”, and resumed a semi-recumbent attitude in the summer-house. — BEN TRAVERS.

In the two following sentences the relative pronoun “which” refers apparently to the nouns “woman” and “tomboy” but really to the idea of being “a woman of narrow experience and rigid conscience” and that of being a tomboy; “who” would be quite grammatical, but far less idiomatic:

1. She looked like a woman of narrow experience and rigid conscience, which she was; but there was a saving something about her mouth which, if it had been ever so slightly developed, might have been considered indicative of a sense of humour. — L M MONTGOMERY.

2. The tomboy in her, which was big, seemed loath to be put away for ever in skirts. — WILLIAM ALLEN WHITE.

125. “As” as Relative Pronoun.As you no doubt know, “as” is used as a relative pronoun after “such”, “the same”, or “as”.

1. Strive as he would, I-wan could never win such praise from the elderly English lady who taught them as was given to En-lan. — PEARL S BUCK.

2. I understand, Mr Chipping, that your Latin and Greek lessons are exactly the same as they were when I began here ten years ago? — JAMES HILTON.

3. Every summer we went to a seaside as wild and cold as could be. — ROMER WILSON. (In this sentence, “as could be” must be regarded as = “as a seaside” or “seasides could be” or = “as the degree of being wild and cold could be.”)

In this use “as” may be either singular or plural, but the clause it introduces is always a defining one. Now there is another pronominal use of “as”, in which it is always singular and always introduces a non-defining clause, and refers vaguely to a verbal notion or an idea to be gathered from the sentence instead of having a definite antecedent.

1. She put her long and elegant hands on his shoulders, as was her wont each evening, and kissed him on both cheeks in her French fashion. —ARNOLD BENNETT.

2. He had had a fit, as had happened once before, and the screams I had heard had been his. — F ANSTEY.

3. As had happened so many times, Lamin's question embarrassed him into finding out more. — ALEX HALEY.

4. Gerda slept, lying very straight and still, as was her habit in sleep. — ROSE MACAULAY.

5. Mr Stewart, as has been indicated before, had a weakness, and that was an amiable and harmless one. — E F BENSON.

6. As was only natural, the conversation turned cheerfully and lightly upon goats in general, and particularly upon the goat in the room. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

7. As was usual throughout French Flanders, the British army had burnt every piece of wood upon the farm. — R H MOTTRAM.

When this “as” is used as the object instead of the subject, it looks like a conjunction, but is still a relative pronoun.

1. The marks of the shoes stretch in a long line, as you will observe, from a point close to the tree almost to the edge of the tennislawn. — E V KNOX.

2. As I had anticipated, the Hindu was absorbed into the household with a minimum of fuss. — SEYMOOR FREEDGOOD.

3. Though all he had named were slaves, he said, they were all respected people, as Kunta well knew. — ALEX HALEY.

As you must have noticed, the clause introduced by the relative pronoun “as” often precedes the principal clause.

It is a common mistake to use “it” after “as” and make the latter a conjunction when it ought to be treated as a relative pronoun used in the nominative case, as in:

1. She put her long and elegant hands on his shoulders, as it was her wont each evening, and kissed him on both cheeks in her French fashion.

2. He had had a fit, as it had happened once before, and the screams I had heard had been his.

Both these sentences are incorrect.

126. “Who” as Indefinite Relative Pronoun.“Who” used as an indefinite relative pronoun in the sense of “whoever” is no longer common in ordinary prose, but is not unknown.

It was a huge thing, hewn of a great tree of iron-wood, and it crowded the small room, so that who came and went must circle and press about it. — PEARL S BUCK.

127. “What” Preceding Statement.The relative pronoun “what” is sometimes used in such a way as to refer vaguely to the statement that follows.

1. What is more important. Europe owes to Germany such European sense of the importance of thought and dramatic poetry and the value of lives devoted to them. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

2. It was a good reading-book and what's more it belonged to the library. — ALAN SILLITOE.

Exercise 40

Write ten sentences in which the relative pronoun “which” is used without a definite antecedent, ten sentences in which the relative pronoun “as” is used without a definite antecedent, and five sentences in which the relative pronoun “what” precedes a statement.

128. “One Another” and “Each Other”.The distinction is insisted upon by some grammarians that “one another” should be used only of more than two persons or things and “each other” should be used only of two persons or things. This distinction is indeed harmless. But it is not supported by usage, and is therefore quite unnecessary. Each of the following sentences contains “one another” used of two:

1. During the siege and those two days afterwards we told one another, she and I, that these bad times would pass. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

2. The two missionaries said goodbye to one another. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

3. They sat, he and the woman, as though silently challenging one another. — H E BATES.

4. Your father and mother have always been friends with one another and with you. — ROSE MACAULAY.

5. We looked at one another — the old bookseller and I — in silence. — ALDOUS HUXLEY.

6. The pastor looked farther away, to where the sea and sky met one another. — T F POWYS.

Each of the following sentences contains “each other” used of more than two:

1. We three just sat down behind that hedge and looked at each other like waxworks. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

2. Once there were three men who loved each other dearly in their foolish fashion, and were neighbours who demanded little but steady companionship, tobacco, and something in a glass. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

3. That made me suspect that the three men were in league with each other, but I had to wait and see what their game was before I could do anything. — Answers.

In the following sentence both “each other” and “one another” are used of two:

Arnold and I fell in love with each other on this voyage: we had time to talk, time to get to know one another's minds, time to do more than make love; and losing him physically no longer seemed the worst thing that would happen when we reached home. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

Exercise 41

Write five sentences with “one another” and five sentences with “each other”.

129. Adjectives Used as Nouns.An adjective preceded by “the” may be used as a noun expressing an abstract idea.

1. I think it gives me an instinctive love of the beautiful. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. It is the last refuge of those who want to believe the incredible. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

Each of the idiomatic phrases illustrated in the following sentences contains “the” and an adjective used in this way:

1. She was on the alert, as if listening for something. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

2. The ordinary Englishman or woman touring the dominions is resolved to do it on the cheap. — Time and Tide.

3. His career was somewhat out of the common. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

4. Would you not conclude that both the novel and the novelist were very much out of the ordinary. — WILLIAM PLOMER.

5. He was teaching me for three years on the sly. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

In this use the noun is of course singular. Otherwise it is rare for an adjective to be used as a singular noun.

1. The sinister influence of the defunct then had been complete! — LEONARD MERRICK.

2. To my idea, that man or woman is not honouring, but dishonouring, the memory of the departed; society suffers, the individual suffers, and no earthly or heavenly good is achieved. —ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. Every one of them had a bitter grudge against the deceased. — E V KNOX.

4. A little time — in which to ward off the inevitable — was all she craved. — RUBY M AYRES.

5. You scientists take such a long view of events that it needs simple souls like ourselves to open your eyes to the obvious on occasion. — PETER USTINOV.

Among other examples may be mentioned “the Almighty” and “the accused”. “Deceased” and “accused” are indeed participles rather than adjectives, but they may be considered participles used as adjectives and then as nouns.

It is very common, however, for an adjective to be used as a plural noun denoting a whole class of persons.

1. There was less misery among the poor. — SUSAN ERTZ.

2. But what about the sick? — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

3. It gave government to the rich, and imagined that wise men could be bought and bargained for in the slave markets when they were needed. — H G WELLS.

4. We sympathize with the unemployed instead of criticizing them. — Listener.

5. He possesses the magnificent calm which was held in my youth to distinguish the well-bred. —MORLEY ROBERTS.

6. She could only regard the frenzy of this dark, emotional girl with the imaginative pity of the seeing for the blind. — BEN TRAVERS. “Unemployed” and “seeing” are similar to “deceased” and “accused” in being participles used as adjectives and then as nouns.

You must have noticed that all the examples I have given of adjectives used as nouns are preceded by “the”. The “the” can be omitted (1) when the adjective is so commonly used as a noun that it is almost an ordinary noun, or (2) when two adjectives are used as nouns correlatively.

1. That is why industry always presents an irreducible margin of \[the\] unemployed. — The Children's Newspaper.

2. It will look on a new garden, which, having once been won for \[the\] young and \[the\] old, will surely be extended by the citizens who are young now. —The Children's Newspaper.

Exercise 42

Write ten sentences each with an adjective used as a noun.

130. Exact Senses of Adjectives.Correct English depends much upon the correct use of adjectives. Many adjectives, however, are apt to be misused because their exact senses are so difficult to express in Han that their so-called Han equivalents are very misleading. Take the common adjective “difficult”. I have just said “their exact senses are so difficult to express in Han”. It is the exact senses that are difficult to express in Han. We can also say “It is difficult to express the exact senses in Han”. But we cannot say “We are difficult to express the exact senses in Han” or “We are difficult in expressing the exact senses in Han”. “We are difficult” means “We are hard to deal with, or not easily convinced, pleased, or satisfied”.

Many adjectives have two quite different senses. For example, “comfortable” has two different senses in “I feel comfortable in my comfortable chair”, in which the adjective first means provided with comfort and then means affording comfort.

It does not seem to be of much help to classify adjectives, or rather their senses, as active and passive; for the same sense may often be called either active or passive. The sense of provided with comfort may indeed be called passive; but the same sense may also be explained as enjoying comfort and therefore be called active, so that the adjective “comfortable” in both “a comfortable chair” and “I feel comfortable” may be called active, though it has different senses.

Exercise 43

A.

Look up the following pairs of adjectives in one or more dictionaries and write a sentence to illustrate each word:

contemptible, contemptuous. desirable, desirous. imaginary, imaginative. laudable, laudatory. regrettable, regretful. respectable, respectful. tired, tiresome.

B.

Look up the following adjectives in one or more dictionaries and write a sentence to illustrate each sense:

advisable, affectionate, anxious, ashamed, cheerful, cheery, clever, convenient, dangerous, dear, delightful, dreadful, eager, easy, essential, familiar, favourable, favourite, fearful, fit, fortunate, full, glad, happy, healthful, healthy, helpful, helpless, horrible, interesting, invaluable, learned, likely, lucky, necessary, nice, painful, piteous, pitiable, pitiful, pleasant, possible, probable, proud, satisfactory, shameful, shameless, strange, tedious, terrible, troublesome, useful, valuable, wonderful.

131. A Curious Point about Comparatives.It is interesting to note that a comparative form sometimes expresses not a greater degree of the quality denoted by the positive form but a less degree of the quality denoted by the word opposite in meaning. The word “better” in “I am better today”, for example, expresses not a greater degree of being well but a less degree of being unwell (in fact, when one is “better”, one is really worse than when one is “well”). The title “Shorter Oxford English Dictionary” affords another example: it does not mean that the dictionary is shorter than some “short” dictionary, but that it is less long or shorter than the “long” Oxford English Dictionary, from which it is abridged. I may as well give a similar example about “longer”. There is in Everyman's Library a book called “The Golden Treasury of Longer Poems”, selected and edited by Ernest Rhys. It contains poems that are not longer than any “long” poems but are less short or longer than ordinary short poems.

132. Two Curious Uses of Superlatives.As you must know, the comparative degree is used in comparing two persons or things, and the superlative degree is used in comparing more than two. It is not very uncommon, however, to use the superlative in comparing two, especially in colloquial English.

1. As he looked, two heads appeared one after another in neighbouring windows half-way up the tower. The highest was that of a girl with dark, bushy, shingled hair; the lowest that of a young man whose face and hair seemed equally the colour of white bread crust. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

2. Yes, my dear critics, you are wrong, and ladies and gentlemen, I leave it to you which is the most cruel. These critics say I am cruel, and that may be so, but when you strip life — its naked flesh should not make you squint. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

3. There were moments during my reading of this frank and courageous confession when she was so very human and impulsive and altogether reckless of public opinion that I knew not which to admire most, her courage in being herself or her skill in merciless self-analysis. — Sphere.

In this connection may be mentioned the idiomatic phrase “put one's best foot (or leg) foremost”, a person of course having only two feet or legs.

Besides this use of the superlative in comparing two persons or things, there is a curious use as illustrated in the following sentence:

Latin at any rate should be an essential ingredient in culture as the best instrument of any language for clear and accurate expression of thought. — The Times.

This well-established yet illogical construction may be avoided by either using a comparative instead of a superlative or writing “of all”:

1. ... as a better instrument than any other language ...

2. ... as the best instrument of all languages ...

133. “A Most” Followed by Adjective.“A most” followed by an adjective is idiomatically used in the sense of a very ... This is not the real superlative but rather a free use of the superlative.

1. He has, in short, all the essentials for the portrait of a most interesting and unusual young man. — ETHEL MANNIN.

2. A most extraordinary and bewildering business! — JAMES HILTON.

3. This has been a most interesting day. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. The article has a most sentimental value to him. — Listener.

5. It was a most uncomfortable vehicle. — J B PRIESTLEY.

This use of “most” occasionally occurs with plural nouns, as in “They're most warm and generous people”. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

Compare the three following sentences:

Zhao, Qian, Sun, and Li are the most interesting men in this village.

Zhao, Qian, Sun, and Li are most (= very) interesting men in this village.

Most (of the) middle-aged men in this village are farmers.

“Most” followed by an adjective and used in the predicate in the sense of very is not very uncommon, but much less common than “a most ...”.

1. He was most tender and sensitive to all. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

2. John was most upset. — H V MORTON.

3. They have been most kind; they have done all they could. — RUBY M AYRES.

4. His vast experience of women will be most useful. — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

Exercise 44

Write ten sentences each with “a most” followed by an adjective.

134. “Worth” Taking an Object.“Worth” is a very common but very curious adjective. It requires what is most easily described as an object. “This is worth” is meaningless; “This is worth five yuan” is quite idiomatic, the “yuan” being most easily regarded as the object of the adjective.

1. An ounce of help is worth a pound of talk. — Answers.

2. It did not occur to him that the sufferings of its inhabitants, deprived of sleep, meditation, and rational conversation, are worth a thought. — G S STREET.

3. For what it is worth, here it is. — ROBERT GRAVES.

A very common construction is “worth” followed by a gerund, which is always in the active voice, though the meaning is passive.

1. And the most comic things of all are exactly the things that are most worth doing — such as making love. — G K CHESTERTON.

2. But, tiresome as it sometimes was, this irritable humour seldom cost Lang a friend who was worth preserving. — EDMUND GOSSE.

3. There is an art also in the sharpening of the scythe, and it is worth describing carefully. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

4. It would be worth trying. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

5. The book, if you can get it, is worth reading, not only for its curiosity, but for its beauty and its charm. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

6. Apart from this kind of technical training, there are probably only two subjects worth knowing anything about, physiology and psychology. — ETHEL MANNIN.

I have just said “A very common construction is ‘worth’ following by a gerund, which is always in the active form, though the meaning is passive.” and given six examples. I have found the passive form used very rarely; as in “It was as if they were accustomed to being looked at, and were worth being looked at”. — NORMAN MAILER. No doubt the author would have used “worth looking at” instead if he had not been led astray by the “accustomed to being looked at” going before. But I have said so merely to account for the expression, not to justify it. Well-known American author as he is, I cannot help calling his “worth being looked at” a careless mistake.

135. “The Matter”.“The matter” is a curious phrase. Though it consists of a noun preceded by the article “the”, and the phrase might be explained as the thing that is not such as it should be, it is used as an adjectival phrase, meaning amiss. It is usually followed by the preposition “with”.

1. Something was the matter with his eyes. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. What's the matter with you two children? — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

3. Well, the sea gave you nothing of that, and seemed to pretend that there was nothing the matter with the world. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

4. He was getting on in years (but not ill, of course); indeed, as Doctor Merivale said, there was really nothing the matter with him. — JAMES HILTON.

5. Do you know what's really the matter with old Addie today? — EUDORA WELTY.

Note that in the following sentence “what was the matter” is used instead of “what the matter was”, the latter expression being far less idiomatic in the sense concerned:

I asked my fair partner what was the matter. — IAN HAY.

136. “Nothing Much”.“Nothing much” is a common phrase in present-day English. It means very little. Grammatically, the adjective “much” modifies the noun “nothing”.

1. Oh, nothing much; it's just her way. — ANTHONY HOPE.

2. Nothing much grew in it, except two apple trees. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

3. There's nothing much I don't know about them. — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

4. When they have finished the story or the novel, nothing much, or nothing at all, seems to have happened to them. — C S LEMIS.

“Anything much” preceded by a negative word has the same sense, but is far less common.

But there wasn't anything much to go on. — H C BAILEY.

Exercise 45

Write ten sentences each with “worth” followed by a gerund, five sentences each with “the matter”, and five sentences each with “nothing much”.

137. Articles.The little words “a” (or “an”) and “the”, the correct use of which is something like second nature with Englishmen and Americans, may seem to be very troublesome to you. Whether to use “a” (or “an”) or “the” or neither in a particular place is often a problem that no rule can solve; for the solution often depends upon the particular word concerned rather than the correct application of any rule. In fact, it is not possible to give such an exhaustive treatment of the articles as to ensure correctness in all cases. In order to master them, you are advised to observe them carefully in your reading in addition to taking care of the rules.

138. “A” and Abstract Nouns.It is a common rule that the article “a” (or “an”) is not used before an abstract noun. However, it is often idiomatically used before an abstract noun to express a special kind or degree of the quality denoted by the noun. When “a” (or “an”) is thus used, there is often an adjectival clause after the noun.

1. There was about the party a splendour which has vanished from the dinner tables of England. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

2. Marian would come home as soon as she could, her drooping shoulders expressing a despair that went to my heart. — May C JENKINS.

3. Gretchen doesn't look at them but with a cold swift anger, her face averted, she knocks the trash can over onto the sidewalk. — JOYCE CAROL OATES.

4. The chief quality that has brought James his success is a patient persistence which in the end wears down opposition and gets him whatever he wants. — W A DARLINGTON.

5. He flung himself into the learning of Russian with a ferocity and pertinacity that were devastating. — HUGH WALPOLE.

6. His reading was confined almost entirely to the Bible; but the Bible he read and reread with an untiring, an unending, assiduity. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

7. She is colossally clever, but behind all the cleverness there is a passionate sincerity. — The Morning Post.

8. Anne's white face and big eyes appeared over the bedclothes with a startling suddenness. — L M MONTGOMERY.

“A certain” used before an abstract noun means some though perhaps not much.

I also have acquired a certain curiosity as to that strange individual. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

Exercise 46

Write ten sentences each with “a” (or “an”) used before an abstract noun.

139. Some Words Often Mistaken for Abstract Nouns.There are a number of words, chiefly names of actions, that are often mistaken for abstract nouns, probably because their so-called Han equivalents suggest abstract ideas. Note that “a” is used before each of the italicized nouns in the following sentences:

1. A little chuckle. — JAMES HILTON.

2. Sir Jee, seated in the armchair which dominates the other chairs round the elm table in the magistrates' room, emitted a preliminary cough. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. She had met Val at a dance last season and he had sensed her problem at once. — URSULA BLOOM.

4. His face was puckered in a frown that combined displeasure with a struggling complacency. — FRANK SWINNERTON.

5. The door shut, the Inspector waved Poirot to one chair, settled himself in another, and turned a gaze of acute inquiry upon his visitor. — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

6. There was a little glance between them. — FRANK SWINNERTON.

7. Then slowly he gave a long, creeping, dirty grin. — V S PRITCHETT.

8. Don't be in such a hurry. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

9. Ferrari might touch her hands and press her lips, but, Michele thought, the soul of her would escape him in the very midst of a kiss. — ETHEL MANNIN.

10. She gave him a laugh soft with apology. — PEARL S BUCK.

11. If you go and have a look at it by daylight you'll know! — AUSTIN FREEMAN.

12. Sabor emitted a frightful shriek. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

13. With a deep sigh, she took off her leather coat and hat and went into the bedroom, leaving the door open. — EDGAR WALLACE.

14. She looked up at him with a wavering smile. — RUBY M AYRES.

15. A haughty stare came from the mistress, who was still nursing the cat. — SANDFORD WILTON.

16. But tonight, for no reason, she woke with a start about midnight, and found herself sitting up in bed. — RUBY M AYRES.

17. Mr Hunt would always shout that word out so loudly in her dream, that Mrs Moggs would awake all in a tremble, and afterwards she would think of all the fine things Mr Day had said about the beautiful sea in order to compose herself to sleep again. — T F POWYS.

18. He was English, and most so when he forgot his nationality and took a country walk. — E M FORSTER.

“Chuckle” does not mean chuckling, “cough” does not mean coughing, “dance” does not mean dancing, “frown” does not mean frowning, etc; when chuckling, coughing, dancing, frowning, etc are meant, we must use “chuckling”, “coughing”, “dancing”, “frowning”, etc except in the case of “laughing”, instead of which “laughter” may be used, as in:

Instead came a soft cackle of laughter which made every hair on his head stand up. — EDGAR WALLACE.

Below are some other such nouns:

embrace, groan, jump, leap, nod, quarrel, sneeze, stir.

Exercise 47

With the help of one or more dictionaries write sentences containing the words given in Section 139.

140. Generic Use of Articles.“The” and, less commonly, “a” (or “an”), may be used to indicate a class or kind of person or thing.

1. Over lake or sea, in sunshine, within sight of land — this is the perfect way of the flying tourist. — H G WELLS.

2. It was written to impress the foreigner, and therefore it was unworthy of China. — PEARL S BUCK.

3. The Oriental husband is not a tyrant. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

4. It will at once become a standard history of chemistry for the general reader. — The Manchester Guardian.

5. Much of the work is entirely original, and will prove of great value to the student of American government. — Law Quarterly Review.

6. It always shocks the English observer when he first sees women working on coal at pit-heads. — The Children's Newspaper.

7. He had the look of a student or of a dreamer. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

8. I have always fancied the life of a country gentleman. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

In such a sentence as the following “a” cannot be used instead of “the”.

I play the violin a little. — D H BARBER.

Exercise 48

Write ten sentences illustrating the generic use of the articles.

141. Position of “A” (or “An”).“A” (or “an”) is used after instead of before the adjectives “many”, “such”, and “what”.

1. Many an honest Inn calls itself a hotel. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. How lovely to live in such a peaceful place in those difficult times! — WILLIAM PLOMER. (Note that “no such a ...” would be incorrect; for “no” means not a. I know now, of course, there is no such thing as love. — STELLA BENSON.)

3. What a terrible thing! — EVELYN WAUGH. (Note that this is an exclamatory sentence. “A” is not used in an interrogative sentence, such as “What terrible thing?”. Similarly, “He did not know what a terrible thing it was” and “He did not know what terrible thing it was” do not have the same meaning: the former means that the man did not know the great extent to which the thing in question was terrible, and the latter means that he did not know what kind of terrible thing it was.)

“A” (or “an”) is also used after instead of before an adjective preceded by “as”, “how”, “so”, or “too”.

1. She wanted first to get everybody into as sentimental a condition as possible. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. I have heard in Berlin at second hand — and only so does one even begin to know how great a man their little Marquis was — the experience of one minor secretary who remembers still, and will, I think, remember while he lives, a wartime night in Brussels when he was homing at three in the morning from some clandestine mischief. — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT.

3. Never was so masterly a creature so completely baffled. — JACK LONDON. (“A so masterly creature” is also correct, but is less natural.)

4. I sat in the rough grasses under the tower; but it was too windswept a corner to halt long in. — ARTHUR MCDOWALL. (“A too windswept corner” is also correct, but is less natural. “A too ...” is not usually used unless the adjective is a very common one, as in “Hitherto he had felt an unreasonable antipathy to the young reporter, who had been a too frequent visitor to the clinic, and had written too much and too enthusiastically about Dr Marford's adventures to please a man who shrank instinctively from publicity”. — EDGAR WALLACE.)

It may be mentioned that “a” (or “an”) is often used between “quite” or “rather” and an adjective instead of before the adverb.

1. She had grown into quite a beautiful woman. — EDGAR WALLACE.

2. She was in rather a pathetic mood and stroke my head and told me never to forget my prayers and my nails and so on. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

Note that the correct expressions are “quite a beautiful woman” and “rather a pathetic mood”, not “quite beautiful a woman” and “rather pathetic a mood”.

Exercise 49

Write sentences illustrating “a” (or “an”) used after “many”, “such”, “what”, “as...”, “how...”, “so...”, “too ...”, “quite”, and “rather”.

142. “The” Giving Common Noun Abstract Sense.“The” sometimes gives a common noun an abstract sense.

1. In this period in Chicago the poet in me was born. — LEW SARETT.

2. There was enough of the schoolboy still in Mallinson to make him respond to the curt command of a senior, though he was obviously in poor control of himself. — JAMES HILTON.

3. The priest in his son would, in its turn, turn to the same ashes. — KATHLEEN COYLE.

4. It does not damage Mark Twain to say that there was not a drop of the aristocrat in his veins. — STUART PRATT SHERMAN.

5. There is a fate, coming from the beast in our own past, that the present man in us has not yet mastered, and for the moment that fate seems a malignity in the nature of the universe that mocks us even in the beauty of these lonely hills. — ARTHUR CLUTTON-BROCK.

This use is comparatively rare. The noun is almost always one that denotes a person, and always followed by the preposition “in”.

143. Articles and Proper Nouns.As a general rule, the articles are not used with proper nouns. But there are several cases in which “a” (or “an”) or “the” is required by usage. For proper nouns used as common nouns see Section 68, towards the end of which was quoted the following sentences:

They have been beautiful and noble, these Fawcetts. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

Below are more examples:

1. It suddenly occurred to her that it might even be that he had determined to put the Oakhursts to a severe test — the very severest he could devise. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

2. The Dudlows, I should mention, are far the most important and influential people in Cricklebury Park, where the local society is above the usual suburban level. — F ANSTEY.

3. The Frickers lived in a fine, solid, spacious house of respectable age. — ANTHONY HOPE.

4. We haven't been able to communicate with the Bunters, and I suppose they will be expecting the Hacketts just as they are expecting us. — BEN TRAVERS.

It is interesting to note that “The Herbert Krafts” in the following sentence means not two or more persons named Herbert Krafts but Herbert Kraft and his wife:

The Herbert Krafts could, and did, set him whatever tasks they chose, and for an excellent reason. — JAMES REID PARKER.

A surname in the plural preceded by “the”, as you must have gathered from Section 68, denotes the members of a family of that surname. Similarly, a surname preceded by “a” (or “an”) denotes a member of a family of that surname.

Mrs Dartmouth, mother of the twins, had been an Ilam. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

The name of a person preceded by “a” (or “an”) sometimes vaguely denotes a person of that name.

Pardon, but does a Miss Amelia Barrowby live here? — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

The following are some cases in which one or the other article is used before a proper noun:

1. “A” (or “an”) or “the” is used before a proper noun denoting a person or place to indicate the person or place as he or she or it is or was at a particular time.

(1) She is quite a different Pearl Buck from the reserved, almost shy, writer of a best seller, who was plunged into the whirl of the literary tea racket and lionization after The Good Earth was published. — World-Telegram.

(2) He died with his work incomplete, yet bequeathing to us a legacy telling us that he was something of an artist and inventor, 100,000 years ago, in an England he shared with lions, tigers, hyenas, mammoths, elephants, monkeys, and crocodiles. — The Children's Newspaper.

(3) Just as surely as his father found his interest on the Continent, so King George is fascinated by the vision of the Britain that he has seen growing up overseas. — A G GARDINER.

2. “The” is used before a proper noun in the plural form, such as the name of a group of islands or a range of mountains.

the East Indiesthe Hebridesthe Alpsthe Rockiesthe Netherlandsthe United States of America.

3. “The” is used before the name of a river, a sea, or an ocean,

the (river) Thamesthe Nile (River)the Indian Seathe Baltic (Sea) the Pacific (Ocean)the Atlantic (Ocean)

When the name of a river is used in such a compound word as “Stoke-on-Trent” (“Trent” is the name of a river in England), however, “the” is not used.

4. “The” is used before the following place-names:

the Argentinethe Crimeathe Haguethe Rivierathe Sahara

the Sudanthe Tirol(Note that the “The” in “The Hague” begins with a capital.)

5. “The” is used before the following names:

the East End (eastern part of London)

the English Channel

the Persian Gulf

the West End (western part of London)

Consistency does not exist, however. “The” is not used before the following names:

Buckingham Palace (London residence of the king or the queen)

Central Park (in New York)

Hyde Park (in London)

London Bridge

Oxford University

Scotland Yard (headquarters of the London Police)

Westminster Abbey (in London)

Nor is “the” used before “Jiangsu Province”, “Zhejiang Province”, “Fujian Province”, etc.

6. “The” is used before the name of a ship.

The Queen MaryThe Victory(The “The” may or may not begin with a capital.)

It seems to be the modern naval practice to omit the “the”; in ordinary writing it is still more usual to use the “the” than to omit it.

7. The titles of many books, newspapers, and magazines begin with “The”.

The Concise Oxford DictionaryThe TimesThe Humorist

It is often possible to use “the” before the title of a book etc, that does not begin with “The”. But it is not possible in the following cases: (1) when the title begins with “A”, as in “A Dictionary of Literary Terms”; (2) when the title begins with, or consists of, the name of a person, as in “Gulliver's Travels.” and “David Copperfield”.

“Bible” is always preceded by “the”. “Scripturess” is always, but “Scripture” is never, preceded by “the”.

Exercise 50

In the following sentences supply or omit “the” wherever necessary:

1. Do you know the Johnsons personally?

2. I have known Johnsons for a long time.

3. When I was in London, I visited the Westminster Abbey several times.

4. He was born in Hague, was educated in Argentine, worked all his life in Billion, and died in East Indies.

5. He used to read the Chambers's Journal every day.

6. He referred her to the Scripture.

7. West End is the richer and more fashionable part of London.

8. Can you tell me where Pearl River is?

9. When did he graduate at the Oxford University?

10. They spent the winter on the Riviera.

144. Omission of Articles.There are certain cases in which neither article is used.

1. Two or more similar words used together may have no article even if each would have an article when used alone.

(1) He is in charge of the B.A.T., and the building in which he lives is office, godown, and residence all in one. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) Being the only two girls in both form and dormitory, we naturally gravitated together. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

(3) Then, together, man and dog passed silently into the sunset. — P G WODEHOUSE.

(4) As the goat wandered round the room with all the curiosity known to be characteristic of the race, host and guest alike expatiated upon its merits. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

(5) The distance between son and father had been kept constant, at about fifty yards, never varying. — H E BATES.

(6) At various times and places he was pilot, printer, editor, reporter, minister, lecturer, author, and publisher. — STUART PRATT SHERMAN.

This same omission of the article may be seen in such idiomatic phrases as the following:

by hook or by crook.from beginning to end.keep body and soul together.live from hand to mouth.put pen to paper.

2. The article is usually omitted when “father”, “mother”, “uncle”, etc are used as if they were personal names:

(1) Help father get the sheep in the pen. — NORMAN MAILER.

(2) Mother is spending the evening here. — Answers.

(3) The last time he came here he asked mother to watch his table manners and tell him if he made a blunder. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

(4) Would you like to take a walk with grandfather? — JAMES GOULD COZZENS.

(5) Nurse was reading aloud — from a not very interesting book. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

3. The article is usually omitted before names of meals.

(1) In the morning, at breakfast, there were the same sad-looking people. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) They asked us to lunch the week after the garden party. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

(3) He might come back after dinner. — H A VACHELL.

(4) Once she came to tea with me on a pouring wet day and found nowhere to park her umbrella. — Punch.

(5) At dinner she may be entrusted to quite the wrong man; at breakfast you are faced with the problem of being neither too early for her nor too late for a seat beside her; at tea people have a habit of taking your chair at the moment when a simple act of courtesy has drawn you from it in search of bread and butter; but at lunch you follow her in and there you are — fixed. — A A MILNE.

Remember that the word “meal” is not the name of a meal and must not be treated in the same way. Never say “at meal”, “to meal”, “before meal”, or “after meal”; always supply “a” or “the” or some other word before the “meal”.

4. The article is often omitted before names of official positions.

(1) It may be notorious that you beat your wife, but if you are manager of a well-established bank the world will be civil to you and ask you to dinner. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) He owned a brewery, and was Chairman of a railway company. — ANTHONY HOPE.

(3) Much better let him go into the business as errand-boy, and work up, instead of wasting his time learning Latin and playing games. — W A DARLINGTON.

5. The article is omitted before names of titles or professions when the name of a person follows.

King GeorgeQueen ElizabethGeneral LeeProfessor JonesDr BrownMr WhiteMrs BlackMiss GreenEngineer GaleCarpenter HillMr Wood

Consistency does not exist, however. “The” is used in:

the Archduke Ferdinandthe Tsar Peterthe Emperor Napoleonthe Rev W Wells.

6. The article is omitted in a great many idiomatic phrases consisting of a preposition and a noun:

at bottomat handat homeat seafor examplefor instancein bedin factin handin questionin troubleon demandon earthon purpose

7. The article is omitted in a great many idiomatic phrases consisting of a verb (and a preposition) and a noun (and a preposition).

catch firefollow suitgo to schoollose sight oftake care of

8. The article is often omitted in the headings in newspapers, magazines, and books, in advertisements, in certain business documents, and in explanatory notes.

(1) Royal Visit to Scotland — The Times.

(2) Astonishing Ghost Photograph — Tit-Bits.

(3) Cocked Hat — JOHN GALSWORTHY, The White Monkey (Part II Chapter XI).

(4) Write for free booklet which tells you how to obtain a perfect looking nose. — Advertisement in The Strand Magazine.

145. Repetition of Articles.Sec Section 81 for the repetition of “the” in connection with number. As a rule the article may not be repeated when two or more similar words clearly denote different persons or things, as in:

1. I saw a man and woman walking slowly down one of the garden paths. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

2. On it had been written a name and address. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

3. The husband and son were found somewhere and brought to town, and there was an attempt to connect them with the woman's death, but it did not work. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

Similarly, we say “the husband and wife”, “a knife and fork”, etc.

If a contrast is meant, however, the article is usually repeated; for example, we say “a quarrel between the husband and the wife” rather than “a quarrel between the husband and wife”. (“A quarrel between husband and wife” is also quite idiomatic, as you may see from Section 144.)

146. Final Remarks on Articles.As you must have gathered from Section 137, the mastery of the articles requires the careful observation of their uses in your reading. And you simply cannot expect to write English correctly unless you are safe in using them. The unidiomatic insertion or omission of an article is a sure sign of one whose English is imperfect. Because the articles are very small words and are almost always unstressed, you must not therefore think that one article more or less does not matter. Besides, two idiomatic phrases may differ from each other merely in the use or omission of an article; for example, “in case of” and “in the case of”, the former meaning in the event of and the latter meaning as regards.

1. A screen was sent out to lie down in front of the men who were digging in, to act as protection for them in case of surprise. — J B MORTON.

2. This rule is particularly to be observed in the case of villains, and more particularly of those villains who steal public money, or in general abuse their position as public servants. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

Exercise 51

A.

Write twenty sentences each with an article idiomatically omitted.

B.

Read the following sentences carefully, paying particular attention to the italicized articles and to the use of the caret, which indicates where an article might be expected:

1. But, my dear Constance, that at any rate is absolutely out of the question. — BEN TRAVERS.

2. They have brought out their pets for an airing and in ∧ friendly fashion compared their merits. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

3. The book never saw the light in volume form, and was finally sold for thirty-five pounds as a serial to a company who publish yellow-back novelettes at twopence a time. — ETHEL MANNIN.

4. The children were noticeably in ∧ good shape. — J B PRIESTLEY.

5. Instantly he cheered up; he held her at ∧ arm's length. — MARY ARDEN.

6. Gwen caught him by the arm. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

7. For the wind that had been howling outside like an outrageous dog had all of a sudden turned as melodious as the carol-boys of a Christmas Eve. — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

8. And when she died James found that she had left him five thousand pounds and the house in the country where she had lived for the last twenty years of her life. — P G WODEHOUSE.

9. She sat up in ∧ bed, shaking back the long hair from her face, stretching her arms slowly. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

10. Here for a moment he came to a pause. — WALTER DE LA MARE.

11. Then in the early summer of that year Tama left ∧ school. — PEARL S BUCK.

12. It explains how ∧ man has tamed the powers of ∧ Nature, and how the many marvellous machines which he has invented have been made to work. — URSULA BLOOM.

13. And in several ways the gathering was more catholic than a superficial intelligence might have expected. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

14. He did not like the idea of frightening her by a recital of what had occurred, but he knew that he would be compelled to do so. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

15. When had the burglar come, and how had he secured ∧ admission? — EDGAR WALLACE.

16. In a second she is speaking to the doctor on ∧ duty. — H V MORTON.

17. He was smoking at the time, and ∧ pipe in ∧ mouth and ∧ cleaver in ∧ hand, he joined the charge and returned — still smoking. — Horse and Hound.

18. And ∧ mother is having a day in ∧ town. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

19. She did not lie on her side facing him, for fear he should think she was trying to wheedle him into a good temper. — LOUIS GOLDING.

20. At the foot of the bed was a large washing bowl, with ∧ sponge and towels. — A E COPPARD.

C.

Supply articles in the following sentences (some of which, how-ever, need no article at all):

1. I will give up my idea in view of your objections.

2. With view to improving business conditions conference will take place tomorrow.

3. They kept him waiting till noon, when, at sound of warning, he ran for shelter.

4. We stood together at window, looking at moon rising behind hills.

5. It was now time for supper, but one of children was too excited to eat.

6. That suggestion is out of question.

7. Old woman was in danger of losing sight of only friend she had.

8. Early next morning I had word with master of house about small matter.

9. They are brother and sister, not husband and wife.

10. He considers our letter to him to be most insulting.

11. I spent half hour in garden with friend one cold morning towards end of January.

12. She promised to talk to him on telephone.

13. Musician played in presence of large number of guests.

14. To tell truth, I do not care to see him in evening.

15. Nothing has been found on premises, but police are still waiting for further developments of situation.

16. In due course we made search in hope of getting new material.

17. With publication of his first book, which deals with English literature, but is written in German language, young author leapt into literary fame.

18. Parcel was delivered to me by mistake.

19. I wonder whether he did it on purpose, and whether he is at all aware of consequences.

20. As he had been brought up in country, he did not get used to town life till his third month at school.

147. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.You must have learnt what a transitive verb is and what an intransitive verb is. You must also have learnt that a verb may be transitive in one sense and intransitive in another, and that an intransitive verb may be made transitive by having a preposition used after it. Each of the following sentences contains an intransitive verb made transitive:

1. But when the ladies' arms were about him, he smiled and consented to the rehearsal. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

2. I glanced at my watch. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

3. So, not daring to reflect on what his fate might be, he stared and waited. — H E BATES.

4. And he thought of his first great catch of fish as a young man, when there was soft down on his unshaven face. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

The matter is not so simple as it may seem to you, however. In order to use verbs correctly, you must know whether a particular verb is transitive or intransitive, whether a particular verb in a particular sense is transitive or intransitive, and what preposition should be used after a particular intransitive verb to make it transitive. All this you can do through careful reading only.

A verb may possibly have practically the same sense when used alone and when followed by a preposition.

1. James Rodman was a writer of sensational mystery stories, and his aunt Leila had always disapproved of his work. — P G WODEHOUSE. (“Disapprove(d)” has practically the same sense.)

2. On certain days in the week, however, all through the year he opened his doors to such as sought after knowledge, and discoursed on the teaching of Confucius. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM. (“Seek”, or “sought”, has practically the same sense. Incidentally, “seek” or “sought”, followed or not followed by “after” or “for”, is now very rarely used.)

A verb usually has different senses when used alone and when followed by a preposition.

1. This seems to be a comfort to him but it adds greatly to my own inconvenience. — EVELYN WAUGH. (“Add(s) to” means increase(s). “Add my own inconvenience” would mean join my own inconvenience to something else.)

2. In his fury, it is said that Gordon searched everywhere for Li Hung Chang with a loaded pistol in his hand. — LYTTON STRACHEY. (“Search(ed) for” means endeavour(ed) to find out. “Searched Li Hung Chang” would mean examined his clothes to find out what he carried.)

3. We must send south for his other son, our brother. — PEARL S BUCK. (“Send for” means send a massage telling ... to come. “Send south his other son” would mean cause his son to go south.)

4. I've never shot a man, or even shot at one. — SUSAN ERTZ. (“Sho(o)t at” means endeavour(ed) to shoot.)

A word of caution. You must not infer the sense of a verb from its so-called Han equivalent as given in English-Han dictionaries. A verb or a sense may not be so exactly translated into Han as to preclude all possibility of misunderstanding, and many verbs and many senses of verbs are simply incapable of being so exactly translated. For example, it seems impossible to translate the intransitive verb “consent” in such a way as to prevent it from being misunderstood to be transitive. While the “of” and “to” in the two following sentences are absolutely necessary, the Han equivalents of “inquire” and “reply” would give the wrong impression that both verbs are transitive and therefore need no prepositions after them:

1. We shall inquire of the proprietress when we get up. — LEONARD MERRICK.

2. Gerda did not reply to this. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

Besides, what is known as a Han equivalent may be misleading even when there is no doubt about its being transitive or intransitive.

Exercise 52

Look up the following verbs in one or more dictionaries and write a sentence to illustrate each sense:

acquaint, agree, apply, arrive, attend, believe, belong, change, complain, comply, confess, conform, consent, consider, correspond, cure, defend, defer, delight, depend, deprive, despair, differ, disagree, discuss, dispose, excel, expect, fail, feel, fill, fix, fly, follow, forbid, grant, greet, grow, hang, hear, hold, hope, impose, improve, inquire, insist, instruct, intend, introduce, join, kiss, know, land, learn, leave, look, maintain, manage, mind, move, note, notice, object, oblige, observe, occupy, offend, offer, operate, oppose, part, pass, persist, play, please, practise, prefer, proceed, prohibit, prosper, qualify, reach, read, refer, reflect, register, relate, rely, remain, replace, reply, represent, return, rob, satisfy, say, search, seek, sign, sink, speak, stand, start, steal, stop, substitute, succeed, support, suppose, surprise, surrender, talk, teach, tell, think, train, trust, try, understand, undertake, unite, vary, violate, watch, wear, write.

148. Absolute Use of Transitive Verbs.A transitive verb is said to be absolute when its has no object. This use is not usually mentioned in grammars, and I have not found it treated of anywhere in detail.

Literature is of several kinds. Sometimes it is intended to amuse, to inform, to distract, to reprove; but occasionally it attempts also to convey that strange solitude and homesickness that is the glory and distress of the human spirit. — CHRISTOPHER MORLEY.

The following quotations from my correspondence with A J Fowler, brother of the famous English grammarian and lexicographer H W Fowler, will perhaps give you a good idea of the absolute use of transitive verbs:

“I have looked up ‘absolute’ in Webster's New International Dictionary and found the statement ‘In the definitions in this Dictionary, absolute verbs are treated as intransitive’. I have the impression that while every intransitive verb is not absolute, every absolute verb may be considered intransitive. By the way, I simply cannot think of a transitive verb that cannot be used absolutely, though it is not every transitive verb that is called capable of absolute use in dictionaries. For instance, ‘discuss' is a transitive verb of which absolute use is not mentioned in dictionaries, but I think it can be used absolutely in such a sentence as ‘They discussed and discussed, but accomplished nothing’”. — From my letter to A J Fowler of April 24, 1937.

“First, I agree that it is hard to think of a transitive verb that cannot be used absolutely, though in some cases the use would sound forced. Take ‘light’ merely in its sense of set burning, could one say ‘I struck match after match, but couldn't light'? Secondly, my vague idea is that one only calls a verb absolute when the omitted object is more or less present to one's mind. The fox-hunter's use of ‘kill’ I think would be absolute. ‘Hounds killed in the open’ suggests the fox at once as object. But in ‘They marched, killing and plundering’ one thinks less vividly, if at all, of the victims, and might therefore simply say intransitive”. — From A J Fowler's letter to me of 3 January, 1938.

As you may have gathered, while every transitive verb might be used absolutely on occasion, the use may often be unnatural. You are advised not to use any verb in this way without having found it so treated in your reading.

149. Copulative Verbs.Some intransitive verbs take subjective complements. They are called copulative verbs or linking verbs. The chief of them is “be” and its various forms:

1. As a matter of fact, he was a bricklayer. — DORIS LESSING.

2. Even as a child, I was ashamed of myself. — E M DELAFIELD.

3. What are you afraid of? — JOHN MASEFIELD.

4. It would have been so nice, so safe. — MAY SINCLAIR.

Each of the following sentences contains a copulative verb:

1. At first glance, this may appear reasonable enough. — Truth.

2. For he had become useless and a burden. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

3. He is still alive, so we can't tell whether the dream will come true. — SAKI.

4. The weather, moreover, continued superb. — P G WODEHOUSE.

5. I have lived keeping an army, and shall die a pauper. — SEYMOUR HICKS.

6. He next held various posts at the capital, but again fell ill, and in 829 settled at Lo-yang as Governor of the Province of Honan. — ARTHUR WALEY.

7. Piglet felt very miserable, and didn't know what to say. — A A MILNE.

8. After that the stayed indoors day after day, getting more irritable every day. — ARTHUR SYMONS.

9. Rodney had gone white. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

10. The air grew cold and a wind sprang up, tossing the machine uncomfortably. — JAMES HILTON.

11. But now that he always keeps his nose to the grindstone your time must hang a bit heavy, doesn't it. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

12. Gary kept trying to talk to Bessie and Grace, but his lips moved like a man with stones in his mouth. — NORMAN MAILER.

13. He kept silent. — J S FLETCHER.

14. And his suit, like his father's, looked new and ready-made. — GRAHAM GREENE.

15. Bessie proved a delightful conversationalist. — NORMAN MAILER.

16. The night remained clear, almost brilliant. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

17. For me, then, another war does not seem so bad. — HUGH WALPOLE.

18. She was excited, her eyes sparkled, and her cheeks shone red. — MALACHI WHITAKER.

19. But, only William could act his part; he alone remembered to employ his hands, to flourish his dirty overcoat as though it were a cloak, and to make his voice sound poetic and touching. — H E BATES.

20. To utter such nonsense would be to stand self-condemned. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

21. Or it might be more grave still — a medicine that tasted different — some food that disagreed. — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

22. The afternoon has turned dark and cold. — JOYCE CAROL OATES.

23. The Vicar waxed poetical, and took down from a shelf an old edition of that strange book The Caliph Vathek, by the remarkable William Beckford. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

150. Factitive Verbs.Some transitive verbs take objective complements. They are called factitive verbs.

1. Then Randolph set his shoulder to the door and burst it open. — MELVILLE DAVISSON POST.

2. I call it simply disgusting. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

3. I looked up and caught her staring at the picture of a fishing-boat on the wall: brown and rusty with sails half spread in a bleak sunrise, not far from the beach along which a woman walked bearing a basket of fish on her shoulder. — ALAN SILLITOE.

4. I confess myself beaten. — E V LUCAS.

5. She hoped they would consider it a worthy investment. — NORMAN MAILER.

6. Conway had lived for nearly a decade in China, not wholly in the bigger cities; and he counted it, all things considered, the happiest part of his life. — JAMES HILTON.

7. Everybody deemed it impracticable — the usual thing with new ideas. — Answers.

8. But, above all else, it was the continual sharing and lack of privacy that nearly drove Gerda mad. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

9. I would esteem it a great favour. — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

10. And the question had asked itself still more urgently just now as, standing at the garden door, he had looked out between the apple-tree and watched her, unobserved, through a long minute — watched her sitting there on the parapet, turning her vague brown eyes now at the water, now towards the garden, and smiling to herself with an expression that had seemed to him so dim and vacuous that he could almost have fancied her an imbecile. — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

11. Her father said that prosperity always changed everyone, so she supposed it was prosperity that had changed Drusilla; she felt herself badly used as she undressed and went to bed. — RUBY M AYRES.

12. I find my study unattractive today. — H G WELLS.

13. She flung open the windows, and sniffed in the fragrant scent of a London spring with a full-blooded enjoyment. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

14. He was for ever getting himself involved in magnanimous situations that were no concern of his. — WARWICK DEEPING.

15. An aunt, a sister of her husband, had taken her to the town where she lived, and was having her taught at a private school. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

16. So you hold me responsible? — ANTHONY HOPE.

17. She could not imagine him dead. — R H MOTTRAM.

18. I judged her a product of spinsterhood plus Freud, poor thing — felt sorry for her, and all that. — GWYN JONES.

19. I have an old friend, a college graduate, who has carefully kept this knowledge alive. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

20. Geoffrey would rather Drusilla had been anywhere else; he knew himself an unwelcome visitor at the vicarage. — RUBY M AYRES. (This use of “know” seems to be rare.)

21. If I tied myself up with the bell rope, I could not very well hit myself on the head with the bootjack; if I knocked myself unconscious, I should find it difficult to tie myself up. — HARRY GRAHAM.

22. I tell you if a woman makes that sign to a Papago he could laugh himself dead but he would not laugh off that. — MARY HUNTER AUSTIN.

23. The same unimaginative quality made the Romans leave the seaways of the Mediterranean undeveloped. — H G WELLS.

24. Hunting makes me a freeman of the English countryside from September to May. — Listener.

25. He was browned by the tropic sun, but his grey eyes, fair hair, and clean-cut cast of features proclaimed him an Englishman. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

26. They pronounced me a fine boy. — EDGAR LEE MASTERS.

27. You published recently a letter from a correspondent advocating, with an air of expecting unqualified congratulation, a scheme for facility of transport which would render uninhabitable the street in which I have found comparative peace for 25 years. — G S STREET.

28. I want to see my daughter married. — A E COPPARD.

29. We're going to glorify you and send you home a hero, by the Pentagon for morale and public-relations purpose. — JOSEPH HELLER.

30. I even lost the feeling of loneliness that had set me thinking a bit too much just after she'd gone. — ALAN SILLITOE.

31. Its beauty seemed to strike the child dumb. — L M MONT-GOMERY.

32. She tore it open quite calmly and glanced at the cheque. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

33. He did not think it possible. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

34. The thought of it turned her heart cold. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

35. I want my hair cut. — INGLIS ALLEN.

36. And I don't wish him dead; I'm not really a heartless brute, only sometimes it's like being in prison for life with him for jailer. — RUBY M AYRES.

151. Verbs Taking Double Object.Some transitive verbs take two objects, one direct and the other indirect, the indirect preceding the direct.

1. The three persons who came nearest to intimacy with Miss Julia Townsend, so near it indeed that she had accorded them all permission to “come and see me whenever you like”, were about the last people in Washington society — needless to say they were in it — whom one might have expected her to accept, let alone welcome. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

2. I am, I may say, notoriously fond of animals, but though it affords me no inconsiderable pleasure to see others even more attached and devoted to them, the very last thing I myself should allow is a goat, however well-bred, to be in any of my own rooms. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

3. With people not too clever Lady Brixworth allowed herself a liberal display of sympathy. — ANTHONY HOPE.

4. The old woman went on talking; she talked a great deal and asked them a great many questions. —SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

5. He didn't mind being assigned the lowest clerical grade, nor even being a messenger, though Raynor thought he did. — SAUL BELLOW.

6. My success in literature at the Hall of Examination has assured me a magnificent income from a government appointment. — ROMER WILSON.

7. Then I paid my companion his wage, and bade him a good night, till we should meet in the same place before sunrise. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

8. I bear him no ill will. — SUSAN ERTZ.

9. There was a Papago woman out of Pantak who had a marriage paper from a white man after she had borne him five children, and the man himself was in love with another woman. — MARY HUNTER AUSTIN.

10. I say again, as I have said before, that dog-fancying can bring one the most charming acquaintances in the world — apart altogether from profit. — E V LUCAS.

11. I hope your suit dried all right — if not, you really ought to let me have the pleasure of buying you another. — JAMES HILTON.

12. The cool reception of that epic by the principal judges of poetry caused him acute disappointment, and from that time forth he became less eager and less serious as a poet, more and more petulantly expending his wonderful technical gift on fugitive subjects. — EDMUND GOSSE.

13. But I was so deep in the chair that my feet stuck up in front of me, and I noticed that my shoes needed repairing; and that reminded me that the last time I had had my shoes repaired the man charged me a shilling more than usual, and ... — Punch.

14. This war had dealt her a blow. — R H MOTTRAM.

15. She was an inveterate theatre-goer and she rarely denied herself a matinée that called her. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

16. A touch of the sun would have done them a world of good. — VIRGINIA WOOLF.

17. It earns them the respect of the guard. — MAX BEERBOHM.

18. Really I envy you her constant society. — ANTHONY HOPE.

19. Mush fetched her a little stool and the high-power telescope. — BARTIMEUS.

20. I filled him a glass of champagne. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

21. Can Josey fix you a salad for lunch? — SEYMOUR FREEDGOOD.

22. I can forgive anyone anything who is fond of animals. — MORLEY ROBERTS. (In “This coloured her judgement, and it was a fault he found hard to forgive her”. — HERMAN WOUK, the relative pronoun “which” or “that” as the direct object of “forgive” is understood.)

23. He found her a taxi, and stood at the door for a moment talking. — RUBY M AYRES.

24. Her brilliant colourings gained her a big reputation, and one day she received an order to do a special job for a well-known collector. — Answers.

25. I asked him to get me tea. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

26. The night porter gave me his address. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

27. No envious rival grudges him the post, at least not very seriously; and no one can continue long capriciously to put obstacles in his way, because the other members want to get home. — E V LUCAS.

28. Nancy handed him a cup of tea. — H A VACHELL.

29. Marilla made no reply, but she hit the unlucky sorrel such a vicious clip with the whip that the fat mare, unused to such treatment, whizzed indignantly down the lane at an alarming pace. — L M MONTGOMERY.

30. Here is Miss Dartmouth to keep you company. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

31. She felt it dreadfully, too, I know she did, for she was crying when she kissed me good-bye through the bookcase door. — L M MONTGOMERY.

32. All-round hospitality follows, and you hear of his amiable attractive and eccentric relative who has left him an enormous fortune on condition that a large part of it is distributed to charities. — Listener.

33. Ben was reading a book about ancient Rome, something his business partner had lent him because, he said, it was very spicy, fairly reeking with blood and scandal. — WALLACE IRWIN. (The relative pronoun as the direct object of “lent” is understood.)

34. I shall lose him a lot of money. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

35. In a spasmodic and jolly way he was interested in his niece, made her a lavish allowance, sent her beautiful and useless presents at Christmas and on her birthday, which he invariably remembered a month after. — EDGAR WALLACE.

36. When they assured her that they meant the child no harm, she permitted them to come close, but would not allow them to touch her charge. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

37. A cousin of his father's had offered him a place there and it seemed the only chance of getting a paying job. — MARTIN ARMSTRONG.

38. You owe us money and the land will have to be divided among us. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

39. You must come and pay us long visits, so that Tito doesn't forget his aunt. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

40. The aunt permitted herself a smile, which might almost have been described as a grin. — SAKI.

41. So in the end we decided to ask Mrs Spencer to pick us out one when she went over to get her little girl. — L M MONTGOMERY.

42. Even parson was surprised, and he did not shake his head very hard when the Captain took down some silver cups and poured us out a drink of rum. — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

43. Will you promise me that? — SUSAN ERTZ.

44. However, they seem to think me very clever, because I read them stories in French from de Maupassant and then translate them — of course much censored. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

45. Do not refuse me this. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

46. I could have saved you a good deal of trouble, as Ferdinand has been lodging ‘Nith me during the weekend. — Punch.

47. But at the time I felt I was making a sacrifice which would secure me a reward in Heaven. — Answers.

48. For instance, they always, every year, send me Christmas cards; generally the awfully hearty sort of Christmas cards that people do send to other people that they don't know at all well. — BEN TRAVERS.

49. He knew quite well that his own razor was not the best tool for shaping these blocks; but in hard work and straightforwardness he set them an example which, in most cases, did more for their lives than scholarship in the technical sense. — G G COULTON.

50. Miss Worth will show you the way out. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

51. He sold them some photographs of Arlesian women: one was very beautiful. — ARTHUR SYMONS.

52. He sang Michele some English songs. — DORIS LESSING.

53. “What sort of job are you looking for?” asked Janet, to spare David the question, for if he asked it there might be an implication of finding her one. — The American Magazine.

54. He had friends, and a few of them would probably take him to the club and stand him drinks; it was a pleasant prospect, but not one to sigh for in anticipation. — JAMES HILTON.

55. He rose from the table, struck him a violent blow on the chest, and then laughed loudly like a peasant. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

56. Cheripichops is so excited that it'll take me ages to get him off to sleep. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

57. But when everyone tells you the same thing, you begin to believe it. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

58. But for many years it was difficult to teach him anything. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

59. Nobody could ever have thrown him a hand and cried: “Come out of that and look at the view”. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

60. I saw the policeman who had been talking to the girl, and he wished me luck. — L DIGBY DAWSON.

61. At any rate it had won him Mallinson's fervent admiration. — JAMES HILTON.

62. She had wondered, at first, if he would write her a letter, but had thought that he would probably be too busy. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

It is to be noted that when the direct object happens to be “it”, it precedes the indirect object instead of following it.

You never gave it me. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

In American usage, however, “gave it to me” would be the usual expression.

“Cost” is a curious word. It often takes a double object, as in:

Failure to do that has cost many of our people their lives. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

It cannot be put in the passive voice, however. For instance, we can say neither “Many of our people have been cost their lives” nor “The lives of many of our people have been cost them”. I might say a great deal on the question whether the verb is really transitive or intransitive. But as this is a book of composition rather than of grammar, suffice it to say that the verb actually takes either a single or a double object, but somehow it is never used in the passive voice.

It is usage that determines whether a verb can take a double object or not. You must not use a double object after a verb simply because its sense seems to you to admit of this construction. For instance, “tell” can take a double object, but “inform” cannot. “To inform her the matter” as incorrect; usage requires “of” after the “her”.[4]

Exercise 53

Write twenty sentences each with a copulative verb, thirty sentences each with a factitive verb, and forty sentences each with a verb taking a double object.

152. Tense and Time.Tense indicates time. But you must not suppose that tense and time always agree. If tense and time always agreed, there would be no present tense. For time is divided into two parts only, the past and the future, and the point of division has no dimension at all. As a matter of fact, a tense may often refer to a time quite different from that expressed by its name. For example, the verbs “start” and “leave” in the two following sentences are in the present tense, but they refer to the future:

1. I start tomorrow to try and cross Arabia. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

2. I leave tomorrow. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

Besides, it is to be noted that the terms “present participle” and “past participle” have practically no significance at all. It is absolutely wrong to think that the present participle always refers to the present and the past participle always refers to the past. It would no doubt save many students much trouble if the two kinds of participles were called by some other names, such as “participle A” and “participle B”.

153. Present Tense Referring to Future.1. When the present tense is used of the future in the main clause, there is generally an indication of time, such as the use of “tomorrow” in the two sentences quoted in Section 152. The action is usually regarded as having been decided upon beforehand. Besides “start” and “leave”, among the verbs often used in this way are “come”, “return”, “sail”, “fly”, and “stay”.

2. The present tense is used of the future in a clause introduced by “when”, “if”, “before”, “till” or “until”, “every time”, “by the time”, “as soon as”, “the moment”, etc.

(1) When I go out, I shan't be attached to any commission. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) If I don't find somebody by that time, I'll know I'm not intended for matrimony. — SUSAN ERTZ.

(3) I ought to change my clothes before I go. — BEN TRAVERS.

(4) I shan't be forty till I'm nearly twice as old as I am now. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

(5) If you refuse me I shall ask you every time we meet, till you are so sick of me that you will say yes for a change. — RUBY M AYRES.

(6) By the time you get it I shall have succeeded. — JAMES HILTON.

154. Present Tense Referring to Past.1. The present tense is used of the past in what is called the “historic present”, which serves to bring past events more vividly before the reader's mind.

Up from a table rise H A, and quickly advances, with that forward thrust of the head (that I have so often caricatured), and looking not a day older, though it was long since I had met him; and with just the same kind eager look in his eyes. — MAX BEERBOHM.

The “historic present” is now comparatively rare. You had better avoid it altogether. Out of the historic present arose the vulgarism “says I” as used in the following:

I stepped up to the copper. “If you please, sir,” says I “can you direct me to Carrickmines Square?” — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW. You are advised never to use this expression.

2. The present tense is used of the past in retelling a story. For example, the summary of The Old Wives' Tale as given towards the end of Section 36 might be rewritten in the present tense as follows:

Constance and Sophia Baines, two sisters, live together in Bursley, England. Constance, a staid and sensible young woman, marries Samuel Povey, the chief assistant in her father's shop, and spends all her life in Bursley. Sophia, more passionate and imaginative than Constance, elopes with Gerald Scales, a commercial traveller who has come into a fortune. Being a bad man, he carries Sophia to Paris and finally deserts her. She struggles to success as a lodging-house keeper in Paris. The sisters are reunited and spend their last years together in Bursley.

3. The present tense is much used of the past in the headings in newspapers, magazines, and stories.

(1) 74-Year-Old Baronet Marries Woman of 32 — The Sunday Express.

(2) Ants Quench Fire — Pearson's Weekly.

(3) Kay Speaks — ROSE MACAULAY, Dangerous Ages (Chapter XIV).

4. The present tense is used of the past in “I am told”, “I hear”, “I learn”, etc, which mean I have been told, I have heard, I have learnt, etc.

(1) I am told your play is very morbid. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) I hear today by cable that you are satisfied with these conditions, and I invite you, therefore, to sail in the Royal Mail Steam Packet “Don” from Southampton on Wednesday next. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

“I forget” is often used in the sense of I have forgotten.

Horace puts it very well in his usual wistful way — but I forget just how. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

5. “Dare” and “need” are sometimes used of the past, chiefly in negative and interrogative expressions.

(1) But she had vanished and he dare not ask for her. — H E BATES.

(2) After breakfast she took her hat and went down the road to meet him; it gave her a delicious sense of possession to know that now she had a right to meet him; that there need be no more stolen meetings; the whole world could know that he and she were engaged. — RUBY M AYRES.

155. Past Tense Referring to Future.The past tense is used of the future in the idiom “it is (high) time (that) ...” or “(high) time (that) ...”

If so, it is time we were made to understand this more clearly. — SAMUEL BUTLER. (we were made = for us to be made.)

Originally the verb was in the subjunctive mood. But the indicative mood is now regularly used in this construction.

The table belonged to my great-grandfather, and it's high time it was \[not were\] scratched. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

To use the present tense in this construction is not impossible, but very unusual. To use “should” is commoner than to use the present tense, but is still far less common than to use the past tense.

Below are more examples:

1. I reckon it's time we dropped the kidnapping theory. — JAMES HILTON.

2. It is time they had someone to fight their battles for them; and not only they, but I am given to understand that all over England weak-knee'd people are allowing plundering poulterers to swindle and rob them in this way. — E V LUCAS.

3. It is high time he had a bath, and in any case it would be much simpler to stand on the bank and fish for him with a rake. — P G WODEHOUSE.

4. It is high time, therefore, that the police were given a freer hand to tackle this evil. — Answers.

5. I don't know why, for he is certainly one of the most interesting of our clever young men, and it is time, anyhow, that some of the nonsense about his “conceit” was cleared up. — ETHEL MANNIN.

6. My dear, it's high time Laura married. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

7. Time you went to bed, Peter, don't you think? — EVELYN WAUGH.

8. Don't you think it time you had a little sleep, dear? — Pals.

The verb in the subordinate clause may be in the past continuous tense.

I suppose it is time I was going. — RUBY M AYRES.

The same idiom is used in the past tense, when the past tense verb in the subordinate clause refers to the future of the past.

1. He began to feel that it was time he was gone. — H E BATES.

2. She told him it was high time he got back into harness. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

3. He would tell me that I must use my head; that it was time I learnt to think things out; that I was a big boy, practically eight years old, and that it ought to be what he was fond of calling child's play for me to understand and deal sensibly with simple everyday things. — JAMES GOULD COZZENS.

There is an interesting use of the past continuous tense in referring to the future.

I was leaving the country tomorrow with my wife. — EDGAR WALLACE.

This implies that the idea has now been given up.

Exercise 54

A.

Write sentences illustrating the use of the present tense in clauses introduced by “when”, “if”, “before”, “till”, and “by the time”.

B.

Rewrite in the present tense the summary of “The Secret” that you wrote in Exercise 7.

C.

Write ten sentences each with the idiom “it is (high) time (that) ...” or “(high) time (that)...”.

156. Present Perfect Tense vs Past Tense.When to use the present perfect tense and when to use the past tense is a puzzling problem to many Chinese students. The difference between the two does not lie in the time when the action or event took place, but in the mental attitude in which the action or event is mentioned. The present perfect tense refers to something past in relation to the present; the past tense refers to something past without implying any relation to the present. “I have seen him once” means that up to the present I have seen him once, no matter when I saw him; “I saw him once” means that I saw him once at a certain time in the past, which may be either expressed or merely implied.

The present perfect tense is therefore regularly used with “since” (adverb, preposition, or conjunction).

1. I have been on the faculty since. — LEW SARETT.

2. I have been able to think of nothing ever since. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

3. I have been awake since five. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. One of the few things that I have learnt to be certain of since growing up, is that we are none of us unique. — E M DELAFIELD.

5. Matthew Maris has lived in England ever since he left Paris after the war. — E V LUCAS.

6. Something has happened since I left you this morning that makes it impossible for me to see you tomorrow as I said I would. — RUBY M AYRES.

In the following sentence it is interesting to note that the clause “ever since you came back from Italy” modifies not the verb “want” but the noun “behaviour”:

I want a full and honest explanation of your behaviour ever since you came back from Italy. — SUSAN ERTZ.

The present perfect tense is also regularly used with “yet” and “so far”

1. Have you read my poems yet? — ROSE MACAULAY.

2. The holidays so far have afforded me little rest. — EVELYN WAUGH.

The present perfect tense is also regularly used in the clause after “It is the first (or second, third, etc) time (that) ...”.

It's the first time that they have ever had a penny piece. — RUBY M AYRES.

It is to be noted that with “to this day” the present tense is far more usual than the present perfect tense.

To this day I do not know how I kept from betraying myself, and if the voice had not spoken I might have done so. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

The past tense is regularly used when a time in the past is indicated.

1. Once upon a time there was a little girl named Clara Amabel Platts. — E V LUCAS.

2. There were many reasons to move a writer to attempt a World History in 1918. — H G WELLS.

3. I heard you go downstairs a great while ago. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. Mr Perry saw it the other day when he called. — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

5. Well, I sat down there last night for half an hour before I went to bed, and immediately I began to think about murder. — D H BARBER.

In a sentence or clause introduced by the interrogative “when”, the past tense, not the present perfect tense, is used. This is because an indication of a time in the past is expected in the answer.

1. When did they go? — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. They can't tell to a few hours when I left camp! — R H MOTTRAM.

Both “Have you ever ...?” and “Did you ever ...?” are correct. The latter is generally (not always, however) a rhetorical question, that is, a question asked not for information but for effect.

1. Have you ever heard of it? — RUBY M AYRES.

2. Did you ever hear a small boy complain of having to hang about a railway station and wait for a train? — G K CHESTERTON. (Did you ever hear ...? = You are not expected ever to have heard.)

There is the common question “Did you ever?”, which is equivalent to “Did you ever see or hear of such a thing?” and means You are not expected ever to have seen or heard of such a thing.

In such expressions as the two following, the present perfect tense and the past tense seem to be equally common.

1. It is the most interesting collection of stories I have ever met with. — GEORGE MOORE.

2. The ugliest baby I ever saw. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

Incidentally, the colloquialism “have got” has lost the significance of the perfect tense, and means simply have.

I am sure she has not got a temper, and I am sure she never longed to throw anything at anybody in all her life. — RUBY M AYRES.

This colloquialism is also used before an infinitive.

You've got to learn — just to the corner by the telegraph pole there, and then you shall have a rest. — RUBY M AYRES.

157. Past Perfect Tense.The past perfect tense, otherwise called the pluperfect, denotes an action or event completed before a past point or time, which may be either expressed or implied.

Then, after a while, he became aware that something strange had happened. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

Here the past perfect tense denotes that something strange had happened before the point of time at which the man became aware of the fact.

It must not be supposed, however, that in a sentence in which the past perfect tense is used the past tense is always also used.

Carpentaria decided in the fraction of a second what he would do. He slipped into his bedroom, took off his boots, put on a pair of felt slippers, scurried downstairs, opened the side-door, and gently slipped out. Ham, tramping slowly with clumsy footsteps, had reached the arch leading to the Central Way. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

Here the past perfect tense is used alone in a sentence. It denotes that Ham had reached the arch before the point of time at which Carpentaria slipped out by the side-door.

Nor must it be supposed that when both the past tense and the past perfect tense are used in a sentence, the action or event denoted by the past perfect tense is always supposed to have been previous to that denoted by the past tense. In “He had done it before she did it”, his doing it, denoted by the past perfect tense, was previous to her doing it, denoted by the past tense. But, in “He did it before she had done it”, her doing it, denoted by the past perfect tense, was not previous but possibly subsequent to his doing it, denoted by the past tense. In the first sentence, the point of time was that at which the woman did it. In the second sentence, the point of time was not that at which the man did it, but that at which the woman completed her action; her action was previous to that point of time, though possibly subsequent to the man's action. The past perfect tense is used in the following sentence in the same way as in the second sentence explained above:

At dinner an allied Major told me a long story, which was unfortunately interrupted before the point had been reached. — MAURICE BARING.

What has been said in Section 156 in regard to “since”, “yet”, “so far”, and “It is the first (or second, third, etc) time (that) ...”, applies to past perfect tense as well.

1. Ever since she had returned to London, Nancy had been waiting for an opportunity to clear herself with Kraft. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. Judy had neither seen nor heard from Major Crosby since the day they had had tea together at Madame Claire's. — SUSAN ERTZ.

3. It was the first time anyone had spoken to her in a friendly way for a long time. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

158. Perfect Tense vs Factitive “Have” with Past Participle as Complement.The perfect tense, in which “have” is the auxiliary verb, and the construction of the factitive verb “have” taking a past participle as its complement must be distinguished from each other. The latter construction may or may not have a causative meaning.

1. Will you please have him removed? — Punch. (have him removed = cause him to be removed)

2. He hired a young French architect to build the house, and also to have it furnished. — PEARL S BUCK. (have it furnished = cause it to be furnished)

3. I won't have you upset before this afternoon. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH. (have you upset = cause you to be upset)

4. He had his hair cut. — HUGH WALPOLE. (had his hair cut = caused his hair to be cut) (It is interesting to compare this sentence with “He had cut his hair”, which means that the man had cut his hair himself.)

5. I've had that said to me a million times if I have once. — L M MONTGOMERY. (No causative meaning)

6. I mean, will Father like having bats let out all over the house? — HARRY GRAHAM. (No causative meaning)

Exercise 55

A.

Write twenty sentences in which the present perfect tense is used and another twenty in which the past perfect tense is used.

B.

Write ten sentences in which the factitive verb “have” takes a past participle as its complement.

159. Continuous Tenses.The continuous tenses, otherwise called the progressive forms, are used chiefly to represent the action or state in question as going on at the time referred to. They are often used as a frame round something else, which may be either expressed or implied.

I was amusing myself by these speculations when I was startled for the moment by a succession of short sharp shrieks, ending in a prolonged and blood-curdling yell. — F ANSTEY.

Here the action of “amusing myself” serves as a frame round the being startled by a succession of shrieks. In other words, the “amusing myself” is a setting to what happened — the being startled.

The frame and what is within it do not necessarily occur in the same sentence.

A soft, misty rain was scudding down the valley between Platnix Farm and the village of Westfield. From the parlour window, Selina could see the little houses through a silver veil. She stared at them dreamily, as she sat at her breakfast, making up poems and songs about them — poems and songs that were never finished, because she could not find enough rhymes and because there was so much in her thoughts that words would not fit at all. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

What I have called a “frame” is an important use of the continuous tenses.

In Section 153 you have learnt that “start”, “leave”, “come”, “return”, etc are sometimes used in the present tense with reference to the future, generally with an indication of time. These same verbs are sometimes used in the present continuous tense with reference to the future, also generally with an indication of time.

1. I am coming home on Sunday, just for a few days. — RUBY M AYRES.

2. Helen is sailing for New York on Saturday. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

This use has led to the very common use of “going” followed by an infinitive:

1. Tonight is going to be a great night in the history of Christendom. — SAKI.

2. I think Henderson was going to enlarge on them, but the rickshaw boy passed the turning he should have taken. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

In this idiom “going” does not retain the meaning of going, as can be seen in “going to go.”

I'm going to go to sleep. — JAMES HILTON.

The perfect continuous tense implies that the action or state in question began a very short time ago and may not yet be completed at the moment.

1. Things have been happening here. — SUSAN ERTZ.

2. He has been telling me how good you have been to him. — JAMES HILTON.

It is interesting to compare the three following sentences:

1. He will come. (Future)

2. He is coming. (Present Continuous)

3. He will be coming. (Future Continuous)

The first sentence refers vaguely to the future. The second refers to the immediate future. The third refers to the near, but not necessarily immediate, future.

160. “Always” with Continuous Tenses.“Always” used with the present or the past continuous tense means repeatedly or (too) frequently, often with an emotional suggestion.

I'm always forgetting the important thing. — PEARL S BUCK. Here the use of “always” implies annoyance at the habit of forgetting the important thing. Below are more examples:

1. In the pensions they never knew who you were, but were always trying to find out, and generally succeeded the day after you went away. — ANTHONY HOPE.

2. I think that his friends were always coming up against something in him that they didn't understand. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

3. Lady Bunter was always getting into trouble with her almanac. — BEN TRAVERS.

4. She was always flashing her teeth about like a torch on a dark night — Answers.

5. They quoted Kipling — they were always quoting Kipling. — H M TOMLINSON.

6. But literary people are always looking for leisure and silence in which to read and do so with their whole attention. — C S LEWIS.

“Constantly”, “continually”, and “for ever” are often used instead of “always” in this construction.

1. People seem to be constantly giving me instructions of that kind. — ETHEL MANNIN.

2. One of the great disadvantages of being a coward is that one is constantly having to eat things that one does not wish to eat. — ROBERT LYND.

Then too, you're constantly being bumped against by those of poor vision. — RALPH ELLISON.

161. “Be” in Continuous Tenses.“Be” (or rather “being”) used in the present or the past continuous tense is quite common in present-day English, especially in dialogue, though grammars do not usually mention it.

1. You are being difficult this evening, aren't you? — EVELYN WAUGH.

2. I'm not being silly. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

3. You're being horrible. — EDGAR WALLACE.

4. He was only being funny. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

5. Janet edged towards the stage, where David was shaking hands and being the charming great man. — The American Magazine.

162. “Used” Followed by Infinitive.“Used” followed by an infinitive denotes a habitual action or state in the past, especially when there is no indication of time. This seems to be much more used than the past tense in referring vaguely to the past.

1. We used to hear him singing in a cheerful rasping voice under the big cedar when he thought no-one was near. — EDWARD THOMAS.

2. When two celebrated talkers of the kind that I have described used to meet, the talk was nothing but a brisk interchange of anecdotes. — A C BENSON.

3. As for the pure juice of the apple, four gallons a day per man used to be the harvest allowance in Somerset when I was a boy. — GEORGE SAINTSBURY.

4. I used to barricade my hut at night against her. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

5. I used to hear it at almost every meal. — LORD PONSONBY.

6. But we don't love each other as we used to do. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

“Used” is very seldom, if ever, used in the past perfect tense.

And at that she would have begun to feel even proud of him again as she had used to do were it not that there he was standing in the door way, carrying a parcel. — HUGH WALPOLE.

“Use” similarly used in the present tense is now archaic. So is “used” used in the present perfect tense.

In interrogative sentences, “used” is put before the subject as if it were an auxiliary verb.

At which table used he to sit? — LEONARD MERRICK.

“At which table did he use to it?” is, however, often used, especially in conversation and informal writing.

In negative sentences, “used not” seems to be the usual form.

Frere recoiled, for Peter used not to talk that kind of jargon. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

However, “usedn't” (or “usen't”) and “did not use” (or “didn't use) are also used, especially in conversation and informal writing.

This idiomatic use of “used” followed by an infinitive must not be confused with the past participle (used as an adjective) followed by the preposition “to”:

1. You get used to the loneliness. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. He was used to air travel, and took things for granted. — JAMES HILTON.

Notice that as the “to” (after the past participle “used”) in the following sentence is the preposition, not the sign of an infinitive, “being” is used after it instead of “be”:

A body can get used to anything, even to being hanged, as the Irishman said. — L M MONTGOMERY.

Exercise 56

Write five sentences in which a continuous tense is used as a “frame”, five sentences each with “going” followed by an infinitive, five sentences in which a continuous tense is used with “always”, five sentences in which “be” is used in a continuous tense, and five sentences with “used” followed by an infinitive.

163. “Be” Followed by Infinitive.The verb “to be” followed by an infinitive expresses intention, duty, possibility, etc.

1. We were to make ourselves drunk and then do the shooting. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

2. What are we to do? — HUGH WALPOLE.

3. They told Pear Blossom when they went at the beginning of the night that she was to call them if their father began his dying again suddenly, and they went to their rest. — PEARL S BUCK.

4. I am not to be turned aside by impudent flippancy. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

5. Nevertheless, he was to remain for the next four years China, where he was to lay the foundations of an extraordinary renown. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

6. But his study of Western philosophy had only served in the end to satisfy him that wisdom, after all, was to be found within the limits of the Confucian canon. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

“Was” followed by a perfect infinitive expresses the failure of a plan.

1. I was to have caught that train. — BEN TRAVERS.

2. The instituter of the expedition was Gerda, and according to her original plan it was to have consisted solely of herself and her brother. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

3. They were to have been married, but he found out about Petrovitch and left her. — SUSAN ERTZ.

4. A delegation of British trade unionists which was to have left London by boat for Leningrad missed the tide and had to defer their departure until early today. — The Sunday Express. (Incidentally, the “their” ought to be “its”; see Section 74.)

164. “Have” Followed by Infinitive.The verb “to have” followed by an infinitive expresses necessity or obligation.

1. You'll have to help, please. — A A MILNE.

2. I have only to blow this whistle. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. If I win, darling, we shall have to run away and get married before they find out who I am. — W A DARLINGTON.

4. If I had to break off to come out for a moment into the real world, I would always pick up the story where I last left it off in my mind. — ETHEL MANNIN.

5. That she had to serve them was only, he had thought, what she should do in return. — PEARL S BUCK.

6. If she was to make her fortune, she would have to do it alone. — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT.

Exercise 57

Write ten sentences each with the verb “to be” followed by an infinitive and another ten each with the verb “to have” followed by an infinitive.

165. Infinitive without “to”.After certain verbs the infinitive is idiomatically without “to”.

1. Had I given heed to all the people who bade me be discreet and reticent in the writing of this book, it would never have got written. — ETHEL MANNIN.

2. I felt his hand cover mine. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

3. John, why don't you go find some sea shells? — JAMES GOULD COZZENS. (This usage is rather colloquial, originally American.)

4. Talking of landmarks, we had a queer point arise in that Aztec Street inquiry. — STACY AUMONIER.

5. I heard the key turn. — H G WELLS. (There is the idiomatic phrase “hear tell of”, now colloquial, meaning be told about, as in “he had heard tell of them, read of them in the paper, but was far from imagining what they might have been like, having no data to go on and no power of imagination.” — R H MOTTRAM.)

6. No. I do not even know him, but Mr Manders tells me he helped you bring me here — after the accident. — RUBY M AYRES.

7. The Chinese people, sent ＄200,000 to help save American sufferers in the Ohio and Mississippi River floods in 1936 and 1937. — New York Sun. (After “help” the infinitive may also have “to”, as in “The jester thrives and helps to throw ridicule over the very idea of night operations” — J B MORTON.)

8. In all my experience I never knew a woman ask that question unless she was in love. — ANTHONY HOPE. (After “know”, the infinitive may also have “to”, as in “People may think that this means that I scamp and hurry, but I always rewrite my books twice, word by word, from the beginning, and I have known myself to write a chapter seven times.” — ROMER WILSON.)

9. Let those who know the dens of London give the answer. — GRACE RHYS. (There are the idiomatic phrases “let go” and “let go of”, as in “Let go that bridle”— WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM, and “She let go of Hellmut's arm” — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.)

10. Art and beauty seem not to touch him, and as I listen to him talk so sympathetically of the Chinese poets I cannot help asking myself if the best things have not, after all, slipped through his fingers. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

11. Her voice, very low and soft, made the other actors give up whispering and listen. — H E BATES.

12. It seemed also that he pleased Lord Bampton, who did not observe the ladies come in. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

13. Please take steps. — Punch. (This is a very common usage. “Please” followed by an infinitive with “to”, as in “Please to take steps”, is not impossible, but seems to be used by old-fashioned people only. Incidentally, “please” can be followed even by “don't”, as in “Please don't be there” — H E BATES.)

14. Pray kiss her hands for me in reverence and love. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

15. I was in the garden and looked up to see her clutch frantically at the curtains and then swing dizzily in mid-air. — Listener.

16. His guests found it fun to watch him make tea — mixing careful spoonfuls from different caddies. — JAMES HILTON.

When the verb is used in the passive voice, the infinitive usually has “to”.

1. That peculiarity he had inherited from her, for she had often been heard to say that she loved Eric because he was Eric and not because she had borne him. — SUSAN ERTZ.

2. I followed the auctioneer's advice: “You can always get your own way if you bid long enough”, but unfortunately I was made to pay for it. — LORD PONSONBY.

3. In the early days of her first spring she is seen to steady her gaze and follow a flock of birds as they take wing and cross over the nearby dune. — ELEANOR THORNE.

After some verbs, either an infinitive without “to” or a present participle may be used, with only a very slight difference in meaning.

1. At the top of the hill I heard a small baby crying. —H V MORTON.

2. He felt her life coursing into him from her touch. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

3. He saw his father looking at him, with the cunning ferocity and hatred of a wild animal. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

4. A farmer stood watching a battalion of infantry filing into his pasture. — R H MOTTRAM.

What I have called a very slight difference is that there is less emphasis on the participle than on the infinitive, “I heard a small baby crying” means A small baby was crying and I happened to hear it; “I heard a small boy cry” means A small boy cried, and I heard it. When intention is meant, the infinitive is regularly used, as in “I should like to hear you sing.”

The infinitive is without “to” after “do nothing but”, “do anything but”, “do less than”, “had better”, “dare” and “need” in negative and interrogative expressions, and “rather than”, and in the idiomatic phrase “I dare say”.

1. At school I could do nothing but write. — ETHEL MANNIN.

2. I didn't have anything to do but think this while I was waiting for her to speak. — ALAN SILLITOE.

3. Salesgirls dressed in pants suits stand around with nothing to do except giggle with one another and nod their heads to the music amplified throughout the store. — JOYCE CAROL OATES.

4. They are always too well written, too cunningly pathetic, to heavily ornamented with lists of titled patrons to do anything but repel my sympathies. — ROBERT GRAVES.

5. I had nothing better to do than listen. — JOHN CHEEVER.

6. In the circumstances I could hardly do less than accept his invitation. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

7. I had better say at once that I don't set up to be literary. — F ANSTEY.

8. But she had vanished and he dare not ask for her. — H E BATES.

9. He dared not take the risk. — W A DARLINGTON.

10. How dare you speak to me like this? — RUBY M AYRES.

11. In the distance an oblivious orchestra was fiddling away for dear life, but among the actual onlookers no one dared breathe. — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT.

12. He need not come now unless you wish it. — RUBY M AYRES.

13. The company, rather than get nothing, accepted. — Answers. (It must not be supposed that after “than” the infinitive is always without “to”; in such a sentence as the following the “to” is necessary: “I might know better than to look for any fairness in a man like you!” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.)

14. I dare say it was because he was stony broke. — LEONARD MERRICK. (“I dare say” means perhaps; the “dare say” is often written as one word, as in “I daresay you heard the crowd cheering.” — ARNOLD BENNETT.)

The omission of “to” before the “build” and “play” in the following sentence is rather unusual:

It was amazing the number of things these people expected him to do besides build up a business — and play golf. — SUSAN ERTZ.

166. Split Infinitives.By the split infinitive is meant an infinitive with an adverb or adverbial phrase between the sign “to” and the verb.

1. You seem to half believe your own imaginations. — L M MONTGOMERY.

2. It is about this time that Martha attempts to regularly take the little girl with her on all occasions; for now that look of Fear has gone. — ELEANOR THORNE.

3. For the first time she seemed to really know and feel the sort of lives they led. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

4. The time has come to once again voice the general discontent. — The Times.

5. It's been for centuries wrapped in cant and humbug and expedience and camouflage; I don't profess to be able to pierce through all that, or to so much as begin to think it out clearly. — ROSE MACAULAY.

The split infinitive is generally condemned by grammarians. It is certainly not desirable in itself. But it is quite defensible when the avoidance of it would cause awkwardness or ambiguity. To split an infinitive or not to split it is often a question of style rather than of grammar or idiom.

167. “To” Standing for Infinitive.“To” sometimes stands for an infinitive to be inferred from the context.

1. She had hardly ever been along that Kentish road, though she had often wanted to \[= to be along that Kentish road\]. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. He thought that she was going to break off a spray, and, remembering the country belief that whoever takes home black-thorn carries death into the house, he had a confused idea that he must call to her, warn her, tell her not to \[= to break off a spray\]. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

3. I know that I pretended to Lettice to adore her long after I had ceased to \[= to adore her\], simply because I wanted Lettice to go on adoring her. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

4. Father will do exactly what I tell him to \[= to do\]. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

5. But they couldn't get to the bottom of a thing even if they wanted to \[= to get to the bottom of a thing］. — SAUL BELLOW.

Exercise 58

Write ten sentences each with an infinitive without “to”, and another ten each with “to” standing for an infinitive.

168. “To” Followed by Gerund.The fact that “to “is the sign of the infinitive must not interfere with the many expressions in which the preposition “to” governs a gerund.

1. She was not, after all, accustomed to having everything just as she liked. — ANTHONY HOPE. (After “accustomed”, the infinitive may also be used, as in “The man who is accustomed to do the right thing at the right moment will not lose his head in a crisis”. — J B MORTON.)

2. The women, too, have mostly some useful knowledge in addition to being good housekeepers. — The Children's Newspaper.

3. A man could easily have slipped in and out; and as to getting away, why, it's not two minutes' walk to the outskirts and the open country from any point of the town, and — J S FLETCHER.

4. The friendship begun by a common aversion to kissing, a jade-green frock, and a bunch of dangling crimson peppers grew — and more than once it pulsed. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

5. She also was playing a part and was quite willing to flirt judiciously with a presentable butler — more especially with on who laid claim to being a Montpensier — and to permit that he should respond judiciously. — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

6. He was twenty years old before he came close to being actually violent with his father. —NORMAN MAILER.

7. Two men, equal in brain and courage, will behave quite differently when it comes to walking under a ladder or lighting a cigarette from a match from which two cigarettes have been already lit. — ROBERT LYND.

8. In the early days of Buddhism in China, when there was a considerable amount of translation from Sanskrit, Indian influences came near to achieving this end; two Chinese alphabets were, indeed, invented, and each had some little use. — H G WELLS.

9. Well, I've committed you to watching a suspected house. — H C BAILEY.

10. To be an American and unable to play baseball is comparable to being a Polynesian and unable to swim. — JOHN CHEEVER.

11. Mr Davies, the station-master, confessed to seeing him earlier in the evening in a state of depression. — EVELYN WAUGH.

12. It is for the person “who has rendered the most valuable services to the cause of peace or contributed to finding means of combating war”. — The Children's Newspaper. (After “contribute(d)”, the infinitive may also be used.)

13. Moreover, all the power I possess will be devoted to hounding you out of that profession you have dishonoured. — STACY AUMONIER.

14. In the last chapter, remedies directed to reversing the present trend are discussed. — Now and Then.

15. On bringing her to the front I discovered that I was in love with her; and on ringing her up I was delighted to hear that she was agreeably disposed to seeing me at her flat, at about five o'clock any afternoon. — MICHAEL ARLEN. (After “disposed”, the infinitive may also be used.)

16. Tell her I'm so sorry I'm not equal to calling upon her. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

17. And while the old dog padded away, he fell to wondering what it was he had been thinking about before. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

18. A dozen picnic parties, driven for refuge from all parts of the wood, filled it to overflowing. — JOHN METCALFE.

19. Well, then, in this sense, books have changed within our own time from being a luxury to being in the main a necessary. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

20. Then he got to drinking and running after women. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

21. I suppose in such matters I am neither exceptionally steady-headed, nor is my head exceptionally given to swimming. — H G WELLS.

22. The main influences that went to forming a different point of view were Darwin's biological theories, Comte's application of scientific ideas to the study of society, and Taine's application of deterministic theories to literature. — J A CUDDON.

23. We are a family party — or at any rate we look forward to being one some day, and even now escape none of the characteristics of such gatherings. — ANTHONY HOPE.

24. Next to drinking buttermilk the thing that Miss Julia most enjoyed was reading novels in bed — by the soft, clear light of four or five wax candles. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

25. It is becoming unsafe to say anything in a mixed gathering which one would object to seeing in print. — ETHEL MANNIN.

26. I fancy I have a growing objection to being buried anywhere at all. — ROBERT LYND.

27. He was a silent fellow as a rule and preferred being alone to mixing with the villagers. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

28. But I think it is a less, and perhaps also a preferable risk to being starved or frozen to death. — JAMES HILTON.

29. Matthew encountered the station-master locking up the ticket-office preparatory to going home for supper, and asked him if the five-thirty train would soon be along. — L M MONTGOMERY.

30. If you'll only call me Anne spelt with an e, I shall try to reconcile myself to not being called Cordelia. — L M MONTGOMERY.

31. Unless the size of the family overdraft has reduced him to working for his living, in which case you probably won't see him, the squire's son may easily fulfil your conception of him. — Answers. (After “reduce(d)”, the infinitive may also be used.)

32. The numerous persons interested, officially or otherwise, in their destinies had perforce resorted to differentiating between them by reference to their cargoes. — The Times.

33. If I tell you that there is a girl in that house, and that I must rescue that girl, then you will perhaps see your way to minding your own business. — MICHAEL ARLEN. (After “see one's way”, the infinitive may also be used.)

34. The Western interest in all proletarian movements has set young China to thinking about her proletariat, and to discovering the extraordinary quality of her country people maintaining their life pure and incredibly undisturbed by the world's confusion. — PEARL S BUCK.

35. I think I'll stick to reviewing other people. — GWYN JONES.

36. Her husband submitted to travelling in the closed carriage of a European funeral, but half-way along the route, overcome by the stifling atmosphere, he burst from the coach and disappeared. — Answers.

37. He took to coming here, if ever 1 was away. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

38. Within a short time, thanks to being well dressed, he was a star, earning ￡ 1,500 a week. — Answers.

39. There are always thousands of starlings in the neighbourhood, but this year even people who are used to seeing flocks of them are astonished at their numbers. — The Children's Newspaper.

40. Decent people converse about books with a view to finding common ground and exchanging delight (deep or frivolous) thereon. — GILBERT NORWOOD. (After “with a view”, the infinitive may also be used, but “to” + a gerund is the better usage.)

41. Clearly he was on his way to becoming a soldier. — J B MORTON.

Exercise 59

Write twenty sentences each with the preposition “to” followed by a gerund.

169. Infinitive or Gerund?It has been said in Section 117 that “it” may be used as the subject or object anticipating an infinitive or a gerund. As to when to use an infinitive and when to use a gerund, no rule can be given. The fact, however, is that the infinitive is far commoner than the gerund, and that as the latter construction is more or less colloquial, the former is to be preferred in serious writing.

Some nouns, adjectives and past participles, and, verbs are idiomatically followed by the infinitive, and some by the gerund (with a preposition in the case of nouns and adjectives and past participles, and with or without a preposition in the case of verbs), and some by either, with or without a difference in meaning. To use the infinitive where usage requires the gerund or to use the gerund where usage requires the infinitive results in unidiomatic English.

The former seems to be a much commoner mistake than the latter.

It is not possible to give satisfactory rules in this matter. For the usage depends upon the particular word concerned. A word of caution may be given to the effect that you must not use the infinitive or the gerund after a certain word simply because an analogous word is idiomatically followed by the infinitive or the gerund. For example, the “desire to discuss” and “idea of passing” in the two following sentences cannot be changed to “desire of discussing” and “idea to pass”:

1. Conway had no desire to discuss the matter further in a merely speculative way; there had been enough of that during the journey. — JAMES HILTON.

2. The idea of passing his remaining days in her society revolted him. — P G WODEHOUSE.

Particular care should be taken in the case of words that may take either construction but with a difference in meaning.

As you have probably gathered from Section 168, the mistake of using an infinitive where usage requires the preposition “to” followed by a gerund is due to the fact that “to” happens to be the sign of the infinitive. In the following lists of words followed by the infinitive and/or the gerund, those followed by “to” and a gerund are omitted because they have already been illustrated in Section 168.

Nouns.

ability.Followed by the infinitive, as in “At the hotel Frere developed an ability to express himself in the spoken word” — ROLAND PERTWEE.

ambition.Followed by either the infinitive (or, perhaps less commonly, “of” and gerund), as in So I hope that you will remember my name, and my ambition to obtain appointment to the Navy Academy. — HERMAN WOUK.

attempt.Followed by the infinitive, as in “At length Professor Porter essayed an attempt to move one leg” — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

capacity.Followed by either the infinitive or “for” and the gerund, as in “Voltaire said that one died twice; once with the death of the whole body and once before, with the death of one's capacity to love.” — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY, and “Humanity's capacity for dragging itself through dark tunnels and emerging again into the light at the other end, alive if not whole, appears to be infinite.” — ETHEL MANNIN.

chance.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “For next morning he was recalled to Madrid with no chance to bid his chief goodbye” — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT, and “As things turned out, there was only about half an hour in which we should have a chance of getting away unseen: after dark fell and before the ship sailed at eight o'clock.” — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

determination.Followed by the infinitive, as in “In her determination to school him into regular methods and hours of work she wafted him off to his study after breakfast each morning and bade him enter and evolve.” — ROLAND PERTWEE.

effort.Followed by the infinitive, as in “The strenuous effort to be original often ends in a very common type of folly.” — HENRY VAN DYKE. When used in the sense of an artistic or literary product, followed by “at” and the gerund, as in “An infant's effort at creating a kitten” — H C BAILEY.

excuse.Followed by “for” and the gerund, as in “You can scarcely apply that system to murder, for if you did the murdered man would have some excuse for actively haunting your slumbers.” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

failure.Followed by the infinitive, as in “But I was disappointed and chagrined to the very roots of my being at this blank failure to advance, by a single fruitful speculation, the problems I had gone so many miles, and worked so exceedingly hard, to resolve.” — EDEN PHILL-POTTS.

habit.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “He had a habit of coming and whining under the window when James was at work” — P G WODEHOUSE.

honour.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “Tell her I will do myself the honour to call upon her at any time he suggests unless she prefers to consult me here.” — AGATHA CHRISTIE, and “I will do myself the honour of calling upon her”.

hope.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “There was little to hold him to life except her letters, and the hope he had of seeing her and those about her again.” — SUSAN ERTZ.

impulse.Followed by the infinitive, as in “At Frere's entrance he displayed a natural impulse to screen it from view by standing in front or the thing.” — ROLAND PERTWEE.

inclination.Followed by the infinitive, as in “after a month or two Rhoda had lost any inclination to say no.” — HERMAN WOUK.

injunction.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Well, Louisa had gone up to her room, leaving me alone in the drawing-room with an injunction not to sit up late” — F ANSTEY.

instructions(plural). Followed by the infinitive, as in “I have received instructions to tell you.” — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

intention.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “I have no intention of writing a history of the War or of my insignificant part in it” — GERALD BULLETT.

liberty.“At liberty” is followed by the infinitive, as in “If you should hear some music you will know that you are at liberty to turn on all the lights you like.” — ARNOLD BENNETT.

“Take the liberty” is followed by either “of” and the gerund or the infinitive, as in “I took the liberty of inserting the name myself, sir.” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE, and “I took the liberty to insert the name myself”.

means.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “I went to talk to her, as a means of keeping in check my growing excitement.” — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

need.Followed by the infinitive except when preceded by “the”, as in “There was no need to say more.” — JOHN MASEFIELD. “The need” is followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “My friends say that I laughed and cried naturally, and for a while I made many sounds and word-elements, not because they were a means of communication, but because the need of exercising my vocal organs was imperative” — HELEN KELLER.

necessity.Followed by “of” or “for” and the gerund, as in “But they also realize the necessity of facing death.” — HAVELOCK ELLIS, and “The necessity for doing something was becoming imperative.” — SAKI.

occasion.Followed by the infinitive, as in “If the day had been fine a good many people would have found occasion to be at the station so as to witness the arrival.” — MARGARET KENNEDY.

opportunity.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” or “for” and the gerund, as in “It would take her away from the village; it would put her beyond the chance of meeting Bonallack, and give her an opportunity to forget him” — RUBY M AYRES, “His enemies soon found an opportunity of silencing him” — ARTHUR WALEY, and “They would have ample opportunity for speaking to Jarman that morning, for Nurse would have to stay indoors to pack.” — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

permission.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I told hint I couldn't give him permission to proceed.” — JOSEPH CONRAD.

power.“A power” of “the power” is followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “It is maintained by Superintendent Bell and others of his devoted admirers that he has a queer power of divining the people behind facts, a sort of sixth sense.” — H C BAILEY, and “It has been my privilege to meet a few great actors and actresses who have the power of so bewitching you that you forge time and place and live again in the romantic past.” — HELEN KELLER.

promise.Followed by the infinitive, as in “And yet I believe he has even kept his promise not to play bridge with hers” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

proposal.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Then, as he went on his way to wake his wife and face her with the soothing proposal to pawn her ring early the next morning, something happened to Collinson” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

purpose.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “But since that letter has now served its original purpose of arousing your interest in the matter, I feel that it would be better forgotten, as far as possible” — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

reason.“Every reason” is followed by the infinitive, as in “He has every reason to work.” — ROLAND PERTWEE. “A reason” or “reasons” is followed by “for” and the gerund, as in “I can assure you that I have a — a reason for asking.” — AGATHA CHRISTIE, and “You have reasons for not wishing to return to Russia.” — AGATHA CHRISTIE. (In the following sentence the infinitive “to commit” seems rather unusual, and “for him to commit” might be changed to “for committing”: “There was nobody on earth to murder Slanning; but there was a reason in his own mind for him to commit suicide.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.) “Reason” or “no reason” is followed by either the infinitive or “for” and the gerund, as in “I have reason to believe she's in Petrograd.” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM. “Although she knew his uncle might have reason for dealing with him so severely, Patrician ever could rid herself of the feeling that Julian was a man with a heart and with a noble disposition.” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS, “You have no reason to doubt her?” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS, and “There's no reason for coming barging into other people's studios.” — MARGARET KENNEDY. “Any reason” is followed by “for” and the gerund, as in “Do you know whether he had any enemies — anybody who had any reason for wanting to get rid of him?” — J S FLETCHER.

reluctance.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Such reflections foster humility, and they foster also a reluctance, which it is impossible to praise too highly, to tread on other people's toes” — ARNOLD BENNETT.

resolution.Followed by the infinitive, as in “The man who has the resolution to contribute nothing at all to social service should have the resolution not to be ashamed of it.” — ROBERT GRAVES.

responsibility.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “No, she could not take the responsibility of doing that!” — L M MONT-GOMERY.

right.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “Clearly, then, the pig is our good little brother, and we have no right to be disgusted at home”. — GRACE RHYS, and “We have no right of being disgusted at home”.

tendency.Followed by the infinitive, as in “There is a tendency among modern critics to gauge all novels by a single literary standard — a standard, in fact, which should be applied only to novels that patently seek a niche among the enduring works of imaginative letters.” — WILLARD HUNTINGTON WRIGHT.

time.“Time” and “no time” are followed by the infinitive, as in “It is time to return to Mr Windlesham and his sister.” — FRANK SWINNERTON, and “There is no time for her to give any individual attention today, and therefore she does not have the opportunity to observe how very nervous and frightened one little beginner is.” — ELEANOR THORNE.

way.When used in the sense of method, followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “I must quietly think out what is the best way to find him.” — HUGH WALPOLE, and “That is one way of looking at it” — H C BAILEY. (Somehow the infinitive would be less idiomatic in the second sentence.) When used in the sense of personal peculiarity, followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “He has a way of putting things that wouldn't occur to an ordinary man, has parson, and I did as he told me.” — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

willingness.Followed by the infinitive, as in “As Kunta plucked off for himself some of the ripened fruits, he sensed his father's mood of willingness to talk today.” — ALEX HALEY.

wish.Followed by the infinitive, as in “When I announced my wish to meet this distinguished person my host immediately offered to arrange a meeting; but the days passed and nothing happened” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

Adjectives and Past Participles.

able.Followed by the infinitive, as in “And he was able to do as he had decided.” — PEARL S BUCK.

afraid.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “And, worst of all, I was afraid to tell.” — JACK LONDON, and “Most people are afraid of going to the dentist to have a tooth extracted, but it is rare to find a dentist who is afraid of taking a tooth out” — Answers.

ambitious.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Perhaps you were waiting to apply for a job; perhaps you had some “deal” you were ambitious to put over. — CHRISTOPHER MORLEY.

annoyed.Followed by either “at” and the gerund or the infinitive, as in “He was annoyed at having forgotten, and started to unwind them.” — J B MORTON, and “He was annoyed to have forgotten”.

anxious.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He would then ask for an account of the business, and was anxious to know whether Steve was ‘making good’” — J B MORTON.

ashamed.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “It's platinum, yes; but look at the stone in it, about the size of a pin-head, so's I'm ashamed to wear it when any of my friends see me! — BOOTH TARKINGTON, and “A little girl like you should be ashamed of talking so about a lady and a stranger” — L M MONTGOMERY.

bent.Followed by “on” and the gerund, as in “Well, Judith, I can see you're bent on going.” — SUSAN ERTZ.

capable.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “It was the knowledge of the second will that was troubling her; she was not capable of carrying through such a deception.” — RUBY M AYRES.

careful.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He was always careful never to speak of things before Amos that would have put his brother in a false position, or make him appear mentally inferior in general conversation.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

competent.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Those who know most about China know nothing, but you will at least find one who is competent to give you a rendering of a few rough and simple lines.” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

content(willing). Followed by the infinitive, as in “But be was content to die here in the midst of his lands, in this old house of his fathers, in this room with its rude, unpainted table and benches, under his blue cotton bed-curtains, since die he must.” — PEARL S BUCK.

curious.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I am curious to see.” — MORLEY ROBERTS.

delighted.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Roserra was surprised and delighted to find how childishly happy Livia could be among new surroundings.” — ARTHUR SYMONS.

desirous.Followed by either “of” and the gerund or, perhaps less commonly, the infinitive, as in “It was well to leave behind stout believers in her integrity, or at least well-wishers who would not be desirous of pressing inquiries too relentlessly against her” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE, and “They implied, even if they took no means to secure it, an active intellect, stirred by passionate ideas, and quite as desirous to express itself as to discover how to be obvious to others” — HENRY SEIDEL CANBY.

determined.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Nancy, however, was quite cool, because she was determined to be a great success.” — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

disposed.Followed by the infinitive, as in “The truth was that he didn't feel disposed to go.” — SUSAN ERTZ.

eager.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Everywhere were germs eager to destroy one.” — STACY AUMONIER.

fond.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “Mr Harrington was very fond of reading aloud.” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

inclined.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I gathered from his attitude that he was inclined to take a rather gloomy view of my behaviour.” — HARRY GRAHAM.

interested.Followed by either the infinitive or “in” and the gerund, as in “I am very interested to hear about him.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS, and “I am very interested in hearing about him”.

pleased.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Abner, you are pleased to jest, but I am in deadly earnest.” — MELVILLE DAVISSON POST.

proud.Followed by either the infinitive or “of” and the gerund, as in “I am proud to count him among my friends.” — HELEN KELLER, and “Because he wasn't such a mug as to be proud of taking it” — GERALD KERSH.

right.Followed by “in” and the gerund, as in “He may have been quite right in thinking so, for he was an odd-looking personage, with an ungainly figure and long iron-grey hair that touched his stooping shoulders, and a full, brown beard which he had worn ever since he was twenty” — L M MONTGOMERY. (“You may have been quite right to think so” is also correct.)

set(intent). Followed by “on” (or “upon”) and the gerund, as in “Are you set on going yourself, sir?” — H C BAILEY.

shy.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “Presently one of the warders, observing that Paul seemed shy of joining in the conversation, handed him a daily paper.” — EVELYN WAUGH.

surprised.Followed by either the infinitive or “at” and the gerund, as in “When I came downstairs next morning I was surprised to find every bit of bread gone.” — Answers, and “I was surprised at finding every bit of bread gone”.

tired.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “I sometimes wonder when Julian will be tired of getting into difficulties.” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

willing.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He is willing to die, but not by his own hand.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

worthy.Followed by either the infinitive or “or and the gerund, as in “He talked to me, more gently now, of how philosophers in long past days wandered from state to state with their disciples, teaching all who were worthy of learn.” —WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM, and “He taught all who were worthy of learning”.

wrong.Followed by “in” and the gerund, as in “Oh! then I was wrong in believing that women should be an inspiration to men?” — ROLAND PERTWEE. (“Oh! then I was wrong to believe that ...” is also correct.)

Verbs.

admit.Followed by the gerund, as in “I admitted knowing the agent.” — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

advise.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I asked him how he was, and he said he was better but his doctor had advised him to go away.” — MANUEL KOMROFF.

afford.Followed by the infinitive, as in “It's only penny-ante, but I couldn't afford to lose anything at all.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

aim.Followed by either the infinitive or “at” and the gerund (the former being the usual construction in American usage, and the latter in English usage), as in “The two books aim to give a fairly complete picture of the two branches of our literature, revealing many contrasts and a few general differences.” — LOUIS UNTERMEYER, and “From that moment, however much she might personally attract his eyes and ears, Dawson was proof against any feminine fascination which aimed at deflecting him from his purpose.” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE. (“Aim” + infinitive is now English too.)

allow.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Instead of answering his question, she looked at him plaintively and allowed tears to shine along her lower eyelids.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

ask.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Paul asked Potts to be his best man, but a letter from Geneva declined the invitation.” — EVELYN WAUGH.

attempt.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He therefore apprehended that something might happen; but he was under orders and did not attempt to shirk them, though the orders had astonished and even dismayed him.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

avoid.Followed by the gerund, as in “If I avoid exploring them, I know I am not very well.” — A G GARDINER.

bear.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “I couldn't bear to watch them leading him away.” — J W WALLACE, and “I've tried to be patient all the morning, but I really feel that I cannot bear not knowing any longer.” — L M MONTGOMERY.

beg.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I beg you to help me” — SUSAN ERTZ.

begin.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “They began to march more slowly” — J B MORTON, and “The young, passionate voice broke off impatiently, and the girl clutched a great fern from its root and began fanning herself with it slowly” — LOUISE JORDAN MILN. When the verb is a non-volitional one, the infinitive is the usual construction.

beseech.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “It was in vain that I protested that I was a man of few needs and besought her not to give herself unnecessary trouble” — ROBERT LYND.

bring(persuade). Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “He longed to know more, yet he could not bring himself to write and ask for information.” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

cease.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “His feet lost their soreness, his pack straps ceased to cut into his shoulders, and after the first few weeks he only made one big blunder” — J B MORTON, and “At this moment Fortune ceased smiling upon young Mr Orde” — H A VACHELL.

choose(decide). Followed by the infinitive, as in “Suppose I don't choose to tell you? — Boom TARKINGTON.

claim.Followed by the infinitive, as in “We had a frail art teacher here a couple years ago who claimed to have a headache, but Wereham got him out of bed and made him play third base.” — JOHN CHEEVER.

compel.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “She even compelled me to eat what she liked.” — ROBERT LYND.

consider.Followed by the gerund, as in “I have often considered writing a little monograph on the subject, but I was afraid it might make me unpopular in the village.” — EVELYN WAUGH.

continue.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “The electric bell continued to ring.” — E PHILLIPS OPPENHEIM, and “She died in the clearing in the woods, and even after her death continued feeding animal life.” — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

counsel.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I knew, when I got there, that those who had counselled me not to go to the mortuary were right.” — ETHEL MANNIN.

decide.Followed by either the infinitive or “on” or “upon” and the gerund, as in “When he saw the sailors row away towards the ship, and knew that the girl and her companion were safe in his cabin. Tarzan decided to follow the young man into the jungle and learn what his errand might be” — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS, and “Tarzan decided (up)on following the young man into the jungle”.

decline.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “This, however, I declined to do, and explained that it was my purpose to be entirely free during the coming weeks” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS, and “I declined doing this”.

delight.Followed by either the infinitive or “in” and the gerund, as in “And to be a Montpensier is to have had fair ancestresses whom the Kings of France delight to honour.” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE, and “Her hair-line handwriting was peculiarly beautiful, and she delighted both in producing it and in displaying it” — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

demand.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I have been judged and done with; but now I demand to hear all that has been said against me” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

deserve.Followed by the infinitive, as in “If I deserve to go to jail, I deserve to go to jail.” — PEARL S BUCK.

desire.Followed by the infinitive, as in “In truth, however, Henry desired to marry, and, with what looks now like extraordinary secrecy, cultivated little May Warrender.” — EDEN PHILLPOTTS. When used in the sense of entreat, followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “He desires me to ask you to go to him as soon as convenient; but, of course, if you have just seen him —” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

despair.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “At the present time my mind is so full of heterogeneous matter that I almost despair of ever being able to put it in order” — HELEN KELLER.

determine.Followed by either the infinitive or “on” or “upon” and the gerund, as in “It suddenly occurred to her that it might even be that he had determined to put the Oakhursts to a severe test — the very severest he could devise.” — MORLEY ROBERTS, and “He determined (up)on putting them to a severe test”.

dislike.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “And I dislike to be master of things that are not mine” — MAX BEERBOHM, and “He disliked bothering with people he knew only slightly, and it annoyed him to have people continually asking him how he was” —SUSAN ERTZ.

dread.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “Her heart beat in a fluttering way; she dreaded to know what was coming next.” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS, and “She dreaded going back to the rectory and meeting Patricia.” — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

dream.Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in “And, of course, I should not dream of murdering anyone” — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

endeavour.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Buster, still weeping, rolled over and over on the floor, endeavouring to get out of her reach.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

enjoin.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “A philosopher has enjoined us to suffer fools gladly.” — ARNOLD BENNETT. (This construction, however, seems now less common the construction with on or “upon” after “enjoin”, in which the infinitive is the object of the verb; as in “She meant that her mother enjoined on them always to care for their brother.” — HAVELOCK ELLIS.)

enjoy.Followed by the gerund, as in “I enjoyed reading your verses very much, particularly, of course, ‘Two Fishers', after which you name the book.” — LORD DUNSANY.

excel.Followed by “in” and the gerund, as in “I have heard it said that Frenchmen excel in fighting and in — kissing.” — BENNETT COPPLESTONE.

expect.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I have heard so many stories of the alleged ferocity of Alsatians that at any moment I expected to feel his hot breath on my face, his teeth in my throat.” — HARRY GRAHAM. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “He had half expected Althea to telephone, but she had not done so” — SUSAN ERTZ.

fail.When used in the sense of not succeed, followed by either the infinitive or “in” and the gerund, as in “I fail to describe him” — JACK LONDON, and “I fail in describing him”. When used in the sense of neglect or omit, followed by the infinitive, as in “But as a rule they fail to keep this up, and lose all the good of it.” — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

fancy.Followed by the gerund, as in “Fancy going to sleep in it when the wind was rocking it” — L M MONTGOMERY.

finish.Followed by the gerund, as in “I am writing to tell you what great pleasure I derived from your novel, The Rainbow Montage, which I have only just finished reading.” — GWYN JONES.

forbear.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Forbear to give one penny to individuals” — HILAIRE BELLOC.

force.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “She nagged at her husband until she forced him to do various little jobbing contracts.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

forget.When used in the sense of neglect or omit, followed by the infinitive, as in “Louise was so amazed that she forgot to feel angry and outraged.” — SUSAN ERTZ.

get.When used in the sense of acquire a habit, followed by the infinitive, as in “He made a special point of getting to know all the new boys and having them to tea with him during their first term” —JAMES HILTON. When used in the sense of induce, followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I tried to get him to talk about Gilbert Frankau's new book the other day.” — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

hate.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “I've taken rather a fancy to you, and I hate to think of your going off murdering Pashas.” — MICHAEL ARLEN, and “He said he hated working, but he never did anything else” — D H LAWRENCE.

help.When used in the sense of assist, followed by the infinitive, with or without the sign “to”, as in “I know nothing, except that there's been a murder here, and that I'm sent down, at your request, to help to investigate it.” — J S FLETCHER, and “I helped look after the Thomas children — there were four of them younger than me — and I can tell you they took a lot of looking after.” — L M MONTGOMERY. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, with or without the sign “to”, as in “He has helped me to make up my mind about Major Crosby, who has written me several charming letters.” — SUSAN ERTZ, and “When I got to the inn landlord had to help me shut the door; it seemed as though a dozen goats were pushing against it to come in out of the storm.”— RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON. (The construction with the infinitive without “to” was originally an American usage.) When used in the sense of avoid, followed by the gerund, as in “And when you go inside you can't help hearing the gramophone.” — E V LUCAS.

hesitate.Followed by the infinitive, as in “She reminded me of a primrose, and she was so shy that for a long time I hesitated to tell her what I felt for her.” —H E BATES.

hope.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I do hope to see you here, Stephen.” — SUSAN ERTZ.

implore.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “William implored Isabel not to attend the first performance of the play.” — H E BATES.

insist.Followed by “on” or “upon” and the gerund, as in “After tea, homewards, and Tim went into a shop in the High Street, and insisted on buying Meg a bat that she had admired.” — J B MORTON.

intend.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “And I know that you never intended to let Eric come, even if he could have arranged it” — SUSAN ERTZ, and “When I began this book and was resolved to tell the story of my life to date, omitting such details as it seemed to me might possibly hurt or embarrass anyone else in the telling, I had not intended writing in detail of that passage in my life between leaving the house of the willow tree and coming to the cottage.” — ETHEL MANNIN.

invite.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “He invited her to come and see his birds” — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

learn.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I must learn to detach myself.” — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

like.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “And you don't like to teach?” — LOUISE JORDAN MILN, and “I like getting up early on these fine mornings.” — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “The serious novelist's job is to show life as it is, not as our puritans would like it to be. — ETHEL MANNIN.

love.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “it was just the sort of place, he reflected whimsically, which his aunt had loved to write about in her books” — P G WODEHOUSE, and “I loved finding words new to me.” — ETHEL MANNIN.

mean.Followed by the infinitive, as in “She had meant to give him no confidence, but he drew it front her.” — ANTHONY HOPE.

mind(object to). Followed by the gerund, as in “Would you mind walking the rest of the way?” — P G WODEHOUSE.

miss.Followed by the gerund, as in “The things they missed seeing far outnumbered those they noticed, as is the case with honeymooners.” — R H MOTTRAM.

need.Followed by the infinitive or the gerund with entirely different meanings, the gerund always being active in form but passive in sense, as in “One needed to suffer to make up for the wickedness of the world.” — ETHEL MANNIN, and “He did not need telling (= need to be told), but I had to say something and he smiled even more broadly than before.” — New Statesman and Nation.

neglect.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “And as a result of all that he had neglected to eat one lunch.” — ROLAND PERTWEE, and “He neglected eating one lunch”.

oblige(compel). Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “But after two years illness obliged him to retire” — ARTHUR WALEY.

offer.Followed by the infinitive, as in “She would have sat up till all hours of the night mending Bart's socks if Kirstie had not offered to take them home and mend them for her.” — MARGARET KENNEDY.

omit.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “You omit to explain the little girl.” — H C BAILEY, and “You omitted explaining her”.

order.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “The housekeeper ordered a boy to gather some cabbage leaves.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

permit.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Permit me to advise you to give that dress to your maid” — SUSAN ERTZ.

persist.Followed by “in” and the gerund, as in “But she persisted in calling every day until definite news arrived.” — Answers.

persuade.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Arnold came hurriedly out of one of the big family shelters and tried to persuade me to go back and lie down.” — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

plan.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Whenever he cried out thus, his young concubine, Pear Blossom, who sat by him day and night, reached out and soothed his old hand with her young hand, and his two sons hastened forward to comfort him with the tales of the funeral they would give him, and they told him over and over all they planned to do.” — PEARL S BUCK. (This was originally an American usage, often meaning intend or hope only.)

prefer.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund, as in “However, I was always inclined to let things slide, and when 1 slid into that position I preferred to remain in it rather than create a scandal by asking the British consul to come to the rescue.” — J W WALLACE, and “He was a silent fellow as a rule and preferred being alone to mixing with the villagers.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “But I do prefer the tramp to be really a tramp and not to disguise himself as a seller of almanacs and bootlaces or the type of stationery on which I would never write a letter even to my relations.” — ROBERT GRAVES.

pretend.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He pretended to do the same, but his eyes wandered continually, and he had to read every page twice over” — ARTHUR SYMONS.

prevent.Followed by an object and “from” and the gerund, as in “Old Bill won again; but once more Charles Loomis prevented him from putting the silver dollar in his pocket.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

profess.Followed by the infinitive, as in “He spoke seven languages, and professed to be equally at home in any capital in Europe.” — STACY AUMONIER.

promise.Followed by the infinitive, as in “The old man's son made a sort of bargain with the fellow, promising to repay him with the price of his two young pigs, which he guaranteed to sell the following week.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

prompt.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Since the world was sure to misunderstand everything, mere defensive instinct prompted him to give it as little as possible to lay hold upon.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

propose.Followed by the infinitive, as in “I am an officer of justice, and I propose to discover the assassin if I can.” — MELVILLE DAVISSON POST.

refrain.Followed by “from” and the gerund, as in “I have even refrained from pointing the moral, which has become increasingly clear to me lately.” — J B MORTON.

refuse.Followed by the infinitive, as in “They refused to give me your address without your permission.” — RUBY M AYRES.

regret.When used in the sense of be sorry (used in polite statements), followed by the infinitive, as in “We regret to lose your custom, but in the matter of chickens we would point out that it is the practice, not only of ourselves but of poulterers all over England, to sell the livers separately.” — E V LUCAS. When used in the sense of repent, followed by the gerund, as in “Do not imagine that Pauline regretted having come.” — ARNOLD BENNETT.

remember.When used in the sense of not neglect, followed by the infinitive, as in “And while you are praising, remember to praise a man for those talents in which you have noticed that he desires to shine but cannot.” — HILAIRE BELLOC. When used in the sense of have a recollection of followed by either the gerund or, less commonly, the perfect infinitive, as in “I remember crawling round to the doctor because I couldn't find his telephone number in the book” — Punch, and “The Scott I knew, or thought I knew was physically as hard as nails and flung himself into work or play with a vehemence I cannot remember ever to have seen equalled.” — JAMES MATTHEW BARRIE.

remind.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “Remind me not to leave without my nail-file, won't you?” — SUSAN ERTZ.

resent.Followed by the gerund, as in “That is why I left the room; some animals resent being watched while they are eating” — SAKI.

resist.Followed by the gerund, as in “Buy the first part, and see if you can resist buying the rest” — URSULA BLOOM.

resolve.Followed by the infinitive, as in “At least two full strings of negotiable cash might be looked for, and Kai Lung blushed aside his hunger and fatigue as he resolved to justify so auspicious an occasion.” — ERNEST BRAMAH.

resume.Followed by the gerund, as in “Now that his moment of tension with Colonel Cathcart had passed, Colonel Korn relaxed again and resumed kicking softly against Colonel Cathcart's desk.” — JOSEPH HELLER.

risk.Followed by the gerund, as in “You talk of sacrificing to love; but what you really sacrifice, or risk sacrificing, is the whole of the latter part of married existence for the sake of the first two or three years” — ARNOLD BENNETT.

seek.Followed by the infinitive, as in “Perhaps he sought but to elucidate the most inscrutable of human illusions” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

start.Followed by the gerund, or, rather colloquially, by the infinitive, as in “When a woman starts using her sex appeal to her own advantage it is usually a bad moment for some poor devil.” — D H LAWRENCE, and “Then there would be a laugh, a throwing out of the hands, quick steps across the polished floor, and with magnificent self-assurance she started to monopolize the conversation” — BEVERLEY NICHOLS. Often “in” is used between “start” and the infinitive, as in “The next, they started in to work, in their varying capacities.” — R H MOTTRAM.

stop.When used intransitively, followed by the infinitive, which expresses purpose, as in “They stopped to admire the child” — MARGARET KENNEDY. When used transitively, followed by the gerund, as in “The children stopped crying.” — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

succeed.Followed by “in” and the gerund, as in “There were times, generally very late at night, when he succeeded in persuading himself that he was indeed the wildest, unhappiest, most passionate of lovers.” — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

suggest.Followed by the gerund, as in “Your father did not suggest accompanying you?” — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

tell.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I sent him a chit and told him to come along.” — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

think.Followed by “of” and the gerund, or, far less commonly, by the infinitive, as in “When he came to it, he paused, at the hint of an inward impulse he did not think to trace; and, frowning, he perceived that this was the same shop window that had detained him on his homeward way, when he had thought of buying a toy for the baby.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON. (Here “think to trace” means intend to trace. In “I didn't think to break my heart very much when she skipped off” — ALAN SILLITOE, “think” means expect.)

tire(intransitive). Followed by “of” and the gerund, as in ‘She never tired of saying that “work was worship”, and she wrote this in hundreds of autograph books” — SEYMOUR HICKS.

try.Followed by either the infinitive or the gerund generally with a difference in meaning, as in “He washed and shaved, and tried to part his close-cropped hair.” — J B MORTON, and “Have you ever tried saving anybody in a small boat?” — H V MORTON. (“Tried saving ...” means experiment with saving ... to see what would result.)

urge.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “The next day he urged Lily to walk up to the field and look at it.” — H E BATES.

want.Followed by the infinitive or the gerund with entirely different meaning, the gerund always being active in form but passive in sense, as in “You will want to look at them.” — JOHN DICKSON CARR, and “He wants taking (= wants to be taken = needs to be taken) out of himself even more than we do, Gerda.” — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I want you to go.” — BOOTH TARKINGTON.

warn.Followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “I went to the door, and found that an officer of cavalry was warning the people to leave.” — J B MORTON.

wish.Followed by the infinitive, as in “All the points I specially wish to make are, I think, fully covered by my previous letter.” — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE. Also followed by an object and the infinitive, as in “But it was not to Mrs Collinson's purpose that he should miss the party; she wished him to be as intimate as possible with the debonair Charles Loomis; and so, after carrying some dishes into the kitchenette in meditative silence, she reappeared with a changed manner.” —BOOTH TARKINGTON.

Exercise 60

Correct the mistakes in the use of infinitives and gerunds in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. They made several attempts to enter the house, but never succeeded.

2. She does not like his habit to stare at people in the street.

3. There seems no hope to save the baby.

4. I do not think there is need of giving the details.

5. We must thank you for your permission to use your library.

6. The debtor failed to carry out his promise of repaying the creditor by the end of the year.

7. The young man came to the city for the purpose to attend a friend's wedding.

8. The old woman has a little way of listening to the brook for hours.

9. He has declared his wish for studying aviation.

10. You cannot imagine what he is capable to do in his little cottage.

11. I am eager to hear about the expedition.

12. When he is alone, he is fond to play his flute.

13. You are right to call her inquisitive.

14. Is he willing to help you?

15. They admitted being in close touch with the explorers.

16. You must avoid to offend him.

17. I have long considered to climb the mountain.

18. It continued to rain all night.

19. The policeman demanded seeing her passport.

20. The traveller desired to pass the night at the temple.

21. The exile despaired ever to see his parents again.

22. A sudden thought flashed through his mind, but he dreaded to communicate it to his father.

23. There is a great deal to be said for his sticking to what he so much enjoys talking to his friends about.

24. I have just finished to copy a letter for my brother.

25. Will you please help looking into the matter?

26. The air raid that the author intended to describe took place early in the morning.

27. Would you mind to tell me your sister's address?

28. The watch needs repairing.

29. The woman persisted in saying that she was an old friend of the family.

30. I prefer to stay here.

31. The storm prevented us to sail.

32. We never promised to do anything of the kind for him.

33. I wish I had refrained to play that practical joke.

34. He refused lending me his bicycle.

35. I remember to meet them about three months ago.

36. If you wish to finish the task before sunset, do not stop to work at it even for lunch.

37. At last we succeeded to see the manager.

38. She thinks of seeking a position as teacher of music.

39. What do you think he wants to do here?

40. We wish having a look at your collection of old coins.

170. “Enough” Qualified by Infinitive.Compare the two following sentences:

1. I am curious to see. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

2. You must be strong enough to hope. — PEARL S BUCK. The second sentence differs from the first in having “enough” used after the adjective. Grammatically, in the first sentence the infinitive is said to qualify the adjective “curious”, and in the second sentence the infinitive is said to qualify the adverb “enough”.

The insertion of “enough” would make the first sentence unidiomtic and the omission of it would make the second sentence unidiomatic. The point is a rather delicate one. “Curious” has an incomplete sense, which is completed by an infinitive showing in what respect one is curious. “Strong” has a complete sense, and so does not require an infinitive; when “enough” is added to it, the sense becomes incomplete, and is to be completed by an infinitive showing in what respect one is strong enough.

While I do not think Chinese students are likely to use the uncalled-for “enough” in sentences like the first, they sometimes make the mistake of omitting the necessary “enough” in sentences like the second. Below are more examples of the second construction:

1. From time to time James caught him stealing a glance at the girl, who was well enough to come down to meals now, limping pathetically; but he could read nothing in the face. — P G WODEHOUSE.

2. He came to see me a day before this dinner to ask if I would be good enough to come early so that I could be with him when the others arrived. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

The same construction is much used when the word qualified by “enough” is a noun or an adverb instead of an adjective.

1. It was a glorious day, with just enough mist in the air to freshen the sun-drenched trees over her head, and to prevent the flowers from drooping their petals in the heat. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. I am informed well enough to state that you deceive yourself ridiculously, madame. —LEONARD MERRICK.

3. Surely we know each other well enough not to be upset by an accident. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. She lingered there, long enough for him to study her fine, intellectual face. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

An adjective or adverb qualified by “enough” followed by an infinitive has the same meaning as an adjective or adverb qualified by “so” and, followed by “as” and an infinitive.

1. You must be strong enough to hope. — PEARL S BUCK. (strong enough to hope = so strong as to hope)

2. We should never be so unscrupulous as to tamper with a lobster. — E V LUCAS. (so unscrupulous as to tamper = unscrupulous enough to tamper)

In deciding the question whether “enough” should be used between an adjective and an infinitive, it is a good test to see whether the “so ... as to ...” construction can be used instead. The following adjectives are regularly followed by “enough” qualified by an infinitive:

bad, brave, careful, careless, clever, courageous, cruel, dangerous, foolish, fortunate, good, high, honest, imprudent, kind, large, long, low, lucky, old, old-fashioned, patient, poor, prudent, rich, sensible, shrewd, strong, tail, weak, well, wide, wise, young.

After “careful”, “fortunate”, “kind”, and “lucky”, an infinitive is often used without the intervening “enough”, in each case the insertion or omission of “enough” makes a difference in meaning.

1. He is careful enough to pronounce every word correctly. (He is so careful as to pronounce every word correctly; that he pronounces every word correctly is a fact, which is due to the care he takes.)

2. He is careful to pronounce every word correctly. (He takes care to pronounce every word correctly; but it does not necessarily follow that he actually pronounces every word correctly.)

3. She was fortunate (or lucky) enough to meet him. (She was so fortunate or lucky as to meet him; that is, she met him owing to good luck. The emphasis is laid on her meeting him.)

4. She was fortunate (or lucky) to meet him. (It was fortunate or lucky for her to meet him; that is, her meeting him was a piece of good luck. The emphasis is laid on her good luck.)

5. You were kind enough to come. (You were so kind as to come; that is, you came as a result of your kindness. The emphasis is laid on the coming.)

6. You were kind to come. (It was kind of you to come; that is, your coming proved your kindness. The emphasis is laid on the kindness.)

171. “Too” Qualified by Infinitive.A construction similar to “enough” qualified by an infinitive is “too” qualified by an infinitive.

1. Anne got up at sunrise because she was too excited to sleep. — L M MONTGOMERY.

2. You're too young to marry. — P G WODEHOUSE.

3. I believe it is sometimes too obvious to be seen. — G K CHESTERTON.

4. She said that Lettice was not strong, that she loved her too much to let her be exposed to the dangers that a life of that sort would involve. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

5. We had gone too far to question anything that we thought or did. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

It is to be noted that in each of the two following sentences the infinitive qualifies not the “too” but the word qualified by “too”:

1. She thought you too ready to surrender to immediate and, perhaps, wayward emotions. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

2. Men are only too willing to enjoy the amusement afforded by the buffoon, but they will treat him with increased contempt the more he serves them. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

Exercise 61

Write five sentences each with “enough” qualified by an infinitive, and another five each with “too” qualified by an infinitive.

172. Active and Passive Infinitives.Compare the three following sentences:

1. There was nothing to prevent her going on playing with Topsy in her mind, much in the same way as she played with Trimmer ... — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. If there wasn't anything to eat in the house when they came home the old man gave his old woman a cut over the head. — SHERWOOD ANDERSON.

3. There is no more to be said about it; it is good! — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

In form “to prevent” and “to eat” are active, and “to be said” is passive. But in sense the “to eat” in the second sentence is passive rather than active. “Nothing to prevent” means “nothing that could prevent”, not “nothing that could be prevented”. But “anything to eat” means “anything that could be eaten”, not “anything that could eat”; in other words, “anything to eat” means “anything to be eaten”, which expression could be used in the second sentence. As to the third sentence, “to be said”, which is passive both in sense and in form, could be replaced by “to say”, which would be active in form but passive in sense like the “to eat” in the second sentence.

When the sense is active, the form of the infinitive must be active. The matter is quite simple. When the sense is passive, however, the form may be either active (as in the second sentence) or passive (as in the third sentence). The matter is not quite simple. (When I call the sense of an infinitive passive, I mean that the noun to which the infinitive belongs receives the action expressed by the infinitive; for example, in “anything to eat” and “no more to be said”, “anything” receives the action of eating and “no more” receives the action of saying.)

When the sense is passive, the choice between the two forms of the infinitive depends upon the following rules (it is to be noted that the active form is much more used than the passive):

1. When there is the phrase “for ...” used before the infinitive to denote the person or the thing to do the action expressed by it, the active form is used.

(1) There is nothing else for me to do. — HUGH WALPOLE.

(2) During a party to which Philip had invited various political people, she spent most of the time holding out a piece of cotton for Roly to play with. — JAMES HILTON.

2. When the subject of the sentence or clause denotes the person or the thing to do the action expressed by the infinitive, the active form is used.

(1) He had nothing to say. — H E BATES.

(2) He seldom had anything to say. — WILBUR DANIEL STEELE.

(3) It was the place that women came to who had poultry to sell to the passing fowl-buyers. — PADRAIC COLUM.

(4) But after all one has the world of thought to live in. — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

(5) She responded readily enough, apparently pleased to have someone to talk to, and pretty soon began to tell me the history of their lives. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

(6) So you see we have a treat to look forward to! — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

3. When the emphasis is laid on the noun to which the infinitive belongs rather than on the verbal notion, the active form is used.

(1) A most improper story to tell to young children! — SAKI.

(2) I will write again next week; there is so much to tell you. — SUSAN ERTZ.

(3) How absorbing a thing to relate to someone who really wanted to hear it! — ROSE MACAULAY.

(4) She wanted nothing more than she had got; something to dream about; a memory to pursue, but too fragile ever to grasp. — MALACHI WHITAKER.

(5) After all, it was pleasant to have some small thing to look after. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

4. When the emphasis is laid on the verbal notion rather than on the noun to which the infinitive belongs, the passive form is used.

(1) What's to be done? — D H LAWRENCE.

(2) For William, who was a bright, fat little man, it was something to be pursued tirelessly and infinitely, like the Holy Grail. — H E BATES.

(3) There is his happiness to be considered too. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(4) They were a fact to be accepted, not a nuisance to be suppressed. — A G GARDINER.

(5) There were my relatives to be consulted, and only the minimum of legal formalities to be fulfilled. — MAEVE GILMORE.

(6) Lorna had planned her day to leave as little as possible to be done on Tuesday before the arrival of the guests. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

5. When the infinitive qualifies an adjective that denotes a quality affecting persons or things, the active form is used.

(1) That child is hard to understand in some respects. — L M MONTGOMERY.

(2) Yours is the attitude that I find so difficult to deal with. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

(3) Stewart was by nature so deficient in self-assurance and so uncomfortably easy to snub that it astonished me to find how accomplished and humorously insistent he was in this line. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

Incidentally, this construction is to be distinguished from that in “I am curious to see” — MORLEY ROBERTS. The infinitive in “hard to understand” and “easy to snub” are passive in sense though active in form, while that in “curious to see” is active both in form and in sense.

It is interesting to study the examples given by Noam Chomsky, the American linguist: “He is eager to please” and “He is easy to please”. The infinitive in “eager to please” is active both in form and in sense, while that in “easy to please” is passive in sense though active in form.

6. When the infinitive qualifies an adjective that denotes a quality not affecting persons or things, the passive form is used.

(1) Complaint, indeed, is apt to be raised when history is made delightful, when it recalls the epic and competes in interest with the novel. — The Times.

(2) I am not going to strain the point any farther, because it is neither important nor very likely to be proved. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

Apart from these rules there are certain idiomatic phrases in which neither form can be used instead of the other. “To blame”, meaning deserving censure, is an example of the active from; “leave much to be desired”, meaning be unsatisfactory, is an example of the passive form.

1. He is partly to blame, I am partly to blame, you not at all. — SUSAN ERTZ.

2. This definition leaves much to be desired. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

Each of the following sentences contains an infinitive that is active both in form and in sense.

1. She had plenty of people to look after her. — SUSAN ERTZ.

2. There's nobody to clean or wash or get a meal ready for us after the day's work. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

3. He waited for another flash, but there were no more shots to guide him. — J B MORTON.

4. The girl was badly parent-ridden; unaware that her charms had faded and that, like her daughter, she had nothing else to recommend her, Mrs Hales followed the pretty little thing about with a lovingly jealous eye, spoiling, with the best intentions, every tête--tête the girl began. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

173. Active and Passive Gerunds.Like infinitives, gerunds may sometimes be active in form but passive in sense. Compare the three following sentences:

1. Writing about oneself is an uncomfortable business. — GERALD BULLETT.

2. But Nancy needed no cheering up. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

3. Just try being suddenly planted with a dumb woman and see if conversation flows naturally from you. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

In form “writing” and “cheering” are active, and “being planted” is passive. But in sense “cheering” is passive rather than active.

When the sense is active, the form of the gerund must be active. When the sense is passive, the form is usually passive, but active in certain constructions.

1. After the adjective “worth” and the verbs “need” and “wait”, the active form is used. See Section 134 and “need” and “want” in Section 169 for examples.

2. The two following idiomatic phrases contain the active form of the gerund:

lose in the telling (be less remarkable as told than in fact).

past praying for (hopeless).

3. The active form is used after “a”.

It is just possible that they may see that this is reasonable if we can get a hearing. — H W FOWLER.

This use of the active form is no doubt due to the fact that in sentences like the following one the active form is used:

Your father will give you a good thrashing in the morning. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

When turned into the passive form, the sentence reads:

You will be given a good thrashing (by your father) in the morning.

When “be given” is changed to “get”, the active form “a good thrashing” remains.

It need hardly be mentioned that such expressions as the “the broadcasting of any words” in the following sentence are always active in form though passive in sense:

Therefore, the sole notice taken on my seventieth birthday by the British Government was its deliberate official prohibition of the broadcasting of any words spoken by me on that occasion. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

“The broadcasting of any words” is the same in form as the “the buzzing of the flies” in the following sentence, though different in sense.

There was dead silence except for the buzzing of the flies. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

Notice that “buzzing” is intransitive. With intransitive verbs the gerund in the “the ...ing of ...” construction is naturally active in sense as well as in form.

Exercise 62

Write five sentences each with an infinitive active in form but passive in sense, and another five each with a gerund active in form but passive in sense.

174. Gerunds Used as Adjectives.You have learnt from Section 69 that nouns can be used as adjectives. Gerunds, which function like nouns, can also be used as adjectives. Gerunds used as adjectives, however, are to be distinguished from present participles used as adjectives. Compare the two following sentences:

1. I came in again to the squeaking field telephones and obscure candlelight. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

2. I will wear my red hunting coat. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

“Squeaking” is the participle because it is the telephones that squeak. “Hunting” is the gerund because it is not the coat that hunts; “hunting coat” means a coat that one wears when hunting.

Each of the following sentences contains a gerund used as an adjective.

1. The boxing profession drips with innocent blood — the blood of fools. — GERALD KERSH.

2. They dealt with train sickness, quelled crying tits blew little noses, and wiped toffee stains from little mouths. — MARGARET KENNEDY.

3. Marilla felt an uncomfortable conviction that, if she denied the appeal of that look, it would haunt her to her dying day. — L M MONTGOMERY.

4. Round her throat was the necklace of jade which Helen had given her as a parting gift. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

5. My swimming ability got me the job. — LEW SARETT.

6. I have none on my visiting list. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

Exercise 63

Write five sentences each with a gerund used as an adjective.

175. Gerund and Possessive.Compare the three following sentences:

1. I feel quite guilty at disturbing you. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. Thank you very much for so kindly sending me your book. — LORD DUNSANY.

3. Julia insisted upon my wrapping myself up in her eider-down wilt, and then reluctantly got back into bed and turned out the light. — HARRY GRAHAM.

In the first sentence, “disturbing” means “my disturbing”, but as “I” stands as the subject of the sentence, “my” would be superfluous. In the second sentence, “sending” means “your sending”, but as “you” stands as the object of the verb, “thank”, “your” would be superfluous. In the third sentence, the omission of “my” would cause “wrapping” to mean “Julia's wrapping”.

Failure to distinguish when a possessive is required before a gerund and when it is not required leads to unidiomatic or even ambiguous English. The insertion of superfluous possessives seems to be a less common mistake than the omission of necessary ones.

The mistake of using a superfluous possessive before a gerund can of course be corrected by omitting it. The matter is very simple. But while the mistake of omitting a necessary possessive before a gerund can often be corrected by inserting it, the sentence may often be such that it is not convenient to insert the proper possessive. Such a sentence had better be altered in some way. For instance, how is the following sentence to be corrected?

This was experienced by certain sensitive temperaments, either by sensations which produced shivering, or by seeing at night a peculiar light in the air. — The Times.

There is a possessive missing here. But what possessive? Certainly not “their”; for “their” would refer to “temperaments”, but temperaments have no eyes and cannot see. Likewise, certainly not “one's” or “our”; for “one's” or “our” would denote those who have no sensitive temperaments as well as those who have. The proper possessive would be “sensitive-temperamented persons” or “temperamental persons”, either of which, however, would make the sentence rather awkward. H W Fowler and F G Fowler suggest rewriting the sentence as follows (The King's English, p.136):

Persons of sensitive temperament experienced this, either by ...

I should think that the sentence can be corrected also by chancing “by seeing at night a peculiar light in the air” to “by visions of a peculiar light in the air at night”.

I have just written “the sentence can be corrected also by changing...” Do you think there is a possessive missing before the gerund “changing”? This is a common type of sentence in which the possessive is regularly omitted. The rule is that when the subject of the sentence is inanimate and the main verb passive, and the agent in the action denoted by the gerund is the same as the agent in the action denoted by the main verb, the possessive before the gerund is idiomatically omitted. In “the sentence can be corrected also by changing ...”, the agent in the action denoted by the gerund “changing” is the same as the agent in the action denoted by the main verb “is corrected” (that is to say, the “changer” is the “corrector”); therefore no possessive is used before the gerund “changing”.

176. Fused Participles.By the fused participle is meant a present participle used immediately after a pronoun or a noun or a noun with an adjectival phrase so as to form a compound notion with it. If the pronoun or noun or noun with an adjectival phrase were in the possessive case, the participle would be clearly the gerund. In fact, the fused participle might be regarded as the gerund rather than the participle.

1. I feel awfully nervous at the idea of you reading my work. — GWYN JONES. (Pronoun)

2. I am so distressed to think that I am the cause of your little girl losing her present, that I feel there is nothing I can do but give her one myself. — E V LUCAS. (Noun)

3. It is only a question of a man with the right kind of mind being given the right kind of opportunity. — The Sunday Express. (Noun with adjectival phrase)

Whether the fused participle is “grammatical” or not is a controversial problem. Were I writing a grammar, I should have a great deal to say. While it has long been generally condemned by grammarians, it is quite common in present-day English, especially in newspapers.

The fused participle can be easily avoided where the possessive form can be used, as in the case of pronouns and nouns denoting persons without an adjectival phrase.

1. I feel awfully nervous at the idea of your reading my work.

2. I am so distressed to think that I am the cause of your little girl's losing ...

Below are more examples:

1. One of them, if you will pardon me reminding you, is that no discussion is to pass between us. — E F BENSON. (Change “me” to “my”.)

2. There was no record of him having landed at Harwick on May 18 this year, as he had suggested he had done. — The Sunday Express. (Change “him” to “his”.)

3. The woman is so terrified of her husband discovering the truth that she will go on paying for years, often denying herself and her children the necessities of life. — Answers. (Change “husband” to “husband's”.)

As regards nouns with an adjectival phrase and nouns not denoting persons, the possessive form usually cannot be used; in such cases the fused participle can be avoided by rewriting the sentence.

1. It is only a question of a man with the right kind of mind being given the right kind of opportunity. — The Sunday Express. (Suggested alteration: It is only a question of giving a man of the right kind of mind the right kind of opportunity.)

2. So that was why you didn't mind our engagement being broken off? — RUBY M AYRES. (Suggested alteration: So that was why you didn't mind the breaking off of our engagement?)

3. So far from this visit heralding others, there was now, somehow, a certainty that no one else would come. — ARTHUR MCDOWALL. (Suggested alteration: This visit heralded no others; on the contrary, there was now, somehow, a certainty that no one else would come.)

Sometimes even a noun not denoting a person, with or without an adjectival phrase, may be put in the possessive case.

1. He was so big that, instead of the Royal Academy conferring distinction on him, he conferred distinction on the Royal Academy. — ARNOLD BENNETT. (Change “Academy” to “Academy's”. “He was so big that he conferred distinction on the Royal Academy rather than the other way round” will also be correct.)

2. There is no possibility of the dissolution of the legislative union becoming a vital question. — The Spectator. (Change “union” to “union's”. “There is no possibility that the dissolution of the legislative union should become a vital question” will also be correct.)

It is to be noted that the fused participle is very common after the verb “prevent”.

You wish to prevent me having the money. — AGATHA CHRISTIE. As you must have learnt from this verb in Section 169, it is properly followed by an object and “from” and the gerund. It is also correct to use the possessive and the gerund after this verb.

177. Present Participle Separated from Subject by Predicate Verb.The present participle may be separated from the subject by the predicate. Grammatically, it used to be looked upon as an adjective qualifying the subject; but it has at the same time a peculiar relation to the predicate verb, often taking the place of an adverbial phrase or clause. It may or may not be separated from the predicate by a comma.

1. I usually think sitting down. — Punch. (Without comma)

2. There he sits watching until I have done this writing. — H G WELLS. (Without comma)

3. When he returned home, John sat up all night writing a letter. — PETER USTINOV. (Without comma)

4. Memories rose up, choking him. — JOHN MASEFIELD. (With comma)

5. He got up at once, pushing back his chair. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER. (With comma)

6. She was still, trying to think of something; she couldn't quite grasp the thought. — JAMES AGEE. (Without comma)

7. The captain lay on his back, drinking and muttering about his wife. — DORIS LESSING. (Withont comma)

8. The boy came in, frowning, and glanced at the table. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

178. Unattached Participles.By the unattached, or rather wrongly attached, participle is meant a participle placed in such a position as to belong, grammatically, to a noun or pronoun that it is not meant to qualify. It is also called the dangling participle. In the following sentence, the participle “lingering” is properly attached to the subject “Peter”:

Lingering in a semi-reclining attitude, Peter suddenly realized that he was intensely weary. — BEN TRAVERS.

Now suppose we change the sentence to:

Lingering in a semi-reclining attitude, it was suddenly realized by Peter that he was intensely weary.

Here the participle “lingering” is wrongly attached to the subject “it”; it is unattached, so far as its relation to the word to which it ought to belong (“Peter”) is concerned.

The unattached participle is generally condemned by grammarians. It seems to be much less used by writers of the present day than by those of past generations.

There are certain participles, however, that have acquired the character of prepositions or adverbs and so are quite correct when “unattached”.

1. Considering her very meagre talents as far as the piano was concerned, her husband's decease had not been without its advantages. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. Looking at it in a shortened perspective of time, those years of transition have the quality of a single consecutive occurrence. — H G WELLS.

3. The revolver is one of Forest's make, and why Henry bought it — seeing his curious hatred and dread of fire-arms — is a part of this mystery. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

4. Broadly speaking, good men have good effects, and bad men bad effects. — BERTRAND RUSSELL.

Below are some other participles that can be correctly “unattached”:

allowing, assuming, calculating, coming, concerning, counting, excepting, excluding, failing, granting, including, judging, owing (to), regarding, respecting, speaking (of), supposing, taking, talking, touching.

When any of these participles is used “unattached”, the word to which it ought to belong does not exist in the sentence but is to be supplied, usually “we”, “one”, or “I”.

Exercise 64

Correct the following sentences as regards gerunds and participles (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. I am obliged to him for his dropping me a line from time to time.

2. Considering his age, his knowledge of mathematics is remarkable.

3. We look forward to their engagement being announced.

4. After buying a ticket, the theatre admitted me.

5. Having read the first chapter, the second was begun.

6. Most singular nouns are made plural by adding “s”.

7. Referring to your letter of yesterday, will you please send me more particulars?

8. His wife objected to him doing this.

9. All the girls stopped, laughing.

10. The boy sat reading.

11. Nearly a month passed without hearing from her son.

12. Upon my inquiring, 1 was surprised to learn that the old man had died the evening before.

13. Opening the door, a pleasant breeze entered my room.

14. A pleasant breeze entered my room on opening the door.

15. Talking of schools, is there any vocational school in your city?

16. The situation will improve after due measures being taken.

17. For reasons that I do not know, she left the library suddenly, muttering something.

18. They did not think they could be justified in their leaving their friend behind.

19. I saw a man running along the street with many boys shouting after him.

20. Nothing can prevent the rumour spreading.

21. Are you sure of your never losing your interest in the subject?

22. Looking round, he found his cottage on fire.

23. Instead of his coming to see me, I went to see him that night.

24. You may rely on me doing my best.

25. Granting that you are right, you still can get nothing.

26. Strictly speaking, he does not deserve it.

27. In spite of our opposition, they proceeded with the work without so much as their observing the few simple rules they had laid down themselves.

28. Having learnt that you are in need of the services of a bookkeeper, it has been suggested by my father that I may apply for the position.

29. Will they laugh at the thought of us acting in a play?

30. He insisted on no one ringing him up before nine o'clock in the morning.

179. Intransitive Past Participles Used as Adjectives.You must well know that the past participles of transitive verbs may be used as adjectives in a passive sense, as in:

1. Marry a woman who is a widow, childless and possessed of sufficient means. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. Miss Mott had drawn aside the curtain and was gazing out into the gathering twilight when Meredith returned from a whispered conference with Gordon. — E PHILLIPS OPPENHEIM.

You may not know, however, that there are certain intransitive verbs whose past participles can be used as adjectives (in an active sense, of course).

1. I take it, then, that we're all more or less agreed? — JAMES HILTON.

2. Arrived at the stern of the vessel, Captain Bilge looked cautiously around for a moment and then dropped the boy into the sea. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

3. It is a natural history museum come alive with hundreds of the many animals that most of us usually only see in pictures; and it has scoured the world to bring to us rare living things. — The Children's Newspaper.

4. Nancy, however, was quite cool, because she was determined to be a great success. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

5. I was an escaped convict. — R AUSTIN FREEMAN.

6. The door was jammed by a fallen beam. — R H MOTTRAM.

7. As for me, I am finished. — MAURICE BARING.

8. At last, grown too old for castigation, the lad was allowed to go to Oxford. — LYTTON STRACHEY.

9. You are prepared to accept too much. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

10. There is no other entrance to that vanished pulse of time. — CHRISTOPHER MORLEY.

Below are some expressions each with an intransitive past participle used as an adjective:

absconded debtor, collapsed balloon, deceased lawyer, departed friend, eloped pair, expired lease, faded flower, gone coon, outspoken person, retired officer, returned soldier, risen sun, travelled man, well-read man. (A “returned student” from England, France, or some other country seems to be used only in our country; the meaning is obvious.)

The adjectival use of intransitive past participles has probably arisen from the fact that formerly the verb “to be” was much used in forming perfect tenses with intransitive verbs. In present-day English, when the verb “to be” is used before an intransitive past participle, the participle is considered an adjective, and the tense is not a perfect one at all. While “He has come” is in the present perfect tense, “He is come” is not.

You are advised not to use any intransitive past participle as an adjective without having seen the usage in your reading.

Exercise 65

Write five sentences each with an intransitive past participle used as an adjective.

180. “Shall” and “Will”, “Should” and “Would”.The correct use of these simple words is one of the most puzzling problems in English grammar. A full treatment is to be expected in an advanced grammar, not in a book of composition. I must here content myself with illustrating some simple rules and idiomatic uses. Roughly speaking, “should” follows the same rules as “shall”, and “would” follows the same rules as “will”.

Usage varies a great deal in different parts of the English-speaking world. The general tendency outside England is to use “will” or “would” in many cases where “shall” or “should” is required in England. The rules given in ordinary grammars are based on usage in England. They should be, because the freer use of “will” and would”, besides impressing many educated Englishmen as being incorrect, often gives rise to ambiguity. In treating of this subject here I prefer strict English usage, so that what I call incorrect may be quite correct in the eyes of the Scots and the Americans. Incidentally, in any part of the English-speaking world nearly all mistakes about these simple words are misuses of “will” and “would” for “shall” and “should”, not of “shall” and “should” for “will” and “would”.

First, about simple sentences and principal clauses:

1. “Shall” is used in first-person statements to express plain future.

(1) I shall never know. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

(2) I shall be much obliged if you will kindly tell me how you spent last night. — HARRY GRAHAM.

To use “will” in such cases is not now uncommon in England, however.

Such a talk we will have if you will dine with me. — JAMES MATTHEW BARRIE. (Barrie was a Scotch. In Scotland it is considered to use “will” in the first person to express plain future.)

“Shall hope” used in the first person usually means hope, the idea of future belonging to the infinitive that follows rather than to the verbal sense of “hope”.

1. We shall hope to come when things look brighter. — THOMAS HARDY.

2. “Shall” is sometimes used in first-person statements to express intention or promise.

(1) I shall not say no! — R H MOTTRAM.

(2) You see! That is my answer! I shall be at Liverpool to meet you. — GWYN JONES.

“Shall” is used instead of “will” with the implication that of course the speaker or writer intends or promises what is said.

3. “Shall” is used in first-person questions to express plain future or to ask about the will or opinion of the person addressed.

(1) Shall I feel like that in twenty years? — ROSE MACAULAY. (Plain future)

(2) How many shall we be at dinner? — DAPHNE DU MAURIER. (Plain future)

(3) Shall I come to the station? — J B MORTON. (Will or opinion of the person addressed)

(4) What shall I play? — BEVERLEY NICHOLS. (Will or opinion of the person addressed)

4. “Shall” is used in second-person and third-person statements to express the speaker's or writer's intention, command, promise, threat, etc.

(1) You have appealed to the machine-gun and by the machine-gun shall you be judged. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) You shall write some letters for me instead, if you will. — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

(3) You shall have everything I possess in the world. — E PHILLIPS OPPENHEIM.

(4) Laura must and shall be plugged. — A S M HUTCHINSON.

(5) Whether I have attained this, the future shall decide. — The Times.

(6) If the tree is rotten, it shall be cut down and cast into the flames. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

5. “Shall” is used in second-person questions to express plain future.

(1) What shall you be saying of yourself at fifty? — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(2) Shall you tell — Mrs Tranter? — RUBY M AYRES.

There is, however, a great tendency to use “will” in such cases, especially in conversation and in formal writing.

If you get in Parliament for Loamport will you have to live there? — JAMES HILTON.

“Will” is always used instead of “shall” in the second person to express plain future if the question is a rhetorical one, the answer to which is intended to be given by the asker. For example, when “Will you have to live there?” implies “Of course you will not have to live there”, the “will” cannot be changed to “shall”.

6. “Shall” is used in third-person questions to ask about the will or opinion of the person addressed.

Shall she be dismissed? — Answers.

7. “Will” is used in first-person statements to express the speaker's or writer's intention, command, promise, threat, etc.

(1) I will tell you. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

(2) I will not rescue this dog. — P G WODEHOUSE.

8. “Will” is not usually used in first-person questions. (“Will I tell you?” would mean “Am I willing to tell you?”, that is, “Please tell me whether I am willing to tell you”; of course, one does not have occasion to ask another person about one's own will. “Will I?” or “Will we?” is used only when “Of course I (or we) will” or “Of course I (or we) will not” is implied.

9. “Will” is used in second-person and third-person statements to express plain future.

(1) Downstairs in the study you will find a book, probably on the small table by the window. —MICHAEL ARLEN.

(2) The weather will clear up before very long. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

10. “Will” is sometimes used in second-person statements to express the speaker's or writer's command.

I have an order there from the Home Secretary granting leave for you to go into a private nursing home for the removal of our appendix. You will start under escort, in plain clothes, this morning. — EVELYN WAUGH.

“Will” is used instead of “shall” with the implication that of course the order will be executed. It gives a tone of courtesy. It is much used in official communications; generally in the second person, but occasionally in the third person.

11. “Will” is sometimes used in third-person statements to express certainty or inevitability.

Whatever happens to the world, things of this kind will go on. — MAX BEERBOHM.

12. “Will” is used in second-person questions to ask about the will of the person addressed, especially in asking a favour; often used after an imperative.

(1) Will you tell me about it? — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) Now, will you come out for a ride? — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

(3) Help him, will you, Shale? — EDGAR WALLACE.

That “will” is much used in second-person questions to express plain future has been mentioned in 5.

13. “Will” is used in third-person questions to express plain future.

(1) Will Gordon be home? — SUSAN ERTZ.

(2) What will happen to this front when it rains? — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

14. “Will” is sometimes used to denote habit, usually in the second or third person, and very rarely in the first person.

“I have been doing this, with the exception of the War, for about fifteen years” he will tell you. — H V MORTON.

15. “Should”, though it is the past form of “shall”, is seldom used as a real past. For example, while “I shall never know” is very idiomatic, the past equivalent “I should never know” would be less usual than “I was never to know” or “I was not going to know”. The “I should have” in the following quotation implies “I thought I should”:

The way in which the house was left to take care of itself was really alarming. I should have to give the police a hint. — AUSTIN FREEMAN.

16. “Should” is used in first-person plain conditional statements, the conditional clause often being understood.

(1) If I were a German, I should be justifiably proud of this. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

(2) I must believe there will be a happy time, or I should go mad. — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE. (Conditional clause understood)

(3) Now, I should like to know how you dare to say such a thing! — LEONARD MERRICK. (Conditional clause understood)

To use “would” in such cases is now quite common, though it is still condemned by certain grammarians.

I would like to see you on a matter that concerns you and your immediate plans. — SUSAN ERTZ.

In “I should like” (or “I would like”), the idea of condition is so very vague that it may be considered absent rather than unexpressed. Giving a tone of reserve or modesty, it is merely a politer way of saying, “I shall like”. Likewise, “I should say” is a politer way of saying “I say”, and “I should think” is a politer way of saying “I think”.

17. “Should” is used in second-person plain conditional questions, the conditional clause generally being understood.

(1) How should you like to commit a burglary that was not a crime? — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(2) Should you have objected to such a marriage? — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

There is, however, a great tendency to use “would” in such cases especially in conversation and in formal writing.

1. Would you like that? — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

2. And when would you want me to begin? — WARWICK DEEPING.

3. Would you mind explaining, Antony, why you chose that infamous way of telling us that your wife was — well, not quite like the rest of us? — MICHAEL ARLEN.

“Would” is always used instead of “should” in rhetorical questions. For example, when “Would you like that?” implies “Of course you would not like that”, the “would” cannot be changed to “should”. Incidentally, even in ordinary (as opposed to rhetorical) questions, “would” seems to be actually commoner than the strictly grammatical “should”.

18. “Should” is used in all persons to express obligation, duty, or propriety.

(1) Why should I not write it? — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

(2) You should make him useful at any rate. — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

(3) The case should be handled with care. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

19. “Should” is sometimes used in questions to express emotion.

But why should you suppose so? — STELLA BENSON.

20. “Would”, though it is the past form of “will”, is seldom used as a real past except in denoting habit and in expressing volition in negative sentences. The “Would he ever return?” in the following quotation implies “He will most probably never return (because he was killed, for instance”.)

My father was in that great battle. Would he ever return? — EDGAR LEE MASTERS.

21. “Would” denoting past habit is much more used than “will” denoting present habit.

(1) He would come in from a walk, and, if she seemed to be busy reading, would sit down cheerfully by the stove, and really read the book which he had in his hand. — ARTHUR SYMONS.

(2) “My guardian angel looks after me pretty well” he would say. — W A DARLINGTON.

(3) Every now and again the wind would lift a cloud of grit from the road and blow it tinkling against the corrugated roof and dry shivering bushes. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

(4) Sometimes Mr Day would describe the sea. — T F POWYS.

(5) At night she would come into the Bay lounge, where the orchestra would play Italian dance tunes. — REGINALD DENHAM.

22. “Would” expresses past volition in negative sentences.

He would not listen to me. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

23. “Would is used in first-person conditional statements to express the speaker's or writer's intention, command, promise, threat, etc, the conditional clause often being understood.

(1) If I could, I would teach again, and live alone. — D H LAWRENCE.

(2) I would tell you, if I knew. — SUSAN ERTZ.

(3) I would die willingly for my country. — HUGH WALPOLE. (Conditional clause understood)

When no condition is expressed, “I would” is merely a politer way of saying “I will”. (See 16.)

24. “Would” is used in second-person and third-person pain conditional statements, the conditional clause often being understood.

(1) You would find we had so much in common, if you would only try to regard me as a friend. — F ANSTEY.

(2) But there, I won't get sentimental or I know you will cry, and that would depress me terribly. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS. (Conditional clause understood)

(3) This normally would have been an occasion for grief, but today Selina was too happy to mourn her loss. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH. (Conditional clause understood)

When no condition is expressed, “would' in third-person statements sometimes indicates probability, as in:

“His great tragedy happened just three years ago,” said the child “that would be since your sister's time”. — SAKI.

“It would seem” or “one would think” is merely a politer way of saying “it seems” or “one thinks”.

25. “Would” is used in second-person conditional questions to ask about the will of the person addressed, especially in asking a favour, the conditional clause generally being understood.

Well, would you promise to keep it to yourself? — DENIS MACKAIL.

That “would” is much used in second-person plain conditional questions has been mentioned in 17.

26. “Would” is used in third-person plain conditional questions, the conditional clause often being understood.

(1) If I had come in with a tiger after me, would that have made him my tiger? — MORLEY ROBERTS.

(2) Would that be possible for you? — SUSAN ERTZ. (Conditional clause understood)

27. “Would” is sometimes used to express wish.

I would rather you came to the present documents with an entirely open mind. — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

Having dealt with the use of “shall” and “will”, “should” and “would”, in simple sentences and principal clauses, we now proceed to subordinate clauses.

1. “Shall” and “should” are used to express obligation laid on the subject of the subordinate clause, or we may say to express volition that is not that of the subject of the subordinate clause but that of some word in the principal clause.

(1) I demand that the lot shall be put up again. — AUSTIN FREEMAN. (Here “shall” expresses obligation laid on the subject “lot”, or we may say it expresses volition that is not that of the subject “lot” but that of the subject of the principal clause “I”.)

(2) I've got an order here from the Home Secretary especially requiring that it shall be done. — EVELYN WAUGH.

(3) It goes on to provide that, out of regard for his conscience no clergyman shall be compelled to marry two persons either of whom has been legally divorced. — Truth.

(4) Then she demanded that he should instantly paint a picture of her in her new dress. — DORIS LESSING.

(5) He desired that a posthumous title should not be awarded. — ARTHUR WALEY.

That-clauses that contain this “shall” or “should” are generally used after “demand”, “require”, “provide”, “desire”, “intend”, “insist”, etc.

2. “Shall” is not now common in conditional clauses and indefinite clauses, relative or other. The present tense is usually used instead. Thus, instead of “if he shall come”, “when he shall come” and “whoever shall come”, we usually say “if he comes”, “when he comes”, and “whoever comes”.

It is to be noted that while “shall” is not now common in such clauses, “will” is entirely unidiomatic unless volition is meant. The italicized “will” in the following sentence expresses volition, “will favour” meaning wish to favour:

I will bring them round myself, madame, if you will favour me with the address. — ANTHONY HOPE.

3. “Should” is used in conditional clauses and indefinite clauses, relative or other, to express doubt.

(1) If at any time you should have occasion to make purchases in Rennes, I shall be happy to offer you a special discount. — LEONARD MERRICK.

(2) Even if his book should prove to be a classic, it would never bring him in much money. — SUSAN ERTZ.

(3) Suppose the house should be broken into in the night, and the precious medallion stolen? — AUSTIN FREEMAN.

“Would” is used instead of “should” if volition is meant.

“If only she would come,” said Mr Day “I feel sure that her soul would leap and cry out for eternity”. — T F POWYS.

4. “Should” (not “shall”) is sometimes used to express emotion.

(1) It is a pity that such practice should ever be omitted. — R W CHAPMAN.

(2) It is particularly strange, for instance, that she should have given you no sort of letter to bring with you to myself. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

(3) It is only natural that other members of the Empire should wish to be entrusted, like Scotland, with the records of their own history. — The Times.

(4) My regret is that we should have allowed our stocks to fall so low. — Truth.

(5) Nor do I understand why readers should wish to know the details of a writer's personal life. — GERALD BULLETT.

5. “Should” (not “shall”) is used in a clause introduced by “lest” or by “in case” used in the sense of lest.

(1) Lest you should despair during these few years, as I sometimes do, I repeat that, looking out over broad ages, not dazzled by the fluctuations of one particular age, the arts appear as mankind's supreme achievement. — LORD DUNSANY.

(2) They would not follow their thought to its logical consequences in case they should jeopardize their position in university society. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

6. In indirect speech the general principle is to use the same auxiliary as would be used in direct speech, simply changing the tense if necessary.

(1) He replied, therefore, that he would wait. — JOHN GALSWORTHY. (Direct: “I will wait”.)

(2) I caused a letter to be sent asking, in the politest terms I could devise, whether he would allow me to call upon him and within two hours received an answer making an appointment for the following morning at ten o'clock. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM. (Direct: “Will you allow me ...?”)

(3) It was the following winter that I returned from Africa, and naturally when I saw Louise, I asked after the clown writer. Louise laughed and said we should meet. — MANUEL KOMROFF. (Direct: “You and he shall meet”.)

The “will” in the following sentence is perfectly correct (Direct: “You will be ...”):

Miss McPherson seems to think I will be able to travel in less than a month. — SUSAN ERTZ.

But as “I will” calls up too strongly the idea of volition, “shall” is in fact much commoner in such sentences.

Again, while “he should” should, according to the general principle, have been used in the following sentence instead of “he would” because “I shall” instead of “I will” would have been used in direct speech, “would” is in fact much commoner in such sentences.

By Christmas he had told himself that, if he did not care, be would one day be making a fool of himself, he would be actually growing fond of the country. — HUGH WALPOLE.

Exercise 66

Write ten sentences each with “shall”, ten sentences each with “will”, ten sentences each with “should”, and ten sentences each with “would”.

181. Subjunctive Mood.The subjunctive mood, a full treatment of which is to be expected in an advanced grammar rather than in a book of composition, is a very difficult subject. Fortunately, it is much less used in ordinary English prose than it used to be, so that it is not necessary for students of composition to master all its intricacies. I hope you will save yourself much trouble by keeping in mind these two facts: (1) that the subjunctive mood never expresses a fact, and (2) that the past subjunctive, in spite of its form and its name, refers not to past time but to present or to undefined or sometimes to future time, or rather it refers usually not to time at all but to the realm of non-fact.

1. The present subjunctive is used in certain idioms.

come what may (whatever happens)

be that as it may (however that may be)

far be it from me to (infinitive) (I would on no account ...)

2. The present subjunctive is used in a clause expressing a suggestion, a demand, a request, or the like even if the verb in the principal clause is in the past tense.

(1) Doctor Garvin was ready to agree with Martha's suggestion that she carry Paul away with her. — ELEANOR THORNE.

(2) Julia was obviously frightened of something going on about her, and frightened, too, for his safety — so much so that eventually he agreed to her suggestion that he leave the house. — Pearson's Weekly.

(3) Eric accepted her repentance and forgave her on the sole condition that she maintain that same friendly attitude when he was well again. — SUSAN ERTZ.

(4) When dinner was over, the ladies proposed that Maupassant rehearse his entrance into the Seville drawing-room, for he had been invited to attend a function at the Countess'. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

(5) I sprang at him, seized his coat lapels, and demanded that he apologize. — RALPH ELLISON.

3. The present subjunctive is sometimes used in a clause introduced by “lest”. This usage is now American rather than English.

The lights were put out lest anyone see him getting to his pins. — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT.

Note that in the following sentence the negative subjunctive is “not have”, not “have not” or “do not have”.

We had Grace and Vickery then, and she left your father the money on condition that he not have any more children. — JOHN CHEEVER.

4. The past subjunctive is usually used to express a wish, or a condition that is contrary to fact. As has been said in the above, it does not refer to past time.

(1) My wife is dead and my child is dead, and I wish I were dead myself. — JAMES HILTON. (Wish)

(2) I wish we could help you. — ARNOLD BENNETT. (Wish)

(3) If the cuckoo were a winter visitor and sang at Christmas, it would stir our curiosity, but I doubt whether Wordsworth would have addressed a lyric to it. — New Statesman and Nation. (Condition)

(4) Would you think me a perfect pig if I dropped you at the lodge gates? — DAPHNE DU MAURIER. (Condition)

(5) Don't look at me like that, as though it were all my fault. — HUGH WALPOLE. (Condition)

Note that in the third and fourth sentences “it would” and “Would you” are used instead of “it will” and “Will you”, and that in the third sentence “would have addressed” is used.

5. Though it is true that “were”, not “was”, is the correct form in the past subjunctive, “was” is now much used instead of “were” when the subject is singular.

(1) I often wish I was rich enough to do it. — P G WODEHOUSE.

(2) I wish Dad was still alive. — NORMAN MAILER.

(3) You find people writing now about people working in Russia as if this was some new thing in the world's history — J B PRIESTLEY.

It is to be noted, however, that grammarians insist upon the use of “were” instead of “was”, and that in such a fixed idiom as “as it were” no one would use “was”.

He wrote, as it were, with his heart's blood, with an almost bitter delight. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

The following sentence raises an interesting point:

But I feel as if I have known you for years. — RUBY M AYRES.

Many grammarians may call this sentence wrong, and insist that after “as if” (or “as though”) “had” should be used instead of “have”. In this particular sentence “had” would certainly be the word expected; but in current usage there seems to be a distinction between “It looks as if there were some hot days more ahead.” and “It looks as if there are some hot days more ahead.” The second sentence suggests more probability than the first.

6. The subjunctive “were” was formerly often used in past conditional clauses and past indirect questions. This usage is now rare, and is considered hardly correct, so that “was” should have been used instead of “were” in the following sentences:

(1) He wondered who would find the letter, if it were ever found. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) In the morning he wondered if all that he could call to mind were part of a waking or a sleeping vision. — JAMES HILTON.

(3) And now, what did it matter any more whether she were rich or poor? — RUBY M AYRES.

It is interesting to note that in the following sentence “were” is used first and then “was” is used:

Chip wondered if she were making fun of love, or whether she was merely holding the schoolgirl's idea of it up to scorn. — SUSAN ERTZ.

7. The past perfect subjunctive is usually used to express a wish about some time in the past, or a past condition that was contrary to fact.

(1) Oh, if I had only known! — JOHN MASEFIELD. (Wish)

(2) I would have forged my father's name if I had had the skill to do so. — STELLA BENSON. (Condition)

(3) If I had come in with a tiger after me, would that have made him my tiger? — MORLEY ROBERTS. (Condition)

Notice that “would have forged” and “would have made” are used instead of “would forge” and “would make”.

8. It is interesting to compare the seven following expressions:

(1) if he comes

(2) if he come

(3) if he should come

(4) if he came

(5) if he were to come

(6) if he was to come

(7) if he had come

The first is in the indicative mood, implying “He may or may not come”. In very formal writing, “if he shall come” is often used instead.

The second is in the subjunctive mood, also implying “He may or may not come”. It is now hardly ever used.

The third is in the subjunctive mood, implying “he may or may not come, more probably not”.

The fourth may be in the subjunctive mood, implying “He almost certainly will not come”. It may also be in the indicative mood, implying “He may or may not have come at some time or other in the past”.

The fifth is in the subjunctive mood, implying “He may or may not come, most probably not”.

The sixth may be in the subjunctive mood, implying “He may or may not come, most probably not”; it differs from the fifth in having the meaning of obligation or arrangement, so that it means if it were prearranged for him to come. It may also be in the indicative mood, implying “He might or might not come (in the future of the past)”.

The seventh may be in the subjunctive mood, implying either “He did not come” or “He has not come”. It may also be in the indicative mood, implying “He might or might not have come (at a particular past time)”.

The same clause “if he should come” in the two following sentences expresses different degrees of doubt:

(1) If he should come, I shall tell him. (Less degree of doubt)

(2) If he should come, I should tell him. (Greater degree of doubt)

9. It has been pointed out and illustrated in Section 180 that in conditional sentences the conditional clause is often understood, and that the idea of condition is often so very vague that it may he considered absent rather than unexpressed. Below are some examples in which the auxiliary verb used is not “should” or “would” but “could” or “might”:

(1) Could you lend me pen and paper for a moment, please? — ARTHUR HUGHES. (“Could you ...?” is politer than “Can you ...?”)

(2) Don't—you don't love me, or you couldn't have forgotten me. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH. (“If yon loved me” or “if you did love me” is understood.)

(3) “Mrs Wicket,” Chips would sing out, in that jerky, highpitched voice that had still a great deal of sprightliness in it “you might bring me a cup of tea before prep, will you?” — JAMES HILTON. (“You might ...”, implying “if you would”, is a polite form of request.)

(4) That fiery fellow with the smouldering eyes might do it. — Answers. (“If he had the chance” or “if he were in a position to do it” is understood.)

(5) The casual observer might have thought he was idle, and would haw been wrong. — ROLAND PERTWEE. (“If there had been a casual observer” is understood.)

In this connection may be mentioned the very common idiom “had better”, which is always followed by an infinitive without “to”. Not writing a grammar, I need not explain the origin of this curious idiom. Suffice it to say that “had better” is the only correct form, “have better”, “shall have better”, “have had better”, etc being all non-existent. It usually refers to present time.

(1) But I had better hold my tongue. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

(2) But before I introduce either sort I had better offer something in the way of a declaration of principles. — KINGSLEY AMIS.

(3) I suppose I had better be going, hadn't I? — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

Occasionally it refers to past time.

No, she had much better not go, and for quite an hour she really thought she wouldn't. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

Note that in the following sentence “had better” is followed by a perfect infinitive:

I have mentioned policemen; and perhaps I had better not have done so. — H W GARROD.

“I had better not have done so” implies “I am sorry that I have done so” or “I am sorry I did so”. Note that “have done”, not “done”, is used. “Had better” followed by a past participle is a common mistake among English-speaking people.

Exercise 67

Correct the following sentences in the light of what you have learnt from Section 181 (some of which, however, contain no mistakes):

1. If I were you, I will not do it.

2. If she should call, tell her to wait in my study.

3. If it had not rained yesterday, we should have a picnic.

4. You might do me a favour.

5. I had better told him last night.

6. I forget to ask him whether he were a college graduate.

7. Come what may, we shall start early tomorrow morning.

8. Would you allow me to go if he should ask me to go with him?

9. He made the suggestion that his brothers and sisters went to the same school.

10. I feel as if I am having a fever.

11. If your father saw you do this, he would have been angry.

12. He promised to arrange everything for us, but we thought we had better do it ourselves.

13. If he should call again, I shall be glad.

14. If he should call again, I should be glad.

15. How I wish I were horn in the eighteenth century!

16. If two and two were five, four and four would have been ten.

17. I think you will have better stay with your parents.

18. If you read the sentence again, you will understand it.

19. If he read the sentence again, he will understand it.

20. If he were to read the sentence again, he will understand it.

182. Sequence of Tenses.Sequence of tenses is not a very difficult subject in English. Only a few points need td be mentioned here.

1. In the following sentence “were” and “was” are used instead of “will” and “is” because of sequence of tenses.

If I thought he would change, that this was only temporary, I could manage ... but it's the thought that he'll never change... it terrifies me. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN. (The italics of “would” are the author's, not mine.)

2. A general or habitual fact remains in the present tense in the subordinate clause even if the verb in the principal clause is in the past.

(1) He saw how discipline is made out of lonely hours on sentry in the cold and of interminable marches. — J B MORTON.

(2) Chang, by the way, was telling me that your favourite Western composer is Mozart. — JAMES HILTON. (“Your favourite Western composer was Mozart” would imply “At the present moment your favourite Western composer may not be Mozart”.)

3. Compare the two following sentences:

(1) Would you like to go and see if cook has got your dinner ready? — SAKI.

(2) How should you like to commit a burglary that was not a crime? — ARNOLD BENNETT.

In the first sentence sequence of tenses is, and in the second it is not, neglected. So far as form is concerned, both “would” and “should” are past, but neither of them refers to past time here. In the first sentence the author used “has” instead of “had” because he felt that “would” did not refer to past time, though past in form. In the second sentence the author used “was” instead of “is” because he felt that “should” was a past form though it did not refer to past time. In actual usage it is less common to change the verb in the subordinate clause of such sentences to the past tense than not to change it. Below are two more sentences in which the change is not made (in other words, sequence of tenses is neglected):

1. We would add that if you do us the honour to order the lobster from us, it will be found to have its claws attached. — E V LUCAS.

2. Her soul would not stay only as far as her eyes can see, but it would rush on until the glory of God is reached. — T F POWYS.

In such a sentence as the following one the use of “have” is not unusual, though strictly speaking ungrammatical.

I thought I would just call and see how you have settled down in your new home. — RUBY M AYRES.

Exercise 68

Correct the mistakes in sequence of tenses in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no such mistakes):

1. I should like to know how old you are.

2. I told him that I should like to know how old he is.

3. He wrote to say last week that he hopes to call on me within a fortnight.

4. Could you tell me where your sister lives?

5. I thought he had a great deal to say to me, but all that he said was that he had just learnt from a book that air is a mixture mainly of oxygen and nitrogen.

6. You might stay a little longer to see whether the experiment would prove a success.

7. Only five minutes ago she rang you up to ask where you will go this summer.

8. If you could look into my mind and find out what I think about the matter, you would forgive me.

9. The man whom you saw last night left town this morning.

10. When I asked him what he was looking for, he said that I have no right to ask him such a question.

183. “The” as Adverb.“The” is used as an adverb before an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree only, in the sense on that account or to that extent.

1. It's a bad outlook, and it's all the worse, in some ways, because there isn't much we can do about it. — JAMES HILTON.

2. If Pauline awoke in her locked bedroom and heard things, so much the worse for her, he reflected. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. Her little imperfections, her schoolgirl awkwardness of manner only endeared her to Rodney all the more. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

4. I hope that you will think none the less of me for that. — STEPHEN LEACOCK.

As can be seen from these examples, the adverb “the” is usually preceded by “all”, “so much”, and “none”. Not always, however:

There was hardly a young man among all the ghosts of Fairfield who didn't roll home in the small hours in the morning the worse for liquor. — RICHARD BARHAM MIDDLETON.

It must not be supposed that “the” used before a comparative is always an adverb. The “the” in “the more injured” in the following sentence is the article, not the adverb:

It would be hard to determine which of the young couple felt the more injured. — BEN TRAVERS.

For reasons that it is not convenient to explain here, a comparative preceded by “the” (either adverb or article) must not be followed by “than”. In other words, when a comparative is followed by “than”, it must not be preceded by “the”.

184. Double Adverbial “The”.The “the” illustrated in Section 183 is a demonstrative adverb. Now “the” can also be used before a comparative as a relative adverb, meaning to what extent.

1. The more we think about it, the less we know. — D H LAWRENCE.

2. The more he tried to sleep, the more he couldn't. — A A MILNE.

3. The later the publication, the more modern the knowledge that it imparts. — URSULA BLOOM.

4. But I mean that the more seriously one takes an amusement, the more amusing it becomes. — A C BENSON.

You must have noticed that in each of the four sentences the demonstrative “the” is used as well as the relative “the”. While the demonstrative “the” can be used alone, the relative “the” cannot. The following sentence, in which the relative “the” is used alone, is unidiomatic:

Men arc only too willing to enjoy the amusement afforded by the buffoon, but they will treat him with increased contempt the more he serves them. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

In my opinion, the sentence can be corrected by changing “increased” to “the more” (the “the” being demonstrative).

As a rule, the relative “the” comes before the demonstrative “the”.

The “the... the...” construction often contains an ellipsis. For example, “is” is understand after both “publication” and “imparts” in the sentence quoted above from Ursula Bloom. The following sentence contains the briefest form of this construction:

The sooner the better, so far as I'm concerned. — JAMES HILTON.

Exercise 69

Write five sentences each with the demonstrative “the” and another five each with the relative “the” and the demonstrative “the”.

185. Quasi-adverbs.“Quasi” means seeming or half, and a quasi-adverb is an adjective that is idiomatically used as an adverb.

1. Contrary to popular belief, the people who cause the police most trouble are not the burglars, gangsters, and smash-and-grab raiders. — Answers.

2. “At any rate,” said the bachelor, collecting his belongings preparatory to leaving the carriage. “I kept them quiet for ten minutes, which was more than you were able to do”. — SAKI.

3. Prior to my cuisine, the name of the restaurant was absurd. — LEONARD MERRICK.

From a narrowly grammatical point of view, “contrary”, “preparatory”, and “prior” should be changed to “contrarily”, “preparatorily”, and “priorly”, respectively. But idiom requires “contrary”, “preparatory”, and “prior”, and the use of the “-ly” forms would result in very unnatural English. (Perhaps nobody ever feels any temptation to write “accordingly” instead of the quasi-adverb “according” in “according to” and “according as”, because these two idioms are too familiar to draw attention to their unusual grammatical construction.)

Besides the three just illustrated, among the common quasi-adverbs may be mentioned “irrespective (of)”, “previous (to)”, and “regardless (of)”.

Incidentally, mention may be made of the fact that there are certain words, such as “hard”, “high”, “late”, and “most”, each of which is used as an adverb in a different sense from that of the same form with “-ly” added. You are advised to consult a dictionary when you have any doubt whether the form with “-ly” or without “-ly” should be used in a particular use.

Exercise 70

Write five sentences each with a quasi-adverb.

186. Prepositions.As is known to all students of English grammar, there are far fewer than a hundred prepositions in English. But they play so important a part that no one can write English correctly without a full knowledge, conscious or unconscious, of their uses. Misuse of them mostly results in offences against idiom rather than in mistakes in grammar, and shows that however good a knowledge of grammar a writer may have acquired, he is still not at home in the language.

The correct use of prepositions cannot be learnt from a few rules, nor from their definitions as given in the dictionaries. You are advised to observe them in your reading and to read their illustrative examples in dictionaries and grammars.

187. Idiomatic Uses of Prepositions.You must not content yourself with knowing the primary meaning of a preposition. You do not master a preposition until you have mastered its various idiomatic uses. Notice the italicized prepositions in the following sentences:

1. He had always thought, he said, that I was above these petty prejudices. — F ANSTEY. (above = too good for)

2. Come down here and let us have a talk about what you are at now. — JOHN GALSWORTHY. (at = occupied with)

3. You see, I was a big chap for my age. — FRANCIS BRETT YOUNG. (for = considering the usual nature of)

4. I feel an almost savage envy on hearing that London has been flooded in my absence, while I am in the mere country. — G K CHESTERTON. (on = immediately after)

5. And to my astonishment her mother joined and explained how the formality had originated in The Seville family long before the Revolution. — MANUEL KOMROFF. (to = with the result of causing)

188. Prepositions before Particular Nouns.Particular prepositions are used before particular nouns. Before giving more examples, however, I have to point out that different prepositions may have to be used before the same noun to express different senses, as in:

1. And at this moment the question was solved by the opening of the door. — AUSTIN FRFFMAN.

2. For a moment her companion thought to follow. — GILBERT FRANKAU.

In “at this moment”, the “moment” means a point of time; in “for a moment”, the “moment” means a brief space of time.

1. A brilliant American scientist, who spoke for some reason with a thick German accent, was just expounding a remarkable plan for projecting a whole battalion of white mice into space, when Gwatkin Pollock, remembering a humorous event from his youth, laughed loudly. — PETER USTINOV.

2. In the background Josey hovered, concerned about his meals. — SEYMOOR FREEDGOOD.

3. The degree-diploma had been expensively printed in two colours by an Anglo-Catholic firm. — GRAHAM GREENE.

4. On every committee there is a deaf member who continues to support or attack a proposal after it has been voted upon and dismissed. — E V LUCAS.

5. At the cosmetics counter a girl is showing an older woman some liquid make-up. — JOYCE CAROL OATES.

6. The anticipation of a reunion with two benevolent Americans whom she had met on a summer cruise lifted her spirits like a waft of summer air. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

7. On the day of my ruin, she left me for a richer lover. — STELLA BENSON.

8. He adores animals to a degree beyond reason. — MORLEY ROBERTS. (Before “degree”; it is also idiomatic to use “in”).

9. He dashed down the steps, turned, and started down the street in the direction opposite the barricade. — HUGH WALPOLE.

10. He'd been on the dole for a few months and suddenly got a job at a place twenty miles away I was later told. — ALAN SILLITOE.

11. She had not heard Peter come in and was startled by his sudden appearance in the doorway. — M T WADEY.

12. Now, at the end of a long and useful career, I am going to leave Paris. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

13. I waited for the evidence on which this refutation rested to be imparted, or at least indicated, but it never came. — KINGSLEY AMIS.

14. For a long time the Roman patricians were clever enough to beat every such potential tyrant by giving in to a certain extent to the plebeians. — H G WELLS.

15. She strove to meet hi sister-in-law on an equal footing. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

16. It was a slim idea to get the work of twenty men for nothing under the guise of charity. — FRANCIS BRETT YOUNG. (Before “guise”, it is also idiomatic to use “in”.)

17. The next morning he found upon his plate a letter in a strange hand. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

18. This time the envelope yielded a letter, written in a rather shaky and spiky handwriting. — AGATHA CHRISTIE.

19. We spend the day in talk, and partake at frequent intervals of tea and sweetmeats. — ROMER WILSON.

20. It must be admitted that the scene at every turn on the northern journey is intoxicating. — ROBERT LYND.

21. From early infancy he had used his hands to swing from branch to branch after the manner of his giant mother, and as he grew older he spent hour upon hour daily speeding through the tree-tops with his brothers and sisters. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

22. I used to hear it at almost every meal. — LORD PONSONBY.

23. Therefore, the sole notice taken on my seventieth birthday by the British Government was its deliberate official prohibition of the broadcasting of any words spoken by me on that occasion. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

24. The wallpaper was in her opinion strange and rather lovely. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

25. I eventually found him in a cottage on the outskirts of the city. — SEYMOUR HICKS.

26. No tear stains on the paper, just eight words in pencil on a page of the insurance book — I've still got it in the back of my wallet, though God knows why. — ALAN SILLITOE.

27. Victor and Nancy are furnishing a flat on the instalment plan. — H A VACHELL.

28. For decades, the black people of Chicago were field hands on this plantation. — STUDS TERKEL.

29. At this point he dived. — P G WODEHOUSE.

30. From the financial point of view, alone, it was important, anyhow, that I should go on writing. — ETHEL MANNIN.

31. Two of the sadly depleted companies went to adjacent farms, two remained on the premises. — R H MOTTRAM.

32. For that reason the Prince never kept a sheep in his park or a clock in his palace. — SAKI.

33. Walter endeavoured to follow his example on a small scale, but found it somewhat repellent. — BEVERLY NICHOLS.

34. I leant back in my seat again. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

35. Here is a walnut tree, under a rubble-heap, and on the other side of the road another rubble-heap. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

36. Then he ran off at a great speed in the direction of the Central Way. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

37. James himself has never denied this luck, but accepts it in an attractive spirit of humility. — W A DARLINGTON.

38. The encouragement and expert help of Mr George Kamin have been invaluable at every stage in the production of the book. — G H VALLINS.

39. The day before, Mrs Herbert Kraft had talked to him eagerly and incoherently on the telephone for twenty-three minutes about the difficulties that beset a woman she knew. — JAMES REID PARKER.

40. That's why I like the old movies on television. — ELIZABETH TROOP.

41. For the first time in history there is widespread unemployment in the nursing profession. — Answers.

42. At the top of the street I came to the church standing in the middle of its churchyard with the public house for nearest neighbour. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

43. Meanwhile Mr Bronson was talking about their experiences on a weekend trip to Moscow. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

44. “No” said Mrs Carlswell in a faint voice. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

189. Prepositions after Particular Words.Particular prepositions are used after particular words, especially nouns, adjectives and past participles, and verbs.

Nouns:

1. This is the first of some occasional articles on the present condition of our language. — KINGSLEY AMIS.

2. Finally, the present century has witnessed a big change in the public attitude towards the enforced leisure of unemployment. — Listener. (“Attitude” has for years been also followed by “to”.)

3. An invaluable companion to readers of English literature. — Saturday Review.

4. She felt more confidence in his health, too, and in his determination to come to England again. — SUSAN ERTZ.

3. And Dudlow was not likely to refuse his consent to an engagement, for I knew his wife would put in a word for me. — F ANSTEY.

6. That is your splendid contribution to the clinic. — EDGAR WALLACE.

7. But he remains, and he seems to have lost his desire for the wild. — H M TOMLINSON.

8. One or two of her acquaintances expressed a certain distaste for the personal appearance of Mr Daly, and came to call. — MAEVE GILMORE.

9. They say sequels are never so good as the original conception, but yours, like Daudet's immortal Tartarin volumes, is an exception to the rule. — GWYN JONES.

10. But it was evident that he was a very clever doctor and the Chinese had great faith in him. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

11. He had a genius for construction. — H E BATES.

12. And indeed Miss Perrings the eider, while she valued the chance of getting an excellent instructor in French, German, and music for practically nothing, felt, when her eyes first lit on Nancy, that the advantage was not without its corresponding drawbacks. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

13. He felt the old man's hunger for conversation. — SAUL BELLOW.

14. He wondered why he felt so great an interest in these people — why he had gone to such pains to save the three men. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

15. She thought of Peter and Jenny, of Jenny's irritation with him. — M T WADEY.

16. There is a limit to the provocation some can stand. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

17. He has a very bad memory for things like that. — ELIZABETH TROOP.

18. Why this objection to interviews? — ARNOLD BENNETT.

19. She considered that living in London hardened him and made his outlook on life sordid. — P G WODEHOUSE.

20. Deep, loving pride in her stirred in me. — M C JENKINS.

21. Dr Lovaway wore an overcoat of his own, a garment which had offered excellent protection against rainy days in Manchester. — GEORGE A BIRMINGHAM.

22. I suggest, in conclusion, that the sacrifice to traffic is needless. — G S STREET.

23. Each is a complete whole and possesses at the same time literary excellence and suitability to the performer's art. — Aberdeen Press and Journal.

24. Already in our schooldays some of us were making our first responses to good literature. — C S LEWIS.

25. He had, in middle age, developed a slight tendency to fussiness. — LEONARD MERRICK.

26. She had often noticed his consuming thirst for milk. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

27. I've got no use for it. — ALAN SILLITOE.

Adjectives and Past Participles.

1. He was a New Yorker addicted to Italy. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

2. She was fully alive to the situation. — R H MOTTRAM.

3. You are ashamed of me. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

4. I was aware of a sense of freedom, as though I had no responsibilities at all. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

5. I'm sure all that reading's bad for your eyes. — ALAN SILLITOE.

6. Many people, as I have said, are quite capable of talking interestingly, if they get a lead. — A C BENSON.

7. It was characteristic of her that she should choose a tale of that nature to read on such a morning. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

8. Presently I was conscious of a certain relaxation in his demeanour. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

9. Try, I beg you, to be content with your great gift; it is personal to you, and within your control, and all the rest is vanity. — JAMES STEPHENS.

10. Thomas Murray later regretted his choice of profession and was disappointed in his career and anxious to see his sons do better. — K M ELIZABETH MURRAY.

11. We travelled with the gravity due to summer weather, and found the process better than marching. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

12. The plan, however, did not seem to be very easy of execution. — HARRY GRAHAM.

13. Madeleine was equal to the occasion. — R H MOTTRAM.

14. She was faced with the difficulty of transmitting to someone who no longer understood the common words of daily usage. — MAEVE GILMORE.

15. The man knew that he was deeply fond of her. — A E COPPARD.

16. No work of this scope can be free of error, but readers will discern, it is hoped, an arduous effort to give a true and full picture of a great world battle. — HERMAN WOUK.

17. Life is full of these hairbreadth escapes. — H V MORTON.

18. I shall always be glad of that. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

19. He was rather good at that sort of thing. — JAMES HITON.

20. I am a fairly wealthy man, and I was never greedy of money. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

21. At any rate that bit of a feeling that he might have been guilty of doing the other fellow a wrong disappeared. — ELEANOR THORNE.

22. It is evident to me that Miss Perrings is ignorant of the way in which a lady should be treated. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

23. Because she will understand men, she will not be too impatient of your selfishness and folly, and you will be compelled to respect her, which is necessary in the relations of man to women and even in some degree in those of women to men. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

24. He seemed to be incapable of saying anything without sarcasm these days. — PETER USTINOV.

25. They are incredulous of everything that their eyes have not seen. — ROBERT LYND.

26. I myself am equally innocent of farming and grocering. — GERALD BULLETT.

27. All those interested in drama and the birth of a dramatic society for the town of Wander were requested to attend a meeting there. — H E BATES.

28. She made Rodney jealous of Lettice and Lettice jealous of Rodney. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

29. What she said (and she was not lavish of words) was attended to. — R H MOTTRAM.

30. She seemed oblivious of the ragged walls of the rain in which she stood and she watered the lawn carefully, lingering over the burnt spots. — JOHN CHEEVER.

31. We'll just have to be patient with him. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

32. It is not even a condition peculiar to dramatic art; in sonic kind or degree, it is a condition of any art whatsoever. — LASCELLES ABERCROMBIE.

33. Marry a woman who is a widow, childless and possessed of sufficient means. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

34. The old lady had always been proud of the great rose-tree in her garden, and was fond of telling how it had grown from a cutting she had brought years before from Italy, when she was first married. — LOGAN PEARSALL SMITH.

35. An ordinary boy, grieving for his mother, and naturally resentful of the person in her place. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

36. I hope it's something that may prove useful to you, and I feel sanguine of your success. — EDEN PHILLPOTTS.

37. Others went as farm labourers, though not many; for while the farmers were as always short of labour, they did not know how to handle farm labourers who were also white men: such a phenomenon had never happened in Zambesia before. — DORIS LESSING.

38. I am always rather foolishly shy of saying my own name in public especially when there are a lot of people I know round me. — LORD PONSONBY.

39. They are sick of the food given by cooks in flooded kitchens. — H V MORTON.

40. Like a cats his silence was not oppressive, but significant of the fact that he was at home. — MAEVE GILMORE.

41. You must realize, John, that you must be in some measure subject to government policy. — PETER USTINOV.

42. Some years ago I knew a blacksmith who grew tired of his job and became an accountant. — Answers.

43. Maybe I was a bit upset after all at her sudden visit, and it's possible I showed it without knowing it at the time, because I filled my pipe up straight away, a thing I never normally do. — ALAN SILLITOE.

44. You get used to the loneliness. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

45. It is a fact worthy of grave consideration that today there is not a single coal-fired ship of importance in the British Navy. — Horse and Hound.

Verbs.

1. She accused a few teachers of being absolutely warped. — NORMAN MAILER.

2. You have appealed to the machine-gun, and by the machine-gun shall you be judged. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

3. Selina knew that Nurse would not approve of their leaving the spot where she had set them to play, but for the life of her she could not help it. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. Everyone leads us to aspire to higher things. — JOSEPH HELLER.

5. Do you believe in ghosts? — P G WODEHOUSE.

6. All the same, we cling to our last pleasures as the tree clings to its last leaves. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

7. I thought he was complimenting me on having brought the approvals. — JOHN CHEEVER.

8. Those in favour of a naturalistic approach to and interpretation of life concentrated on depicting the social environment and dwelt particularly on its deficiencies and on the shortcomings of human beings. — J A CUDDON.

9. Meanwhile Lorna had confessed to her responsibility, which Gary would scarcely accept. —EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

10. But you must confide in me, you must tell me when he behaves badly. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

11. He inwardly congratulated himself on the conscientious accuracy of this conjecture. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

12. Don't you want to contribute further to this great record by flying more combat missions? — JOSEPH HELLER.

13. The length to which the affair subsequently proceeds depends entirely upon what the author feels about his public: whether that's the sort of thing they want from him or whether it isn't. — E M DELAFIELD.

14. She did not know whether she despaired more of him or of herself. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

15. He died of lead-poisoning. — ALAN SILLITOE.

16. I drink to the end of the war. — DORIS LESSING.

17. The very names of some or these creatures seem to hint at their poisonous quality, especially to those persons who can scarcely look at snakes without a shudder. — The children's Newspaper.

18. When Sir Humphrey informed me early today of the success of your experiment, I immediately called a Cabinet meeting, which ended not half an hour ago. — PETER USTINOV.

19. We shall inquire of the proprietress when we get up. — LEONARD MERRICK.

20. He never interfered with her or with the child. — H E BATES.

21. I must ask you to listen to me without interruption. — PETER USTINOV.

22. He, too, objected to the line. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

23. As long as she refrained from telling him the whole truth, he would see no reason to bear heavily upon Colin now. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

24. You may rely on his judgement; the beggar is infallible. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

25. But I didn't want to remind her of the wedding picture for fear it would bring back memories she didn't like. — ALAN SILLITOE.

26. They replied to his greeting with visible apprehension, and eyed his turban, his skirts, and his shining brown face with alarm. — SEYMOOR FREEDGOOD.

27. I asked this question quite naturally though, because didn't feel I had anything to reproach her with. — ALAN SILLITOE.

28. He knew that she wouldn't respond to proposal of marriage coached in terms of a real estate transaction. — ROBERT C BENCHLEY.

39. We've near shied at adventure. — PETER USTINOV.

30. Evidently at a loss, she stared at me. — MAY C JENKINS.

31. Since he was a scientist, it would have been inhuman if he had not in some measures surrendered to tradition and been a little absent-minded. — PETER USTINOV.

32. She had tired of what the radio could offer, and sang to herself the hymns of her girlhood — “On Christian Soldiers” and “Pull for the shore Sailor” — and tears coursed down her cheeks. — MAEVE GILMORE.

For further examples read Sections 168 and 169 again.

As you are no doubt aware, there are many idiomatic phrases each consisting of a verb (and an adverb) and a preposition. For instance, with the verb “look” we have “look after”, “look down (up)on”, “look for”, “look forward to”, “look into”, “look over”, “look through”, “look to”, “look (up)on”, and “look up to”. The use of such phrases is a great aid to composition. Care must be taken not to confuse those that are similar to each other.

190. Omission of Prepositions.It is a fact, though grammars do not usually mention it, that a verb or an adjective that is idiomatically followed by a preposition dispenses with that preposition when it is followed by a clause introduced by the conjunction “that”. For example, we say “I am glad of it” and “I am glad that you have seen him”. “I am glad of that you have seen him” is theoretically right but practically impossible. This ought to be only too obvious to you. It may not be obvious to you, however, that the preposition “of” is as a rule omitted between the noun “idea” or “notion” or the adjective “careful” and a clause beginning with “how”, “what”, “when”, etc.

1. He had already a general idea ∧ how a nymph would behave: she would be rather quiet, and take a great interest in flowers. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

2. You've no idea ∧ how mild and quiet people are down here, except for an occasional scrap, when the pubs close. — H V MORTON.

3. At most houses when you are invited to dine, you have some idea ∧ whom you will meet. — EVELYN WAUGH.

4. You've no notion ∧ how much I'd like to have shaken the hand of your headman. — JAMES HILTON.

5. I haven't a notion ∧ what sort of people are likely to be there. — BEN TRAVERS.

6. You must be very careful ∧ what you do, as you haven't got your overalls on. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

7. “The pretty girl of the Victorian age who was surrounded by admirers had to be careful ∧ how she handled her handkerchief in their presence,” she said “for every movement could be taken as a signal with some secret meaning”. — Answers.

“Of” is also often omitted before the nouns “age”, “colour”, “size”, etc.

1. Mr Lowes-Parlby, when I was ∧ your age, I used to pass through Wych Street every day of my life. — STACY AUMONIER.

2. Gretchen notices a few kids ∧ her own age, boys or girls trudging in jeans and jackets, ahead of her, through the mud. — JOYCE CAROL OATES.

3. And it was someone quite different — little more than a child, with blue eyes, skin ∧ the colour of old ivory, and the most sensitive lips I've ever seen. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

4. ∧ What colour were they? — SAKI.

5. Slim and fair-skinned, her hair was like ripe corn in sunlight, her eyes ∧ a sparkling, vivid blue. — May C JENKINS.

6. Now, getting out a chunk of coal ∧ that size was no everyday mining job — it was a rather unusual and intricate piece of work. — Answers.

7. She very luckily had some blue curtains which were ∧ just the right size. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

8. He himself had a packet of photographs ∧ the thickness of Who's Who. — A P HERBERT.

“Of” is often omitted before “no use”.

These things are ∧ no use to me. — AUSTIN FREEMAN.

“In” is usually omitted before “the way” after which “in which” is omitted; and “in which” is often omitted after “the way”.

1. By the second year he had grown casual and remiss, but she had borne with him, knowing that it was his nature, and having always understood that men don't bother about little things ∧ the way ∧ women do. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. The way ∧ he said it intrigued me. — ALLAN N MONKHOUSE.

3. It depended on the way ∧ she spoke and on the way ∧ she looked. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

“In” is usually omitted between “busy” and a gerund so that the gerund looks like the present participle.

1. I never read novels at that time; I was too busy ∧ acquiring knowledge. — ETHEL MANNIN.

2. I was too busy ∧ doing what I was told. — H E BATES.

“In” is also usually omitted before a gerund if “spend” goes before with a word denoting time.

1. He spent two evenings ∧examining maps. — STACY AUMONIER.

2. Of the time he spent ∧ walking the mountains, between the morning and the evening; he could give no clear account. — L A G STRONG.

In “At my age, I've no business trying to put things right in the world” — M T WADLEY, we might say there is “of” omitted before “trying”, though it seems that one never says “I've no business of trying”. (Incidentally, “I've no business trying” and I've no business to try” have the same meaning.)

Similarly, we find the following sentences:

She took along a book to enjoy in the car while waiting through the visit, and they had a fine time driving there and back, and talked about witches. — NORMAN MAILER.

After a while I found a job hashing at night so I could be with her dogs, and it was better. — TILLIE OLSEN.

“To” is usually omitted after “opposite”.

1. Opposite ∧ the churchyard were the gates of the old home. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

2. It vas strange to see this group of men with guns, discussing so earnestly opposite ∧ her window. — HUGH WALPOLE.

Whatever grammarians may have to say, “like” governs a noun without an intervening preposition.

1. I shall look like ∧ a greyhound tonight, though of course there will be no man there to notice it. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

2. Twenty times a day I felt like ∧ running across London to see him and hear from his own lips the inevitable praise or blame. — GWYN JONES.

The idiom “on board” governs a noun without an intervening preposition.

Well, here we are now — on board ∧ this floating luxury hotel of a boat. — REGINALD DENHAM.

We say “for the second time”, in which the “for” cannot be omitted. But it seems to be more usual to say “a second time” than to say “for a second time”.

I felt I could not go through it ∧ all a second time. — F ANSTEY (“Not” is italicized in the original)

When “this time” is used in the sense of on this occasion, no preposition precedes it.

She hung her eyes again, and ∧ this time in real humiliation. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

Notice that there is no “for” before the phrases “three times”, “several times”, and “a thousand times” in the following sentences:

1. He did so, and opened his mouth ∧ three times before he could speak. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

2. They went to London ∧ several times a year to do the theatres and pictures. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

3. I have heard him say ∧ thousand times he could not live without me! — LEONARD MERRICK.

I often find the uncalled-for “for” before “three times” etc in English written by Chinese students.

The omission of “on” before “this side”, as in the following sentence, is not uncommon.

Was it explicable ∧ this side of the grave? — E M FORSTER.

191. Prepositions Governing Words Other than Nouns and Pronouns.In certain constructions a preposition governs a word, other than a noun or a pronoun. Besides such phrases as “at once”, “by far”, “for ever”, “from then to now”, and “until afterwards”, we may mention “about” followed by an infinitive, “except” followed by an infinitive, “except” followed by a preposition, “far from” followed by an adjective, “instead of” followed by any part of speech, and the idiom “take for granted” (meaning assume), in which “for” is followed by the past participle “granted”.

1. From all this you may perhaps rashly conclude that money in the largest possible amount should be your object, and that I am about to make public the rules for its attainment (which you hope to be so simple that even you can grasp them). — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. She did not speak except to ask him to kiss her again. — H E BATES.

3. There was dead silence except for the buzzing of the flies. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

4. The evening, however, was far from dull. — JAMES HILTON. (“Far from being dull” is also correct, but less usual.)

5. Conventions in dress, dictating a particular costume on particular occasions, delight instead of bother him. —DESMOND MACCARTHY.

6. His hand indicated the firmament, and his peculiar smile indicated that he took Ham's consent for granted. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

7. The trouble was that when we had a row — and they were rows, swearing, hurling pots: the lot — it was too much like suffering and in the middle of them it seemed to me as if we'd done nothing but row and suffer like this from the moment we set eyes on each other, with not a moment's break, and that it would go on like this for as long as we stayed together. — ALAN SILLITOE.

Exercise 71

With the help of one or more dictionaries supply prepositions in the following sentences (some of which, however, require no prepositions):

1. There appears to have been a quarrel brother and sister.

2. You must not interfere his work.

3. Hearing his death she went to condole his wife.

4. I wonder if he delights this sort occupation.

5. As soon as he saw us, he went away.

6. I have several letters to reply this morning.

7. He did not care whether the girl was English or French.

8. She told me her adventure a low voice.

9. He came to ask a favour his grandfather.

10. It suddenly occurred me that a friend would call half past one.

11. What did they find the premises?

12. The chief promised me to look the matter.

13. There is nothing you need to worry.

14. I do not know what is the matter him.

15. I will try my best to work your satisfaction.

16. That prevented the party starting.

17. The door opened itself all a sudden!

18. Why do you complain your clerk so often?

19. When I received the book, I was greatly disappointed it.

20. She is quite equal the task, I think.

21. The village is noted its scenery.

22. This is not worth trying a financial point of view.

23. I inquired the first person I met, and he told me the details.

24. Only five persons passed the examination.

25. He is not so well versed the subject as his brother.

26. He entered his business career after his father died.

27. We are very much obliged your kind help.

28. They seem to take our interest their business granted.

29. Commenting the matter, the lawyer said he was very sorry the parties concerned.

30. I have never dreamt such a situation.

31. The crime that he was charged was a grave one.

32. She had to do something to comfort her mother.

33. When I was your age, I did not speak English half so well as you do.

34. He was possessed much wealth, but he always said that wealth was nothing to be proud.

35. The other day I received a letter a strange hand.

36. I do not think he will return next Saturday.

37. It is reported good authority that an aeroplane crashed the city the day I left it.

38. What did she apologize?

39. Beware the dog!

40. We shall let you know the moment we hear him.

41. The subject is not sufficiently treated in the article.

42. She was much alarmed what he had heard.

43. Though he was favourably impressed her, he did not say anything.

44. The old man was talking himself.

45. He never wrote me those ten years.

46. Anxious to get rid his cold, be tried several remedies, but all vain.

47. I had no idea where she was going, nor what she was interested.

48. She is very quick to take offence.

49. He has been independent his parents these five years.

50. Being aware our arrival, he rang us up.

51. That occasion the novelist made a short speech, which he said that he had a good library that he made full use.

52. This essay is not very expressive your feelings.

53. The wedding took place the presence a number of guests.

54. Once you get used, you will not find it difficult.

55. I wrote again, but this time the letter went astray.

56. The boy looks like his father, but they do not think the same way many matters.

57. As he was absorbed study, he did not hear my knock; so I knocked a second time.

58. He presented her a vase her last birthday.

59. He wound up his watch carefully and put it the little table opposite the bed.

60. We hope you will inform us the particulars your earliest convenience.

192. That-clause in Apposition to Nouns.A clause introduced by the conjunction “that” is often used in apposition to a noun.

1. And I confess that I had some apprehension that he might be a criminal lunatic who ought not to have been at large. — ALLAN N MONKHOUSE.

2. Puzzled to account for it, I came to the conclusion that I had forgotten to do it. — Answers.

3. Treddleford sat in an easeful armchair in front of a slumberous fire, with a velum of verse in his hand and the comfortable consciousness that outside the club windows the rain was dripping and pattering with persistent purpose. — SAKI.

4. Nancy, a sensible girl, repudiated the time-worn lovers' contention that what was enough for one would suffice for two. — H A VACHELL.

5. We have a genuine dread of the intellect in any form and a conviction that art, though highly enjoyable clandestinely, is essentially immoral. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

6. Before her first marriage Christina had a vivid dream that she was walking in her father's garden and met a man there. — K M ELIZABETH MURRAY.

7. A message had come at last from Dr Ferguson to the effect that if Miss Juggernaut and her brother cared to see their victim, they might do so between three and five that afternoon. — SUSAN ERTZ.

8. The feeling that I could never assume my responsibilities as a baseball player without some help from him was deep, as if parental love and baseball were both national pastimes. — JOHN CHEEVER.

9. There was no hope, after this, that James could ever be taken seriously as a cricketer. — W A DARLINGTON.

10. Before that night I had no idea that I should ever write poetry. — LEW SARETT.

11. He suffered from an illusion that he would never see him again. — H E BATES.

12. I sometimes had the impression that on the deeper levels of her mind. Grandma felt closer to the times of the Exodus than to the European town where she had spent her youth. — SEYMOUR FREEDGOOD.

13. The Second in Command met him with the breathlessly whispered information that here was another ship in the cover. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

14. Money for solving the complex riddles of ancient people will be given with all the greater will in the knowledge that heed is being paid to the problem of the islanders of today. — The Times.

15. When they had arrived at the parade ground the officers had left a message that the Captain would be personally responsible for Michele and for the village. — DORIS LESSING.

16. He had a vague notion, if he ever formulated, it, that nice women were weak, timid, and delicate, and that nice men treated them with polite but rather distant chivalry. — JAMES HILTON.

17. In April, I got a notice that faculty participation in the annual meeting of the board of trustees was mandatory. — JOHN CHEEVER.

18. For he had never concealed his opinion that Leila J. Pinckney's style of writing revolted him, however dear it might be to her enormous public. — P G WODEHOUSE.

19. Then the feeling of gratitude was immediately swept away, first by a doubt as to whether they were real stones, and secondly by the realization that Mrs Jackson was looking over her shoulder. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

20. Presently Selina returned with the report that, whether Mr Dowdall paid the railway's charges or waited to be sued for them, the tiger addressed to him would be delivered there and then. — ARTHUR MORRISON.

21. Prematurely the signal was given to ring up the curtain, with the result that the coolies were found in possession of the stage. — Horse and Hound.

22. There were two hundred of them and they were, of course, orphans only in the sense that their parents had abandoned them. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

23. Not infrequently the clouds began to gather, and there was every sign that a change was at hand. — WILLIAM HALE WHITE.

24. Leaving the cafeteria, he was, however, afflicted by a tormenting suspicion that Salzman had planned it all to happen this way. — BERNARD MALAMUD.

25. But the old woman showed no symptom that the terrible past was thus revisiting her in its most awful form. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

26. We built up a theory that the art of life is strangely like the life of the religious contemplative. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

27. And not even the thought that his aunt had dandled him on her knee as a baby could induce him to stifle his literary conscience to the extent of pretending to enjoy her work. — P G WODEHOUSE.

28. Old Samuel Carter, James's father, had only consented with the greatest reluctance to his wish that James should be sent to Radford. — W A DARLINGTON.

193. That-clause Qualifying Adjectives and Past Participles.A clause introduced by “that” is often used adverbially to qualify an adjective or a past participle.

1. She looked in a dazed way at the men, amazed that they were still there. — V S PRITCHETT.

2. She was appalled that Bess had to do such work. — NORMAN MAILER.

3. But I am aware that I may seem to say more than I mean. — H W GARROD.

4. Therefore I feel certain that we shall eventually fly the Atlantic at a cruising speed of some 340 miles per hour. — Listener.

5. As everybody knows, it has, as an abode, many advantages, and having passed this test you may be confident that its drawbacks will not prove serious ones for you. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

6. And then, as I still held the whip, I became conscious once again that the dark-haired girl had appeared in the doorway. — H E BATES.

7. She did not move at once but still, like a shy child, stood watching them, waiting for them to be settled and fearful that they would not stay. — V S PRITCHETT.

8. I am flattered that you wished to see me. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

9. I am very fortunate, sir, that it should have fallen to me to head the team which managed, perhaps more by luck than by virtue, to achieve this success. — PETER USTINOV.

10. All her anger had vanished by now and she felt glad that she had thrust all the responsibility for punishment on to her husband. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

11. If this war lasts three years, many of us will be bitterly regretful that we did not economize in the use of these necessities. — Answers.

12. Satisfied that her eldest grandson was present and that the world was still at meridian, she'd returned to her cooking or prayers. — SEYMOOR FREEDGOOD.

13. I am sorry that I asked. —JOHN MASEFIELD.

14. Yes, she is quite sure that it is all wrong to stay here. — ELEANOR THORNE.

15. All the animals came and wept tears over the grave, and everyone was extremely surprised that you weren't there, Sister. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

16. Oh, she was thankful she had got the ear, that she could fill her waiting-time with fierce activity and the lull of motion, and yet was not required to support herself on legs that were weak and shaking. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

194. That-clause Used after Verbs.A clause introduced by “that” is often used after a verb. The verb is usually transitive, and the clause is its object. If the verb is intransitive, the clause may be considered adverbial. It is sometimes doubtful whether the verb in this construction is transitive or intransitive.

1. For elementary reasons of security, we all accept that your office should only be briefed in the aspects of this exercise in which you are good enough to help. — JOHN LE CARRE.

2. I must add that at least I am honest, and so is my work. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

3. She scarcely like to admit herself that she had seen prettier faces elsewhere. — ARTHUR SYMONS.

4. Mrs Jervis agreed that nobody could possibly be unwell under such circumstances. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

5. Sit down, and don't assume for one moment that you continue to be my prospective son-in-law. — STACY AUMONIER.

6. Tollaver assured her that the newspaper stories were exaggerated. — HERMAN WOUK.

7. He concluded that Lionel and he were marked for death within twenty-four hours. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

8. I do not, I may say, contend that the superstitious man is wiser than the unsuperstitious. — ROBERT LYND.

9. Grace decided that what had rubbed off on Bessie over the years was stoicism. — NORMAN MAILER.

10. I am able to demonstrate that I was nowhere in the neighbourhood tonight. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

11. I can't deny that this warning had some effect on me; so much so, in fact, that I am afraid I climbed down to some extent. — F ANSTEY.

12. She gained power instead of losing it; she had always loved power, and had the shrewdness to discern that there was more than one form of it. — ANTHONY HOPE.

13. She had never dreamt that it would be all so easy. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

14. James did not explain that his eyes were sad because her society gave him a pain in the neck. — P G WODEHOUSE.

15. This pleased Harrison, who, feeling that no time should be wasted in making his “work” public, wrote desiring the publisher to put the matter in hand. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

16. Even the sharp ones who knew very well it had all really happened began to figure (in the American sense of understand) that everything up to now had been made so full of pain only so that all they had now come to now might seem all the sweeter and the more glorious. — JAMES AGEE.

17. In all the smart hotels and dance places in London you will find that, generally speaking, the men are older than the women. — H V MORTON.

18. Your memory must be short if you have already forgotten that this is my place. — ROLAND PERTWEE.

19. We did not, for instance, foresee that she would give us an electric clock for Christmas. — Punch.

20. I — er — gather that discipline was not always your strong point at Melbury. — JAMES HILTON.

21. He had absented himself from tea on Sunday, and they guessed that he had gone to Constance's, on his bicycle, six miles away. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

22. No one knew where they'd skipped off to exactly, probably imagining that I would chase after them. — ALAN SILLITOE.

23. I infer that your uncle is a highly imprudent person. — JAMES REID PARKER.

24. He seems to prefer to stay within, sight of the place he knows; for he is a sociable creature, and at times comes to the window to intimate that he wishes to sit, for a spell, within the family circle. — H M TOMLINSON.

25. It was not a very good house, but they judged that it would be safer and drier than their tent had proved. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

26. When by nine of o'clock he had not come back, Gary telephoned and learnt that he was about to leave. — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

27. Rain had meant that I would be free, for a day, of hiding under the filled house and in the wood behind the backstop. — JOHN CHEEVER.

28. Just as he rose to go, he mentioned that on returning from service that morning he had found a most interesting visitor waiting to see him. — F ANSTEY.

29. No matter how badly Connie was looking, people always observed that she was a woman who had once been very beautiful. — SUSAN ERTZ.

30. The clerk perceived then that he had a revolver. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

31. In fact, I shall endeavour to persuade you that it was the reverse. — DESMOND MACCARTHY.

32. Roger prayed that that fair spirit might be at peace, among all this invisible evil. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

33. I try to pretend that they are not significant. — JOSEPH HALLOW.

34. I protested that the recollection of my visit was in itself a priceless gift. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

35. It will prove to him that it is not so easy as he might think to keep the rules of grammar. — Spectator.

36. Bert, with his mouth full, said he had read somewhere that tea was the most dangerous drink on earth. — V S PRITCHETT.

37. You look along the rows of chairs and realize that here are seen the prettiest, neatest legs in London. — H V MORTON.

38. Then I recalled that her mother was with her and decided to stay. — Answers.

39. Those who really knew him recognized that he was always shy and unusually tired. — EDMUND GOSSE.

40. I — ah — I regret that I can be of no assistance to you but surely you can understand that I am powerless. — JAMES RAID PARKER.

41. By the way, I remark that the bellarmine found by the diggers was nothing more than a broken neck. — OSWALD BARRON.

42. I remember that we whispered together, and the child laughed and tried to put us at our ease. — EDWARD THOMAS.

43. He replied that there was a good barber in the country town twelve and a half miles off, and that there was no other. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

44. You, madam, may retort that this is only another instance of the scandal of this man-ridden world. — A G GARDINER.

45. I do not know what opinion prevailed among other battalions, but I can say that our greatest distress at this period was due to that short and dry word “raid”. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

46. I called in my dream to the lodge-keeper, and had an answer, and peering closer through the rusted spokes of the gate I saw that the lodge was uninhabited. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

47. Within a few moments the old lady appeared in her doorway, having sensed that she had visitors. — ALAN HALEY.

48. Someone dropped a desk-lid — quickly, he must take everyone by surprise; he must show that there was no nonsense about hint. — JAMES HILTON.

49. The young man stated then that he had been told a long and complicated story of engine troubles.— JOSEPH CONRAD.

50. The publisher answered at once with a polite letter, suggesting that for Harrison's advantage a certain additional sum should be spent on advertisements. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

51. He surmised that this was a coaster. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

52. Each longed to be her favourite and hated the other because each suspected that the other was her favourite. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

53. She told me that Chilmorton was her native place, but that she had been absent from it many many years. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

54. He had warned her that the climb would be hard. — HERMAN WOUK.

195. That-clause Qualifying “So” and “Such”.A clause introduced by “that” is sometimes used adverbially to qualify the adverb “so” or the adjective “such” going before. Such a clause expresses result.

1. Sometimes the recollection of his humiliation was so vivid that it made him physically wince and shudder. — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

2. In the past, in the first months and even years after the boy's death, he had only to say those words to be overcome by such grief that nothing short of a violent fit of weeping could relieve him. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

196. Idiomatic Uses of “That”.There are some idiomatic uses of the conjunction “that”.

1. “That” may introduce a clause expressing purpose. The clause contains “may” or “might”.

You ask me where it was, that you may go and enjoy it yourself? — HILAIRE BELLOC.

2. “That” may introduce an adjectival clause, meaning when.

The next time that I met him was in Tokyo, after ten years. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

The “that” in the common idiom “now that” is used in this sense.

Now that it has the additional splendour of great sheets of water, there must be something quite incomparable in the landscape (or waterscape) of my own romantic town. — G K CHESTERTON.

3. “That” may introduce a clause expressing result in an interrogative sentence.

What had happened that she could do without him now? — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

197. Omission of “That”.The conjunction “that” is often omitted.

1. But, anyhow, it was in some such way ∧ we began our talking. — H G WELLS.

2. The engine was so quiet ∧ Nora could hear above it the occasional crack of a twig breaking under the wheels. — M T WADEY.

3. She kept too much in herself, her life was such ∧ she had to keep too much in herself. — TILLIE OLSEN.

4. It was true ∧ he was talking about himself. — R H MOTTRAM.

5. It's not often ∧ Latin and Greek go with military genius. — GRAHAM GREENE.

6. Selina was glad ∧ they did not have to sleep in the back bedroom. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

7. I am sorry ∧ Ferdinand has been in your garden, but I am sure ∧ he meant no harm. — Punch.

8. We may be certain ∧ the equipment was remarkable. — NORMAN MAILER.

9. Well, just make sure ∧ you don't forget that. — JOSEPH HELLER.

10. I think ∧ we will all go together as usual. — SUSAN ERTZ.

11. He says ∧ the matter is rather urgent. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

12. He was so sweet to her ∧ she wanted to do what she could to please him. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

13. Almost as soon as she can toddle she recognizes her daddy coming over the distant dune, and so sure she is that he is her daddy, and not a stranger, ∧ she is at the garden gate to be carried indoors. — ELEANOR THORNE.

14. I had an idea ∧ she might want to live in my house again seeing ∧ she'd lost her job. — ALAN SILLITOE.

15. It seems ∧ we both have a cheese. — HERMAN WOUK.

The omission of the conjunction “that” gives a sentence a more or less colloquial tone. As a rule it is not omitted after a noun. (The use of “for the fear” instead of “for fear that” in the following sentence does not seem to be idiomatic. “Not a sound escaped him, for the fear ∧ the nurses might hear”. — DORIS LESSING.) Nor is it omitted in the first, and third idiomatic uses mentioned in Section 196.

A Dictionary of Modern English Usage gives the following tentative lists of verbs that (1) prefer “that” expressed, (2) prefer “that” omitted, and (3) vary according to the tone of the context:

(1) agree, announce, argue, assume, aver, calculate, conceive, contend, hold, learn, maintain, observe, reckon, remark, state, suggest.

(2) believe, dare say, presume, suppose, think.

(3) be told, confess, consider, declare, grant, hear, know, perceive, propose, say, see, understand.

It is to be noted that in America the conjunction “that” is omitted more freely than in England, and that the American influence has been having an effect on English writing, especially on English journalism.

Exercise 72

Write ten sentences each with the conjunction “that” expressed and another ten each with the conjunction “that” omitted.

198. “And” Expressing Result.“And” sometimes expresses result, the clause going before being in the imperative mood.

1. Bear it in mind, young man, and it will save you from most of the worst mistakes. — EVELYN WAUGH (= If you bear it in mind, young man, it will save you from most of the worst mistakes).

2. Turn over, and you'll be all right. — W A DARLINGTON (= If you turn over, you'll be all right.)

The “and” in the following sentences have the same function, though the sentence structure is somewhat different:

1. In any event, on receipt of this won't you come down here at once and we can run over them together? — JOHN KENDRICK BANGS.

2. Better be very polite and she would go. — ELIZABETH TROOP.

3. Any more dirty words, and you know who I'll tell. — DYLAN THOMAS.

4. An hour in the files taking a few notes, and he needn't have been at such a disadvantage. — SAUL BELLOW.

199. “Or” Meaning Otherwise.“Or” sometimes means otherwise, introducing a statement of the result of the rejection of what is said in the preceding clause.

1. She mustn't be later than three, or he might have gone out again. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. Evidently he had not heard the ringing, or he would have questioned her about it. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. Come in, or I'll go by myself. — MORLEY ROBERTS.

4. I must stop now or I shall miss the post. — E V LUCAS.

200. Idiomatic Uses of “If”.

1. “If” sometimes means whether.

(1) I wanted to see if it had changed. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

(2) His grave gallantry and quiet conversation as he lay there, while the stretcher-bearers came, and fresh arrivals burst, were such that I wondered if, after all, the world in which these incidents happened was not normal. — EDMUND BLUNDFN.

2. “If” sometimes introduces an exclamatory clause expressing wish, the clause being conditional in nature but without the consequent clause.

(1) Oh, if I had only known! — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(2) Oh, if I had the courage to defy them! — ANTHONY HOPE.

201. “Than” with Ellipsis.“Than” is sometimes followed by a finite verb with some word or words omitted before it.

1. Since nobody else understood what they were talking about, they were able to converse with more freedom than would otherwise have been possible. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

2. Here foreign birds which cannot be given freedom in this country will enjoy a much more spacious life than is possible in a small cage. — The Children's Newspaper.

3. Armstrong and Aldrin had consistently fulfilled their tasks in less time than was allotted. — NORMAN MAILER.

“That which” might be supplied after “than” in each sentence.

202. “When” as Relative Conjunction.“When” is sometimes used as a relative conjunction, meaning and then or but just then.

1. The young man was still laughing when his friend came up. — H E BATES.

2. She was writing to him the following afternoon putting these thoughts on paper while they were still fresh in her mind, when Major Crosby came. — SUSAN ERTZ.

3. He was just about to move on when a thought occurred to him. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

4. But he had not been there very long when a voice outside his door requested his presence on deck. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

5. He had decided pleasurably to read it again, when he heard a soft movement about his bed. — PEARL S BUCK.

6. After supper, I corrected papers until about eleven, when I went to bed. — JOHN CHEEVER.

203. “As Well As”.“As well as” is a very common idiom, but it seems to be very often misunderstood by Chinese students. It does not mean and but no less than. “A as well as B” means A no less than B, or not only B but also A.

1. To have no hope is to give up tomorrow as well as today. — PEARL S BUCK.

2. The King and Queen will not misunderstand me when I say that they command our sympathy as well as our affection for their lives of perpetual self-sacrifice. — Truth.

3. But it is possible for moonlight to be heard as well as seen. — Answers.

204. “Though ... Yet ...”.“Though ... yet ...” is idiomatic.

Though it is true that in proportion to the amount of money you have are you admired, respected, and even loved by your fellow-citizens, yet it is not true that in the same proportion do you acquire respect for yourself and that inner satisfaction, that moderate leisure, and, in general, that negative happiness which we all seek. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

It is not correct to say “though ... but ...”.

Exercise 73

Write five sentences each with “and” expressing result, five each with “or” meaning otherwise, five each with “if” meaning whether, five each with “if” introducing an exclamatory clause expressing wish, five each with “than” with ellipsis, five each with “when” as a relative conjunction, five each with “as well as”, and five each with “though ... yet ...”.

205. Indirect Questions.While inversion is the rule in direct questions, it is out of place in indirect questions. We say “Where are you going?”, but “I asked him where he was going” instead of “I asked him where was he going”.

1. He really could not understand how it had all occurred. — HUGH WALPOLE.

2. You know how nervous and self-conscious he is. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

3. Airey did not ask where they were going. — ANTHONY HOPE.

4. That shows how happy I am. — SUSAN ERTZ.

In the following sentence “what had been the truth” might be substituted for “what the truth had been”; for we might answer the direct question “What has been the truth?” by saying indifferent “This has been the truth” or “The truth has been this”:

He longed with sudden impatience to go home and see for himself what the truth had been. —PEARL S BUCK.

Still the order used in the sentence is more idiomatic.

206. Negative Inversion.A negative predicate word used at the beginning of a sentence or a clause requires inversion of subject and auxiliary verb. We say “I have never seen him before”, but “Never have I seen him before” instead of “Never I have seen him before”.

1. No longer would she have to tell lies, no longer would she have to run after Laurie, either drawn by his whims or driven by her longings. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

2. Never have I been so glad to see any picture in its right place. — E V LUCAS.

3. She could not make up her mind on this question — nor is it proposed to settle it here. — ANTHONY HOPE.

Exercise 74

Write five indirect questions, and five sentences each with a negative predicate word at the beginning.

[1] Note: that “Everyone did not stand up” would mean not that no one stood up, but that not everyone stood up

[2] Michael Swan's Practical English Usage (Oxford University Press, first pub-lished in 1980) has the following in section 525 (on relative pronouns):Whom (which refers to the object of a verb or a preposition) is rather unusual, especially in conversational English. It is generally either left out, or replaced by who or that. It is almost impossible in clauses that end with a preposition.I think you should stay faithful to the person you're married to.(Or: ... the person who / that you're married to) (Conversational)Do you think one should stay faithful to the person to whom, one is married? (Formal style)Being English, the author of the book is certainly better versed in English than I am. Anyhow, I believe the problem is worth going into.

[3] A Grammar of Contemporary English by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jon Svartvik (Longman Group Limited, first published in 1972) has the following note on 7.31 (on Concord of person):In left sentences (14.18), a relative pronoun subject is usually followed by a verb in agreement with its antecedent: It is I who am to blame. But 3rd-person concord prevails (in informal English) where the objective case pronoun me is used: it's me who's to blame.On this problem, I have two remarks to make: (1) while I regard “It” is the antecedent of the relative pronoun “who” in both sentences, the authors of the grammar do not think so. (2) I have met with few, if any, actual examples of sentences like “It's me who's to blame”; but then I have not had much exposure to spoken English.

[4] Usage change, however; “furnish”, “present”, “provide”, and “supply” have for years been found used with a double object, especially in American English.

CHAPTER Ⅵ WRITING WELL

207. What is Good Writing?I say “good writing” instead of “good English” because I mean something different from what is generally known by the latter term, which means English that is written in accordance with good usage (see Section 55). Now what is written in good English may for some reason or other be still bad writing.

All writing presupposes a reader as well as a writer. Apart from the fact that different kinds of composition require different treatment, a writer should aim at expressing himself in such a way as to make it easy and pleasant for his reader to understand him perfectly.

Whatever form of writing you may do, you should naturally ask yourself: “Who is my reader?” or “Who(m) am I writing for?” Well, in my opinion, your answer should always be “My reader is the average educated English or American person”, or rather “My reader, whatever his or her nationality, is a person who has a good knowledge of English”. Whenever you have written a sentence, you should ask yourself whether such a reader will find it easy and pleasant to understand that sentence perfectly. If the answer is in the affirmative, the sentence is good writing; if the answer is in the negative, the sentence is bad writing.

It is essential that the reader should be supposed to be possessed of a good knowledge of English; for any attempt at adaptation to a reader having but an imperfect knowledge of the language would result in intentional faults and mistakes.

Needless to say, good writing is something more than correct writing. No sentence that is unidiomatic can be good. In studying this chapter, you are advised to refer to the preceding one from time to time. When a sentence strikes you as not quite English though there seems to be nothing definitely incorrect about it, you may be sure that it offends against idiom some way or other and therefore that it cannot be a good sentence. You should rewrite it.

208. Superstitions.There are certain rules for good writing. But some traditional rules are nothing but superstitions: their observance often results in unnatural English. I do not mean that the oftener one breaks them the better one writes, but that it is not worthwhile to keep them at the expense of any good quality that might otherwise be acquired. The superstitions are:

1. A sentence should not begin with “and” or “but”.

2. A sentence should not begin with the same word as the previous sentence.

3. A sentence should not end in a preposition.

4. Split infinitives should never be used.

That the first and second rules are mere superstitions can be easily proved by reading almost anything written in English by a well-educated native user of the language. For split infinitives reread Section 166. Below are some sentences that end in a preposition:

1. It looked to me, as I came, the most isolated spot I ever set eyes on. — JAMES HILTON.

2. He made her raise her head, and looked her full in the face with all the intensity those blazing blue eyes of his were capable of. — SUSAN ERTZ.

3. But really you know there are lovely things to look forward to. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

4. She put a question to the maiden lady which the maiden lady, though no longer young, had no answer for. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

5. The moment I saw his face I knew what he had come for. — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

6. I don't know what you mean, what you are referring to. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

7. Plutarch was a wise man, not only for his own age, but for any age, yet he believed in superstitions that a modem bus-conductor would laugh at. — ROBERT LYND.

8. That was exactly what she had been waiting for. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

9. If he travels and has a good meal, the thought of what it is going to cost comes between him and the pleasures he is paying for. — New Statesman and Nation.

10. It was the most exquisitely comfortable chair I had ever sat in. — Punch.

Now try to remove the final prepositions, and see whether the sentences are made better or worse.

1. ... on which I ever set eyes.

2. ... of which those blazing blue eyes of his were capable.

3. ... to which to look forward.

4. ... for which the maiden lady, though no longer young, had no answer.

5. ... for what he had come.

6. ... to what you are referring.

7. ... at which a modem bus-conductor would laugh.

8. ... that for which he had been waiting.

9. ... for which he is paying.

10. ... in which I had ever sat.

In my judgement, all except the fourth and ninth sentences are made worse by the removal of the final preposition, and even those two are not made better. When I say “worse” I mean “less natural”.

H W Fowler gives the following advice in A Dictionary of Modern English Usage: “Follow no arbitrary rule, but remember that there are often two or more possible arrangements between which a choice should be consciously made; if the abnormal, or at least unorthodox, final preposition that has naturally presented itself sounds comfortable, keep it; if it does not sound comfortable, still keep it if it has compensating vigour, or when among awkward possibilities it is the least awkward”.

209. Diction and Sentence Structure.Good writing depends on good diction and good sentence structure.

Good diction, which means the choice of proper words for the expression of thoughts, demands something more than good usage. A word may be used in a certain place quite correctly and yet somehow is not the exact word. Incidentally, the treatment of diction in this chapter includes phrases as well as words.

Good sentence structure also demands something more than good usage. A sentence may be quite correct and yet somehow does not serve.

210. The Exact Word.Before I talk further, I may as well say that the answer to the question what the exact word in a particular place is often depends not on the “meanings” of words but on usage. For instance, the choice between two or more prepositions, or between the infinitive and the gerund of the same verb, is a matter of usage rather than of meaning.

It is a common experience with a writer of English — with you, with me, and perhaps with even good authors — that he cannot think of a word that fits precisely the idea in his mind, and so he has to content himself with using a word that he regards as being the nearest one. This is often due to his ignorance of the word required. For instance, when one who does not know the word “mauve” sees something mauve, he cannot use “mauve”, which is the exact word, but has to content himself with using “purple”, “violet”, “lilac”, etc, if he happens to know one or more of these words. The word “fox-terrier” may be given as another example: a fox-terrier is a dog, but when a writer calls a fox-terrier a “dog” merely because he does not know the word “fox-terrier”, he uses a word that is not the exact one.

It need hardly be said that everyone who aims at exactness in diction should first of all acquire a large vocabulary. It often happens, however, that a writer fails to use the exact word not because he does not know that word but because he does not know that it is the very word he requires. The remedy for either defect lies in the judicious use of dictionaries and books of synonyms in conjunction with the reading of suitable matter. Dictionaries I have already recommended in Section 26. As to the use of books of synonyms, I have to point out (1) that while explanations of synonyms are helpful to students of composition, illustrative examples are far more so, and (2) that there are certain words that one might consider synonyms merely because what are known as their Han equivalents suggest their synonymity. To give an example of such misunderstanding I should like to mention, the very common word “always”, which is not a synonym of “often”. When you fail to find in a book of synonyms two or three words that you believe to be synonyms, I advise you to look them up in one or more ordinary dictionaries to see whether they are synonyms or not.

Exercise 75

A.

Read the selections in Exercises 1 and 13 again, look up in dictionaries as many words in them as you think you have to, and study as many synonyms of those words as you can.

B.

With the help of one or more dictionaries and of a book of synonyms, complete the following sentences by choosing the exact words from the synonyms suggested:

1. I met a (beautiful, pretty, handsome, comely, fair) young man this morning.

2. He does not seem to be (aware, conscious, sensible) of the importance of choosing words carefully.

3. Three hundred people were (assassinated, murdered, killed, massacred, slaughtered) in the bombing.

4. A sudden noise in the dark is apt to (frighten, alarm, care, cow, intimidate) children.

5. He asked me “How do you like your (work, labour, toil, drudgery, task) ?”

6. The book is written in an (old, antiquated, antique, ancient, aged) style.

7. Why did he (abandon, desert, forsake, leave) his wife?

8. I am sorry I cannot (remember, recollect, recall) his name.

9. It is certainly an (act, action) of mercy.

10. The authorities are going to take (effective, efficient, effectual, efficacious) measures about it.

11. She (acquired, attained, obtained, procured, gained, won) a great deal of knowledge from travel as well as from reading.

12. Can you tell me who (invented, discovered) the telegraph?

13. The old man looked at us almost with (womanish, womanly, female, feminine) curiosity.

14. The (marriage, matrimony, wedding, wedlock) took place at five o'clock.

15. The girl is beating herself; I think she must be (lunatic, insane, mad, crazy).

16. A (continuation, continuance, continuity) of the story will be published in the next issue.

17. She was then seeking a (situation, post, position, appointment) as governess.

18. He never pleaded (poorness, poverty, penury, destitution, indigence) as an excuse for theft.

19. I am (excessively, exceedingly) obliged to you.

20. The party returned at the (starting, commencement, beginning) of autumn.

21. He stared at her, his hands (folded, embraced, clasped) before him.

22. The fool asked his father a (ludicrous, laughable, comic, comical, ridiculous) question.

23. As soon as the war was over, the people returned to their (peaceable, peaceful, pacific) occupations.

24. Will you please (introduce, present) me to your brother?

25. This seat is (retained, reserved, kept, held) for the guest of honour.

26. I (spent, expended) the whole afternoon yesterday reading the novel.

27. She quickly (fastened, tied, bound) her hair with a ribbon.

28. He went abroad to seek (wealth, money, riches).

29. She walked down the stairs to (greet, welcome, meet) the strange caller.

30. I have (misplaced, mislaid, displaced) your letter, and so I may omit some of the questions you asked.

31. I do not think difficulties are (liable, apt, likely) to occur.

32. He is an obedient (student, pupil, scholar).

33. Do you have to pay for (admission, admittance)?

34. She is making steady (advance, advancement, progress, progression) in the study of German.

35. On hearing my advice, he (resigned, relinquished, surrendered, forwent) his idea of climbing the mountain.

36. During Mr Brown's absence Mr White acted as his (substitute, proxy, deputy).

37. What a (pleasant, pleasing, agreeable) day it is!

38. The miser kept his money in an (earthy, earthly, earthen) pot.

39. The house is now ready for the (receipt, reception) of its occupants.

40. We spent a (whole, complete, entire) week at the seaside.

211. Specific and General Words.In Section 209 I have mentioned using “dog” instead of “fox-terrier” owing to the writer's ignorance of the latter word. Now “dog” is a general word and “fox-terrier” is a specific word. “Dog” may mean any kind of dog — a poodle, a collier, a retriever, a greyhound, etc; but “fox-terrier” means nothing but a fox-terrier. When you come to think about it, “specific” and “general” are merely relative terms. “Dog” is general as compared with “fox-terrier”, “poodle”, etc; but it is specific as compared with “quadruped”; and “quadruped” is specific as compared with “animal”.

The use of specific words is a great aid to exactness of expression, so that it is a good exercise to find specific words for a general one, and to write a sentence with each.

It must not be supposed, however, that general words always had better be avoided. On the contrary, they are very often to be preferred to specific ones. For example, one often has to speak of a dog without saying what kind of dog it is. When I say “good writing”, I use the general word “good”, because I need this comprehensive term instead of any of such specific adjectives as “clear”, “effective”, “persuasive”, “delightful”, and “interesting”.

Exercise 76

Give as many specific words as you can for each of the following general words and use each general or specific word in a sentence of your own:

animal, bad, bird, book, dark, fine, flower, food, get, look, move, say, think, tool, tree, workman.

212. Plain and Pretentious Words.Of whatever importance exactness of expression is, it is a good rule to use the plain word when a plain and a pretentious one give the sense equally well. A plain word is preferable on account of its simplicity, familiarity, and homeliness. The following list gives some pairs of plain and pretentious words:

What I have called pretentious words are not to be avoided altogether. But in writing about simple and familiar things plain words are generally to be preferred. Moreover, a plain word is less likely to prove out of place in formal writing than a pretentious one is in informal writing.

213. Idiomatic Phrases and Idiomatic Uses of Plain Words.In order to avoid a pretentious word we often have to resort to an idiomatic phrase or a plain word used in an idiomatic sense. For instance, “go to bed” may be used for “retire”, which has no corresponding plain word in the particular sense concerned. As to idiomatic uses of plain words reread Section 30. Both idiomatic phrases and idiomatic uses of plain words make for simplicity and naturalness. Notice how the italicized words and phrases in the following sentences are used:

1. For story-telling there is one place that beats all others in the world, and that is a camp-fire in tropical Africa. — FRANCIS RRETT YOUNG.

2. His quick ear had caught a faint but unfamiliar sound. — EDGAR RICE BURROUGHS.

3. Early in youth pleasure was taken from me, and I fell ill of sorrow. — ROMER WILSON.

4. She went to the dresser to get me a glass. — V S PRITCHETT.

5. He was going bald at the crown, his rather curly black hair was thin. — D H LAWRENCE.

6. I told you I half expected you. —E C BENTLEY.

7. Would you, sir, have a drink with me? — H V MORTON.

8. The weather grew foul and everything was mud and moisture. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

9. He made a nice reply — hoped they might have another ride soon. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

10. It is a marvel how Louisa manages to do it — SAKI.

11. The audience was much moved. —H E BATES.

12. But now I come to think of it, I have a vague idea about you. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

13. Please see that it is finished by the spring. — EVELYN WAUGH.

14. She was up betimes, and soon made herself apparent in the life of the farm. — R H MOTTRAM.

15. He was wanted on the telephone by Mrs Bone. — BEN TRAVERS.

16. For one curious second I hoped wildly that he was asleep, and then I could go back at once, having kept my word. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

17. A terrible anger was working in me as I gazed at my mother and father. — ETHEL MANNIN.

18. Her face was upturned to him, and wore a strained expression: she was trying to smile. — L A G STRONG.

19. He was after all finding it difficult to speak. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

20. As a matter of fact, I rather underestimated the seriousness of the thing. — DOROTHY L SAYERS & ROBERT EUSTACE.

21. Standing in the centre of the room, I felt as though I had been caught against a wall. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

22. At last no answering murmur came. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

23. It was at once plain to the barrister that the famous specialist was greatly excited. — ARTHUR MILLS.

24. He was still very young and had been well brought up. — ALDOUS LEONARD HUXLEY.

25. He decided to get up and have a look at the boy's photograph. — KATHERINE MANSFIELD.

26. And how long was this to go on ? — SARAH GERTRUDE.

27. After that the game began in earnest. — ROSE MACAULAY.

28. In fact, sir, we have no evidence that any of them was in any way connected with the crime. — JOHN RHODE.

29. It was very green and pleasant in front of the house. — A E COPPARD.

30. I am in love now. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

31. There were other troubles in store. — J B MORTON.

32. She never let herself go. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

33. You see why I was looked upon as one of the fortunate. — MANUEL KOMROFF.

34. But when she wiped her glasses and looked more closely at the nest she saw that it was made up of little bits of coloured paper. — T F POWYS.

35. Birnie, no longer cheered up by what Felim's mother said to him about a sweetheart, sat looking across the horse's ears, a most lonesome-looking man. — PADRAIC COLUM.

36. Now and again the bridge people crept out of the library like hermits to watch the dancers, and then returned again. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

37. Of course it was impossible to believe that Buddha was the son of a mortal father. — H G WELLS.

38. They wrote to her long after they had left her and told her that one day they would come back to live in Russia. — HUGH WALPOLE.

39. It was quite impossible to put her off. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

40. I know Stephen will take on a new lease of life with you there. — SUSAN ERTZ.

Exercise 77

A.

Look up the words given in Exercise 3 in one or more dictionaries, notice their idiomatic senses, and illustrate each sense in a sentence of your own.

B.

Illustrate each of the idiomatic phrases found in Section 213 in a sentence of your own.

214. “Fine Writing”.“Fine” means good. But “fine writing” is not good writing but bad writing. In this more or less technical term “fine” is used ironically: it means showy, ostentatious, affectedly elegant or ornate. “A piece of fine writing” and “a fine piece of writing” are quite different things: the former means a piece of writing that is affectedly elegant or ornate, and the latter means a piece of writing that is well done.

“Fine writing” is a kind of bad writing that Chinese students of English composition ought to be especially warned against. They may think they can, but really they cannot, improve their style by the use of “fine” words and phrases, which serve only to make it unnatural, incongruous, or even ridiculous. Besides, as such words and phrases are comparatively uncommon, mistakes are more likely to occur in their use than in the use of simple words and phrases.

The use of what I have called pretentious words in Section 212 may often result in “fine writing”, which, however, cannot always be avoided by the change of single words. The following examples are taken chiefly from W T Webb's How to Write an Essay:

215. Hackneyed Phrases.Hackneyed phrases are those that arc worn out, as it were, by too frequent use. They are widely objected to not because they are themselves objectionable in any way but because they have been used too much — so much that they are now pointless and tiresome. Each of them was a delightful or lovely one when it was fresh. Also, when one sees it for the first time, one finds it delightful or lovely, and considers it a pleasure to use it in one's own writing. In my opinion, such phrases had better be avoided not only because they are widely objected to but also because they might produce a ridiculous impression when used in an unsuitable context. Below are some examples:

along this line (about this)

beggar description (cannot be described adequately)

better half (wife)

bolt from the blue (complete surprise)

conspicuous by one's absence (notably absent)

cups that cheer but not inebriate (tea)

explore every avenue (try every possible line of approach)

fair sex (women)

feast of reason (intellectual talk)

fit as a fiddle (in good health and spirits)

flow of soul (genial conversation)

for all the world like (exactly like)

have one's quiver full (have many children)

hold no brief for (not mean to argue in favour of)

last but not least (mentioned after all others but nevertheless important)

leave no stone unturned (do everything possible)

more in sorrow than in anger (because one is sorrowful rather than because one is angry)

none the worse for wear (as good as ever before)

psychological moment (exactly appropriate moment)

too funny for words (too funny to be described in words)

216. Words Used Too Often.To quote from my Man and Student, III:

“Whenever I read a school composition, I am ready to find one or more of a few words — ‘diligent’, ‘society’, ‘famous', ‘strong’, ‘always', and so forth, and usually I do find one or more of them. I am afraid that all these are your favourite words and one or more of them creep into nearly everything that you write in English. Would you mind reading over some of you compositions to see whether what I have said is true?

“If I mistake not, all these words are too often used by Chinese students of English. They are good and common words, and of course are not to be avoided. But it is very bad to use the same word constantly.

“It seems to be chiefly because of their very limited vocabulary that Chinese students use certain words too often. They have only ‘diligent’ at their disposal when they have to express the idea of unremitting application to work or study, and so they write ‘diligent’. They ought to have ‘industrious', ‘earnest’, ‘painstaking’, ‘attentive’, ‘hard’, ‘hardworking’, etc to choose among”.

You are advised to note down your own overworked words and find proper substitutes for them.

217. Economy of Words.Words are cheap; but we should exercise economy in using them, because a word that does no good in a sentence does harm. It is a commoner fault of inexperienced writers to use too many words than to use too few. In the following sentences the words in brackets are superfluous:

1. They have the (entire) monopoly of the trade.

2. The city has a population of half a million (people).

3. Did he mean to do it (intentionally)?

4. I shall tell him when he returns (back).

5. She is (often) in the habit of reading the morning papers aloud.

6. (Both) John and Henry agreed.

7. He (voluntarily) offered (to give) me help.

8. Though it was very cold, the party (still) continued (on) to move.

Exercise 78

Omit the superfluous words in the following sentences (some of which, however, contain no superfluous words):

1. We remained in the country throughout the entire week.

2. This is equally as correct as that.

3. I wonder who has made this new discovery.

4. We shall see each other after this is over.

5. Their mutual affection for each other is known to all who know them.

6. We must cooperate together if we wish to succeed.

7. She continued to remain cheerful.

8. There was no cloud in the cloudless sky.

9. The surrounding circumstances were favourable to literary work.

10. He seemed to look rather annoyed.

11. I should be glad if you would read the passage once more.

12. You and I both agree with him, but do not agree with each other.

13. Moreover, too, we have nothing to lose.

14. Nobody knows what killed the dog dead.

15. At the first beginning we thought her clever.

16. The outcome of the negotiations may lead to the conclusion of another contract.

17. What can I do for you?

18. During her girlhood, when she was still unmarried, she used to visit the old poet every Sunday.

19. We sat down on the green grass and looked at the white snow on the tree-tops.

20. The story is full of many witty remarks.

21. You are the most wonderful person I have ever met.

22. You are the most wonderful person I have ever met in this country.

23. Many of my friends have gone away.

24. But, however, I think differently.

25. My elder sister, who is older than I, is a teacher.

26. My elder sister, who is three years older than I, is a teacher.

27. He speaks very perfect English.

28. I told him how I envied him his excellent health.

29. When they meet together, they talk about their schooldays.

30. When do you think this building will be brought to final completion?

218. Periodic and Loose Sentences.Before talking about how good sentences are written, I had better define and illustrate periodic and loose sentences. A periodic sentence is one that is not grammatically complete till the end. A loose sentence is one that is grammatically complete at one or more points before the end. Of the following sentences, the first is periodic and the second is loose:

1. In a discussion on human happiness it was more or less generally agreed that to a certain type of character, both male and female but more often male, service on a committee is as real a compensation for daily ills as can be found. — E V LUCAS.

2. I dined that night with a friend, a good artist and a Cotswold enthusiast, and we soon fell to arguing when the tables had been cleared and our smoke clouded the candlelight. — J B PRIESTEY.

The first sentence is not grammatically complete until the last word, “found”, is reached, and is therefore a periodic one. The second sentence is grammatically complete after “dined”, “night”, “friend”, “artist”, “enthusiast”, “arguing”, and “cleared”, as well as after the last word, “candlelight”, and is therefore a loose one.

We cannot say whether periodic or loose sentences are better. Either kind may be good or bad. You must not attach any suggestion of reproach to the term “loose sentence”, which is in fact merely a technical one.

A periodic sentence can usually be converted into a loose one, and vice versa. For example, the Lucas sentence can be made loose and the Priestley sentence can he made periodic as follows:

1. In a discussion on human happiness it was more or less generally agreed that service on a committee is as real a compensation for daily ills as can be found, to a certain type of character, both male and female but more often male. (The sentence is grammatically complete after “found”, “character”, and “female”, as well as after the last word, “male”)

2. That night, when I had dined with a friend, a good artist and a Cotswold enthusiast, and, soon after, when the tables had been cleared and our smoke clouded the candlelight, we fell to arguing.

We do not usually call a short simple sentence loose. Thus, “I dined that night with a friend” may not be called loose though it is grammatically complete at two points before the end. Below are more examples:

1. I will not allow you to stay here alone tonight. — ARTHUR MILLS.

2. She must have gone out again. — EFFIE ADELAIDE ROWLANDS.

3. We want tea at once. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

4. I remember lots of changes at Brookfield. — JAMES HILTON.

5. You'd prefer that I go back to sea? — HERMAN WOUK.

6. That's the way he and his mother talk all the time. — JOHN UPDIKE.

Exercise 79

Convert the following sentences from periodic into loose and vice versa:

1. There is nothing humorous in pawning your wife's clothes to buy bread. — G S STREET.

2. But now I was here for the third time since the year began. — EDWARD THOMAS.

3. With Shelley the case is different. — J MIDDLETON MURRY.

4. There was, as a matter of fact, a tiny parish lurking below. — ARTHUR MCDOWALL.

5. That men don't change is a profound truth. — JOSEPH CONRAD.

6. Sons would follow their father some day, but daughters must be left behind. — PEARL S BUCK.

7. She pulled out a letter out of the pocket of her skirt, and with it a large green pear. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

8. Waking or sleeping, or with a mixture of the two, but with my senses wide awake enough, I seemed to see my friend. — R B CUNNINGHAME GRAHAM.

9. If you doubt this, I will provide you with a simple experiment which will test the matter thoroughly. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

10. The natural suspicious of Michael and his senior partner that a tale was being pitched were not in fact justified. — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

11. He turned his head over his shoulder, and remained staring at what he saw. — G K CHESTERTON.

12. Nowadays many readers are at least as clever as most authors. — AUGUSTINE BIRRELL.

13. She was glad to get home, though the big house seemed more deserted than ever. — RUBY M AYRES.

14. I did not want him to know what I knew. —DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

15. He waited till he heard the doctor's regular breathing, and then came out, closing the door softly behind him. — EDGAR WALLACE.

16. It may be well, indeed, before reading much further in Evelyn's book, to decide where it is that our modern view of happiness differs from his. — VIRGINIA WOOLF.

17. He is fond of a bit of fun, but only after dark. — H M TOMLINSON.

18. There was no mistake about this joke. — LORD DUNSANY.

19. We do you unmerited honour, for which you should blush. — LEONARD MERRICK.

20. James had been so intent upon the immediate problem of the game that he had almost forgotten his own private problem. — W A DARLINGTON.

219. Qualities of a Good Sentence.A good sentence is said to have four qualities: unity, coherence, emphasis, and euphony. Unity demands that the sentence shall express one and only one complete thought. Coherence demands that the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses in the sentence shall be unmistakably clear. Emphasis demands that the sentence shall give the leader a strong impression. Euphony demands that the sentence shall read naturally and smoothly.

Before I talk about how these qualities can be acquired, I have to warn you against thinking that one need not bother about these qualities unless one writes for publication. These are, in fact, necessary to every kind of composition, from a one-sentence familiar letter to a 1000-page novel or history. They are necessities, not luxuries. If you do not hope ever to be an author, that is no reason why you need not take care to write what I call good sentences.

Nor must you think that a sentence that possesses the four qualities must be constructed in a very elaborate way. Even such a short simple sentence as “I am a Chinese” possesses these qualities; for it expresses only one complete thought, has its words arranged in an unmistakably clear manner, gives the reader a strong impression, and reads naturally and smoothly. In fact, while no rule can be laid down about the length of sentences, shorter ones are more likely to acquire the said qualities.[1]

220. Unity.The principle of unity is violated in several ways. Each of the following sentences has unity:

In the criticism of the earlier editions of this Outline, the complaint was frequently repeated that the development of the arts, and particularly of music, was disregarded. The history of man's achievement of knowledge and social power was given at considerable length, but hardly anything was said of the appearance and extension of his conscious search for beauty. An attempt has now been made to meet these objections and several sections have been added to record how the artist, the poet, and the imaginative writer appeared in human life. — H G WELLS.

Now suppose we combine the three sentences into one by changing the full stop at the end of the first sentence into a semicolon and inserting “for” at the beginning of the second sentence, and changing the full stop at the end of the second sentence into a semicolon and inserting “therefore” at the beginning or the third sentence. Such a long sentence is not quite impossible, but somehow it does not show singleness of thought. It violates the principle of unity because it contains too much.

Now suppose we break the first sentence up into the following three:

The earlier editions of this Outline were much criticized. The complaint was frequently repeated that the development of the arts was disregarded. The complaint referred particularly to the development of music.

Each of these three sentences is quite correct, and each has unity; but when taken together they seem to express only a part of a complete thought each. This group of three sentences may be said to violate the principle of unity because each contains too little[2].

Now suppose we rewrite the second sentence as follows:

The history of man's achievement of knowledge and social power was given at considerable length, but we hardly said anything of the appearance and extension of his conscious search for beauty.

This sentence violates the principle of unity because the point of view is needlessly changed.

Now suppose we rewrite the third sentence as follows:

An attempt has now been made to meet these objections; the artist, the poet, and the imaginative writer appeared in human life and several sections have been added to record how they did it.

This sentence violates the principle of unity because the idea of the artist's, the poet's, and the imaginative writer's appearance in human life and the idea of adding sections to record it are treated as if they were of equal importance.

The careless use of “and”, “so”, “and so”, and “but” seems to be responsible for many ill-unified sentences written by inexperienced writers.

On my way back from school I met an old friend, and as we had not seen each other for nearly a year, we stopped by the roadside and talked, but in a little while it began to rain, and so we had to say good-bye.

We may often test a sentence for unity by putting it into periodic form.

Exercise 80

Improve the following sentences and groups of sentences so as to secure unity:

1. Thank you for all you have done for me, and I hope you will write again before long.

2. I was sitting alone. It was about four o'clock in the afternoon. It was winter. Suddenly someone knocked at my door. I opened it, and found my friend Mr Bennett.

3. Our teacher is an Englishman, and has published some books.

4. When I asked her what was the matter, she surprised me by saying that she was very ill.

5. I was walking by the river yesterday evening and saw a strange boat.

6. Though he was not very much interested in the lecture, it taught him something about social life in America.

7. My aunt is now old. She is nearly ninety. She has good health, however. She can walk with ease.

8. He called, but I was not at home, and so he went, but we met in the street, and he came home with me, and we had a pleasant chat together.

9. The arrival of two guests was announced, and they were shown in, and the master of the house was very glad to meet them.

10. Little Mabel tried her best to please her tired father with her little stories, but he preferred to be left alone, so that she was unhappy.

11. My father has a large library, which contains many books on history, which is his favourite subject and also mine.

12. His wife was about fifty, and I was talking to him when she appeared.

13. We waited in the hall for some time, when there was a little dog sleeping there, but as it was already half past five and the man we wanted to see did not come down, we wondered whether he was at home or not.

14. He. died in a railway accident, and he had just reached his seventieth year.

15. She is clever. She is honest. But she is in poor health. She has not her own home.

16. You must have heard stories about fairies when you were a little boy, and these stories you may still enjoy now that you are a man.

17. When he was asked what he was doing that for, we got the brief answer “I am doing it for pleasure”.

18. If he has anything to do with this business, he is taking a risk, and I am sorry for him, also for his parents, who are old friends of my family.

19. He picked up the evening paper and sat down in the big chair, but he said he was thinking of something very important, about which he did not tell me the next morning, when we were having breakfast in his room.

20. He wrote occasionally, but I do not remember when I got his last letter, which, however, I am sure was a very long one and was written in violet ink, which he had never before used in writing to me.

221. Coherence.A sentence that lacks unity also lacks coherence; for if it does not show singleness of thought it must have something incoherent in it. But a well-unified sentence may still lack coherence.

The principle of coherence may be violated in several ways, but chiefly by breaking the rule of proximity, which requires that things that are to be thought of together shall be mentioned together. When a word, a phrase, or a clause is so placed that it appears to belong to the wrong word, the sentence lacks coherence. The following sentence has coherence:

The French window had been opened at least eight inches, and the man stood partly in the aperture and partly in the room. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

Now suppose we put “at least” before “opened” instead of after it and put the first “partly” before “stood” instead of after it. “At least opened” seems to mean opened at any rate if nothing further than being opened can be said. “Partly stood” seems to mean only partly, not wholly, stood. True, such a sentence does not deceive those who read it carefully, but it lacks coherence.

It is interesting to note that the position of a word or a phrase may affect the sense of the whole sentence.

It is simply ridiculous to write “black man's tie”, “yellow babies' boots”, and “long ladies' laces”, for “man's black tie”, “babies' yellow boots”, and “ladies' long laces”. But everybody is liable to write in careless moments such an incoherent expression as “a cold glass of water” for “a glass of cold water”.

“Only” is a very interesting word in regard to the application of the rule of proximity. J C Nesfield says in his Manual of English Grammar and Composition: “This adverb must be placed immediately before the word that it is intended to qualify”. He gives the five following sentences to illustrate how the position of the word “only” affects the sense of the whole sentence:

1. Only he promised to read the first chapter of that book.

2. He only promised to read the first chapter of that book.

3. He promised only to read the first chapter of that book.

4. He promised to read only the first chapter of that book.

5. He promised to read the first chapter of that book only (or, only of that book).

It is true that these five sentences have five different meanings. But it does not follow that when “only” is not placed immediately before the word that it is intended to qualify, the sentence necessarily has a different meaning. Each of the following sentences has “only” placed elsewhere, and yet each is clear enough:

1. A rattlesnake can only strike about eighteen inches. — H A VACHELL. (only about eighteen inches)

2. The roof only extended thirty yards either way, and the police would probably take possession of it. — STACY AUMONIER. (only thirty yards)

3. She can only be cured by herself. — H V MORTON. (only by herself, or, by herself only)

4. I shall only have her two days more. — JOHN MASEFIELD. (only two days)

5. They talked of fish, nets, and tides; whereas O'Toole was only interested in land. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY. (only in land, or, in land only).

6. By this you only have to change at Bristol and then at Glastonbury and then you get on to our little local line. — BEN TRAVERS. (only at Bristol and then at Glastonbury)

On the position of “only” H W Fowler gives the following advice in A Dictionary of Modern English Usage: “There is an orthodox position for the adverb, easily determined in case of need; to choose another position that may spoil or obscure the meaning is bad; but a change of position that has no such effect except technically is both justified by historical and colloquial usage and often demanded by rhetorical needs”.[3]

It is advisable, however, for students of composition to see where the orthodox position is whenever they have occasion to use the adverb “only”. Incidentally, “also”, “even”, “ever”, “almost”, “nearly”, “chiefly”, “mainly”, etc should always be placed in the exact position.

“Not” is also an interesting word. In “I do not speak English very well”, the “not” belongs, according to the sense, to “very well”, so that the sentence would logically read: “I speak English not very well”. The fact, however, is that the first form breaks the rule of proximity, and yet is the natural form, and that the second form keeps the rule, and yet is unidiomatic. Again, “Not everybody speaks English” and “Everybody does not speak English” have the same meaning and are equally idiomatic, though the second form seems to have the “not” placed in

the wrong position.

The rule of proximity may be neglected when there is no risk of misunderstanding in breaking it but there is a risk of awkwardness in keeping it.

He had collected every scrap of paper that they all had, and was composing messages in various native languages to be dropped to earth at intervals. — JAMES HILTON.

By the rule of proximity the adverbial phrase “in various native languages” would have to be placed before “messages” instead of after it; for it was the messages, not the languages, that were to be dropped to earth. But here to keep the rule of proximity means to turn natural English into awkward English; no reader would be likely to regard the languages as having been meant to be dropped to earth.

When you travel in China I think nothing amazes you more than the passion for decoration which possesses the Chinese. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

Here “which” is placed immediately after “decoration”, but certainly it refers not to “decoration” but to “passion”. But it would be to produce awkward English to write, by the rule of proximity, “the passion which possesses the Chinese for decoration”. (As a matter of fact, the adjectival clause “which possesses the Chinese” belongs to the noun phrase “passion for decoration” rather than to the single word “passion”, so that it would be to abuse the rule of proximity to insist on placing the clause immediately after “passion”.)

Apart from failure to keep the rule of proximity, the principle of coherence is violated in the following ways:

1. By using unattached participles (see Section 178).

2. By omitting a possessive below a gerund (see Section 175).

3. By using correlative conjunctions carelessly. The two following sentences have coherence:

(1) He was not only immensely proud of Jane but genuinely devoted to her. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) All this was natural enough, since neither death nor poverty nor lack of love was strange to her. — ANTHONY HOPE.

Rewritten as follows both sentences would lack coherence:

(1) He not only was immensely proud of her but genuinely devoted to her.

(2) All this was natural enough, since neither death or poverty or lack of love was strange to her.

“Not only was” causes the reader to expect another verb after “but”. “Neither” and “or” have no mutual reference at all.

4. By using pronouns carelessly.

Mr Long told Mr Short that his son was in his study. This sentence is capable of six meanings: (1) that Mr Long's son was in Mr Long's study; (2) that Mr Short's son was in Mr Short's study; (3) that Mr Long's son was in Mr Short's study; (4) that Mr Short's son was in Mr Long's study; (5) that Mr Long's son was in Mr Long's son's study; and (6) that Mr Short's son was in Mr Short's son's study. The sentence can be rewritten in direct speech in one of the six following ways according to the meaning intended:

(1) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “My son is in my study”.

(2) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “Your son is in your study”.

(3) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “My son is in your study”.

(4) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “Your son is in my study”.

(5) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “My son is in his study”.

(6) Mr Long said to Mr Short: “Your son is in his study”.

5. By writing such a sentence as suggests a meaning other than the one intended.

(1) I like John Masefield more than any English author.

(2) He looks like his father's face.

(3) He is more clever but not so industrious as his brother.

(4) When children under one year of age have tuberculosis, they usually die very seldom.

(5) He is grateful to her for a loss from which she has saved him.

(6) My absence is required to look after my little sister.

The first sentence suggests that John Masefield was not Englishman. The second sentence suggests that a man may look like a face instead of like a man. The third sentence suggests that the man is more clever than someone other than his brother. The fourth sentence suggests that one can die more than once. The fifth sentence suggests that the man is grateful for a loss he has suffered. The sixth sentence suggests that absence is something that can look after a person. Corrected, these sentences read:

(1) I like John Masefield more than any other English author.

(2) He looks like his father.

When children under one year of age have tuberculosis, theydo not usually die.

(5) He is grateful to her for saving him from a loss.

(6) I have to be absent because I am required to look after my little sister.

The two following sentences, however, are not incoherent though they may strictly be called ambiguous:

(1) My name is Chang, if you would be so good as to present me to your friends. — JAMES HILTON.

(2) Strange things happen now and then if you just take the first omnibus arid sit there long enough. — H V MORTON.

These sentences would strictly read:

(1) My name is Chang; you would have to call me Chang if you would be so good as to present me to your friends.

(2) Strange things happen now and then; you will see them if you just take the first omnibus and sit there long enough.

But the original sentences are quite clear and therefore quite justifiable.

6. By writing such a sentence as has different parts running into one another.

(1) We need not attach too much importance to the matter.

(2) It is fifteen years ago since I came here.

(3) The reason for his success is due to hard work.

(4) An account of her social activities is described in the book.

Corrected, these sentences read:

(1) We need not attach much importance to the matter.

Read Section 217 again for the avoidance of superfluous words.

Exercise 81

Improve the following sentences so as to secure coherence:

1. I take not only a keen interest in grammar but also in idiom.

2. The boy tried to pull the door open twice.

3. She offered me a hot cup of tea.

4. The reason why I do not believe him is because he does not use words exactly.

5. The Bible is said to be more read than any book.

6. Being a Chinese, my English friend expressed surprise at my fluent English.

7. We enjoyed walking to and fro under the trees very much.

8. James failed both because of lack of funds and poor management.

9. It is twenty-four years ago since he met his future wife.

10. Thank you very much for the mistakes that you so kindly corrected in my last letter.

11. Jack and Edith were chiefly divorced because they no longer loved each other.

12. Mrs Taylor wrote to tell Mrs Fowler that her daughter was doing very well at school.

13. My watch is either slow or yours is fast.

14. This story is as interesting if not more than that.

15. When three years old, her father died.

16. I do not know his exact age, but I am sure that it is older than you.

17. As soon as the ladder was placed against the wall, it fell.

18. He was preparing for the examination, when he was called home by a telegram suddenly.

19. I had not the slightest idea till I read about his return from England in one of the local newspapers, which rather surprised me.

20. It was not till he had nearly gone five miles that we overtook him.

222. Emphasis.A well-unified and coherently-constructed sentence should for ordinary purposes be emphatic enough. Far be it from me to suggest that in every sentence that you write you must use one or another of the various methods of emphasis that I am going to illustrate. On the contrary, I have to point out that a succession of sentences made emphatic by those methods is likely to read very unnaturally.

Before I deal with the methods of emphasis, however, I may as well make the general statement that the beginning and the end of a sentence are the emphatic positions. Parenthetic expressions, therefore, often had better not be placed at the beginning or the end.

1. Inversion.

(1) Charity appeals that come by post I always destroy. — ROBERT GRAVES.

(2) One shower I remember that wrought magic in a London garden. — EDWARD THOMAS.

(3) English lager I must say I have never liked; perhaps I have been unlucky in my specimens. — GEORGE SAINTSBURY.

(4) This I reported to my company mess, and received sympathy. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

(5) Suicide it could not have been. — ARTHUR MILLS.

(6) So off he went. — A A MILNE.

(7) Off she goes quickly. — H V MORTON.

(8) Best of all perhaps were the elms at the village end, those mighty rough-barked trees that had their tops “so close against the sky”. — WILLIAM HENRY HUDSON.

2. Exclamations.

(1) How he does enjoy himself! — MORLEY ROBERTS.

(2) How wonderful that was! — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

(3) How dark it has become! — ELEANOR THORNE.

(4) How lovely it is! — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

(5) What careless creatures you men are! — JOHN KENDRICK BANGS.

(6) What a fool that son was! — H E BATES.

3. Rhetorical questions (that is, questions that are asked not for information but to produce effect).

(1) But isn't it interesting? — ETHEL MANNIN.

(2) Isn't he just like a monkey? — E V LUCAS.

(3) What more can the most inquisitive reader ask? — GERALD BULLETT.

(4) Who knows? — LEONARD MERRICK.

(5) Even if men struggled high into the air, we asked, wouldn't they be smitten up there by such a lonely and reeling dismay as to lose all self-control? — H G WELLS.

(6) Can he attend more than one theatre in one evening, or wear more than one suit at a time, or digest more meals than his butler? — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

(7) What does a picture more or less in the house matter? — ALAN SILLITOE.

(8) For what was the use of accumulating money only to die of a coronary before one had the chance to enjoy it? — EVELYN EDITH GAVIN.

(9) They talked of how they both disliked synthetic fabrics, but who could afford wool or cotton or silk anymore? — NORMAN MAILER.

(10) So all that is in her will not bloom — but in how many does it? — TILLIE OLSEN.

4. Repetition.

(1) Food is a subject of conversation more spiritually refreshing than the weather, for the number of possible remarks about the weather is limited, whereas of food you can talk on and on and on. — A A MILNE.

(2) Oh, do, mother, and I'll never be late again, never, never, never. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

(3) Ignorance, surely ignorance is at the bottom of it; his ignorance and our comparative erudition. — VIRGINIA WOOLF.

(4) Apparently an instinct is an old, old habit that has become ingrained. — D H LAWRENCE.

(5) I depended on her for everything — everything. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(6) Oh, lovely, lovely, lovely! — L A G STRONG.

5. Antithesis.

(1) Oh, those Atlantic crossings, long enough to be amusing, yet not long enough to become monotonous; long enough for adventure, yet not long enough for complications. — ETHEL MANNIN.

(2) To them I owe my reputation as a dangerous and disreputable person; to Germany I owe my recognition in Europe as a thinker and a dramatic poet. — GEORGE BERNARD SHAW.

(3) Hitherto you've done nothing; you've only had things done to you. You've made nothing; you've only been made into things yourself. — ANTHONY HOPE.

6. Ellipsis.

(1) Hence the chilliness of the greeting. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

(2) A great place London! —H V MORTON.

(3) Nothing whatever about any beautiful girls. — P G WODEHOUSE.

(4) Queer that a thing like that should stay in the memory so clearly. — JAMES HILTON.

(5) Funny to think that the course of my existence hung like a thread upon that quality of hers. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

7. Intensive expressions.

(1) But Pear Blossom did not sleep at all. — PEARL S BUCK.

(2) I had no judgement whatever. — ETHEL MANNIN.

(3) Besides, she cared for not a soul on earth. — ANTHONY HOPE.

(4) It was a box addressed to Mrs Platts, and it came from Biter's, the very shop where the tragedy had occurred. — E V LUCAS.

(5) Now, if Van Dyke was alive it would be another matter; he might be able to save Fox; unfortunately the cleverest detective in the world cannot extract a confession from a corpse. — ARTHUR MILLS.

(6) With his own eyes he had seen her vanish. — SYLVIA TOWNSEND WARNER.

8. Climax.

Take a longer view, young man and young woman of twenty, — know that patriotism is not enough, brotherhood is not enough, personal suffering is not enough, endurance is not enough, love, even, is not enough, for the spirit of man must embrace all these things and more if it is to grow. — HUGH WALPOLE.

9. Periodic sentences.

(1) So far as it was possible for a man of that stubborn character to be influenced he had been influenced by Germany. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) If you have not yet appreciated the truth that money is everything, you soon will. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

(3) But in the case of all such annoyances, as I have said, everything depends upon the emotional point of view. — G K CHESTERTON.

(4) That he had no clear idea of what was at stake for Europe, as his French counterpart had, is due to the English system of education. — J B MORTON.

By putting these sentences into loose form you will see how they will become weaker.

10. The two constructions of “it ... that” illustrated in Section 118. In that section the two following sentences are given:

(1) It is embarrassment that kills a man, in mind and body and soul. — HILAIRE BELLOC.

(2) It was then that the unfortunate incident occurred. — STACY AUMONIER.

In the first sentence “embarrassment” is emphasized. If “man” is to be emphasized, the sentence should read:

It is a man that embarrassment kills, in mind and body and soul.

If “in mind and body and soul” is to be emphasized, the sentence should read:

It is in mind and body and soul that embarrassment kills a man.

In the second sentence “then” is emphasized. If “unfortunate incident” is to be emphasized, the sentence should read:

It was the unfortunate incident that occurred then.

11. Emphatic “do”.

(1) But it's all over now — oh, do be generous and forgive me. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

(2) Perhaps you do realize it, as an intellectual question. — JOHN MASEFIELD.

(3) Juliette did kiss me this morning rather fervently, and I wondered why. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(4) Isabel, who was very tall, was a splendid Titania, even if she did veil her hair in a butter-cloth. — H E BATES.

12. Italics. In Section 17, the following sentences are given (under 6):

(1) She never makes me laugh. — WILLIAM SOMERSET MAUGHAM.

(2) What would he do if I-ho accepted — with her? — PEARL S BUCK.

(3) Imagine his coming to anything so modern! — JOHN GALSWORTHY.

(4) She was the landlady: efficient, stylish, diplomatic and tremendously experienced. — ARNOLD BENNETT.

(5) And this is a sort of accident, isn't it? — JAMES HILTON.

(6) It will be a treat. — EVELYN WAUGH.

(7) But nobody knows when, where, or if his brother Phineas returned. — G K CHESTERTON.

(8) Can you think what would happen if we stayed here? — H E BATES.

(9) I have been talking rot. — H G WELLS.

(10) I am delighted to see you. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

The italics are the authors', not mine. They serve to pull the reader up and tell him to read the word with a stress so as to discover its true significance. The first sentence implies “even though she may make others laugh”. The second sentence implies “with her, not with anybody else”. The third sentence implies “He is not expected to come to anything so modern”. The fourth sentence implies “She had the qualities expected in a landlady”. The fifth sentence implies “This is actually a sort of accident”. The sixth sentence implies “It will certainly be a treat”. The seventh sentence implies “Nobody knows so much as whether his brother Phineas returned at all”. The eighth sentence implies “here instead of elsewhere”. The ninth sentence implies “rot, not sense”. The tenth sentence implies “I am actually delighted to see you, though you may think I am not”.

Exercise 82

Write five sentences to illustrate each method of emphasis.

223. Euphony.Euphony is a matter of sound rather than of sense. In testing a sentence for this quality it is the tongue and the ear, rather than the eye and the mind, that should be used. You are advised to read aloud every sentence that you have written, so as to see whether it is euphonious or not.

A sentence lacks euphony usually on account of the unpleasant repetition of the same sound, syllable, or word.

1. Proper measures will be taken for the purpose of enabling the people to live in peace. (Sound repeated)

2. The sickly girl is sitting beside the small table and smiling at her sister Susan. (Sound repeated)

3. He thinks of devoting every evening to teaching his brother reading and writing. (Syllable repeated)

4. Certainly he writes fairly correctly, but not necessarily perfectly clearly. (Syllable repeated)

5. The first few sections of the second chapter of the third volume of the book treat of the methods of securing the qualities of good sentences. (Word repeated)

6. As history is my chief interest, I have read the book with great interest. (Word repeated)

These sentences may be rewritten as follows:

1. Suitable measures will be taken to enable the people to live in peace.

2. The pale-looking girl is sitting by a little table and smiling at her sister Susan.

3. He intends to teach his brother reading and writing at night.

4. True, what he writes is fairly correct, but it is not always perfectly clear.

5. In the first few sections of chapter two, volume three, the book deals with how to secure the qualities of good sentences.

6. As history is my favourite subject, I have read the book with great interest.

Below are some hints on euphony:

1. Loose sentences are often more euphonious than periodic sentences. A succession of periodic sentences are apt to read awkwardly.

The murmur of voices had swollen now and was louder than before. The door of the dining-room was open. They were coming out of dinner. I could see Robert standing by the open door, and there was a scraping of chairs, a babble of conversation, and of laughter. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER, Rebecca.

If the first and last sentences are put into periodic form, the paragraph will read less naturally, if only a little.

The murmur of voices, having swollen now, was louder than before. The door of the dining-room was open. They were coming out of dinner. I could not only see Robert standing by the open door but hear both a scraping of chairs, a babble of conversation, and a babble of laughter.

2. A succession of very short sentences is apt to read awkwardly[4]. See how the above-quoted paragraph will read if rewritten as follows:

The murmur of voices had swollen now. It was louder than before. The door of the dining-room was open. They were coming out of dinner. I could see Robert. He was standing by the open door. There was a scraping of chairs. There was also a babble of conversation and laughter.

3. An interrogative tone often makes a sentence more euphonious.

(1) You mean, she has so far refused to marry you? — MICHAEL ARLEN.

(2) You mean it? — LEONARD MERRICK.

(3) Then he likes music? — MORLEY ROBERTS.

(4) I suppose it will wear oil? — H G WELLS.

(5) You have not asked Rose to marry you? — P G WODEHOUSE.

(6) After all, neither of us dislikes him? — EDWARD SACKVILLE-WEST.

Exercise 83

Improve the following sentences and groups of sentences so as to secure euphony.

1. The end is good, but the means is by no means good.

2. They say that Mr Day may make a long stay near the bay.

3. My friend speaks fluent French, which, however, is not free from faults.

4. He asked me to sit down, and then asked me some questions.

5. His wife went with him to the works, where they worked together.

6. I am reading your interesting letter describing the entertaining way in which you spent Saturday evening.

7. As soon as he got the telegram, he got his lunch quickly, and in a little while got on his way to the railway station.

8. Dora was taking a walk under the trees towards evening, when she had her attention attracted by a tramp trudging along the street.

9. When Joe and Jack first met, he was a college student. Though poor, he from time to time bought a book. He not only saved every cent he could to buy books but, in order to have enough money for a valuable book, often had to go without food.

10. It was a fine morning. I opened my window. There was a pleasant breeze. A bird or two were singing. I looked at my dog. He was still sleeping. He was lying in the sun. He was perhaps having a sweet dream. I did not disturb him. I only watched him.

[1] The following little essay on the length of sentences, quoted from my A Word to the Wise, may prove of interest to you:“I have just finished an essay by Hilaire Belloc, in which, towards the end of a very long sentence, the author says: ‘I cannot refrain from remarking that all the discussions of the silly critics as to whether sentences in English should be long or short are mere spoiling of paper’.“I fully agree with him. A sentence is not good or bad merely because it is long or short. Length is a false test of a sentence. It is wrong to think that a series of long sentences is a proof of one's good command of English. It is equally wrong to think that simple clear English requires every sentence to contain a certain number of words at most.“I remember that I myself formerly acted on these wrong opinions one after the other. For some time I tried to use as many words in a sentence as grammar and sense could justify. The result was an obtrusively dignified style. Then followed a period in which I tried to make every sentence a grammatically simple one and as easy to understand as those in first books for beginners. The result was affected simplicity.“However, while I would warn all students of English composition against these two mistakes, I think that that of writing long sentences is the commoner one. And students ought to take more care to avoid it, not only because it is commoner but also because it is more harmful. For in the hands of those who have not had much practice in the use of words and phrases and constructions, long sentences are much harder to manage than short ones. And it must not for a moment be supposed that an error in grammar or idiom embedded in a long sentence can easily escape detection”.

[2] In books for children, however, such short sentences are quite in place.

[3] In the revised edition by Sir Ernest Gowers (1965), the advice reads: “There is an orthodox position for the adverb. ... is not only justified by historical and colloquial usage but often demanded by rhetorical needs”. (The italics are mine.)

[4] Not in books for children, though.

CHAPTER Ⅶ PARAGRAPHS

224. What is a Paragraph?I have said in Section 9: “Paragraphs will be dealt with in Chapter VII. One thing deserves mention here, however; it is that in reporting a conversation, every speech, however short, and with or without such an expression as he said” or “she replied”, is usually indented as a paragraph, though it is not quite a paragraph as defined in that chapter. It is indented merely to make the conversation clear and pleasant”. In this chapter the term “paragraph” is regarded as excluding indented speeches in reported conversation.

A paragraph may be defined as a distinct part or section of any piece of writing, whether of one or more sentences, that deals with a particular point of the subject. It is to a sentence what a sentence is to a word. The term is also applied to a short composition consisting of a group of sentences dealing with a single topic and closely related to each other, such as a leaderette in a newspaper.

As you know, old-fashioned writing in the Han language used not to be divided into paragraphs. In English composition, however, division into paragraphs is of great importance.

225. Length of Paragraphs.In defining the term “paragraph” I have said “whether of one or more sentences”. One-sentence paragraphs, which are used only when the author wishes to call special attention to a particular fact or point, are the exception rather than the rule. Two or three such paragraphs are hardly ever used in succession.

There is no saying how long or how short paragraphs should be. Their length depends upon the subject matter, upon how it is to he treated of, and often upon the length of the whole composition. Theoretically, therefore, there is no limitation. Ordinarily, however, a paragraph consists of from three to ten sentences.

In the treatment of paragraphs in this chapter, one-sentence ones are not considered.

226. Paragraphs and Outline.The third suggestion given in Section 48 on expanding an outline into a composition is: “As a rule expand each main point in your outline into a paragraph”. When you have made an outline carefully, therefore, you ought to have little difficulty in paragraphing.

227. Topic Sentence.The main point to which a paragraph confines itself is called the topic, and when the topic is definitely stated in one of the sentences in the paragraph, that sentence is called the topic sentence. It must not be supposed, however, that every paragraph must have a topic sentence. While in a paragraph of exposition or argument the topic is as a rule definitely stated in a sentence, it is, in a paragraph of narration or description, usually implied father than stated.

The topic sentence occurs usually at the beginning of the paragraph, but sometimes at the end and sometimes in the middle. Occasionally the topic is stated at or near the beginning and repeated, in different words, at or near the end.

In the following paragraphs the topic sentence is indicated by an asterisk:

.1.

*Traditional Chinese education was, in some respects, very similar to that of Athens in its best days. Athenian boys were made to learn Homer by heart from beginning to end; Chinese boys were made to learn the Confucian classics with similar thoroughness. Athenians were taught a kind of reverence for the gods which consisted in outward observances and placed no barrier in the way of free intellectual speculation. Similarly, the Chinese were taught certain rites connected with Ancestor-worship, but were by no means obilged to have the beliefs which the rites would seem to imply. An easy and elegant skepticism was the attitude expected of an educated adult; anything might be discussed, but it was a trifle vulgar to reach very positive conclusions. Opinions should be such as could be discussed pleasantly at dinner, not such as man would fight for. Carlyle calls Plato “a lordly Athenian gentleman, very much at his ease in Zion”. This characteristic of being “at his ease in Zion” is found also in Chinese sages, and is, as a rule, absent from the sages produced by Christian civilizations, except when, like Goethe, they have deeply imbibed the spirit of Hellenism. The Athenians and the Chinese alike wished to enjoy life, and had a conception of enjoyment which was refined by an exquisite sense of beauty. — BERTRAND RUSSELL, “What Shall We Educate For?”, Harper's Magazine.

.2.

That is one way of linking humour and the English character. Here is another. Humour has been well defined as “thinking in fun while feeling in earnest”. The English do not approach life intellectually; they do not demand that it shall conform to some rigid mental plan; they are not convinced that the universe can be penetrated by thought; they look askance at those grand first principles that seem to some alien peoples the very foundations of the world; they are willing to go to work, either in politics or art, without a theory to sustain them; and when they are more practical than other races, it is not, — as those races frequently conclude — because they are coldly clear-sighted and unimaginative, but because they do not busy themselves asking reason to find a key when instinct has already shown them that the door is wide open. Thus, if they should think at all, they are quite likely to do a great deal of “thinking in fun”. On the other hand, the English float through life on a deep if narrow stream of feeling; they commonly live in a matriarchy of the heart, unlike some other more effusive races, who flaunt the heart as if it were some new mistress and use the emotions to decorate some purely rational scheme of life; they live in such a deep intimacy with their feelings that they find it difficult and distasteful to reveal them; they have a horror of pretended feeling or easy emotion just because feeling to them is the key to the inner citadel, and to lose control of themselves is to reveal the last secret. Thus, when they are feeling at all, they are generally “feeling in earnest”. *And if humour is thinking in fun while feeling in earnest, there should be humour in England. — J B PRIESTLEY, English Humour.

.3.

It is in these circumstances that we have entered upon that period of exhaustion which has been described as peace. It gives us at any rate an opportunity to consider the general situation. *Certain sombre facts emerge solid, inexorable, like the shapes of mountains from drifting mist. It is established that henceforward whole populations will take part in war, all doing their utmost, all subjected to the fury of the enemy. It is established that nations who believe their life is at stake will not be restrained from using any means to secure existence. It is probable — nay, certain — that among the means which will next time be at their disposal will be agencies and processes of destruction wholesale, unlimited, and perhaps, once launched, uncontrollable. — WINSTON S CHURCHILL, “Shall We Commit Suicide?”, Nash's Pall Mali Magazine.

Neither of the two following paragraphs, the first of narration and the second of description, has a topic sentence:

.1.

One day, in the workshop, as they were bending over the bench looking for a needle he had dropped among his tacks and pins, he put his arm round her shoulder and let his hand run across her neck before he began kissing her. It let loose in her a flood of unexpected passion. He felt her trembling. As she uprighted herself he slipped his hands down from her shoulders to take her by the waist, his hands running down over her tightened breasts half-accidentally. She seemed to come to life at once. He kissed her again. Trembling violently, she held herself very close to him, her body hardened, in an effort to quieten herself. She did not speak except to ask him to kiss her again. When he had done that she seemed to be trembling more violently than ever. He could not hold her still. — H E BATES, The Poacher.

.2.

The photograph could not render the clear perfection of Aunt Clara's rosy skin; she had the colour and the flashing eye of a girl. But it did justice to her really magnificent black hair. This hair was all her own, and the coiffure seemed as ample as a judge's wig. From the low forehead the hair was parted exactly in the middle for about two inches; then plaited bands crossed and re-crossed the scalp in profusion, forming behind a pattern exceedingly complicated, and down either side of the head, now behind the ear, now hiding it, now resting on the shoulder, now hanging clear of them, fell long multitudinous glossy curls. These curls — one of them in the photograph reached as far as the stomacher — could not have been surpassed in Bursley. — ARNOLD BENNETT, Clayhanger.

In these two paragraphs the topic is implied rather than stated. That of the first paragraph is how a man kissed a woman; that of the second is the way a woman's hair was dressed.

Exercise 84

Read the following paragraphs and point out the topic sentences:

1.

The most obvious differences between different animals are differences of size, but for some reason the zoologists have paid singularly little attention to them. In a large textbook of zoology before me I find no indication that the eagle is larger than the sparrow, or the hippopotamus bigger than the hare, though some grudging admissions are made in the case of the mouse and the whale. But yet it is easy to show that a hare could not be as large as a hippopotamus, or a whale as small as a herring. For every type of animal there is a most convenient size, and a large change in size invariably carries with it a change of form. — J B S HALDANE, Possible Worlds and Other Essays.

2.

With the importation, therefore, of the French vocabulary into English, many of the learned words borrowed first from Late, and then from Classical Latin, were adopted into our language. But in England also Latin was spoken by the clergy and learned men of the country, the Bible and the service-books were in Latin, and historical and devotional books were largely written in it. When these Latin books were translated into English, or when a scholar writing in English wished to use a Latin word, he followed the analogy of the Latin words that had already come to us through the French, and altered them as if they had first been adopted into French. It is often, therefore, difficult to say whether a Latin word has come to us through the French, or has been taken immediately from the Latin. — LOGAN PEARSALL SMITH, The English Language.

3.

She heard footsteps behind her, and a tune hummed, and knew instinctly who it was. She kept quite still. Instinct told her that this was the most effective thing to do. Two arms, under hers, bent her backwards, and Georges fastened his lips to hers. Self-controlled, she neither called out nor resisted. Careful, even grudging in everything, when she gave, she gave generously, no half measures. That was how it had started. The most natural thing in the world. It had gone on in spasms of passion, and interludes, as far as she was concerned, of cool, efficient concealment. Georges was a little younger, far less healthy in mind or body, probably less strong physically, than she. There may have been an undercurrent of almost maternal feeling on her part, and certainly not the least illusion as to the consequences of being found out. And no one had found out. — R H MOTTRAM, The Spanish Farm.

4.

The public purse of this country was never better employed than when it procured for Johnson, by means of a modest pension, the opportunity of cultivating the art of life in comfort. The greater part of his last twenty years was devoted to talk and friendship. They are the years which Boswell principally records, when Johnson lay, after the storms of life, like a man-of-war in harbour receiving visitors. Had this harbourage been denied we should still have heard great echoes of him, but the chances are that he would have been too busy to be Boswellized. We should have lost, it is probable, Boswell's Life and by losing that should have lost, not Samuel Johnson, but the best picture in all literature of a living great man. — GEORGE GORDON, Companionable Books.

5.

Although London possesses a thousand central points suitable for street rendezvous, Londoners seem to have decided by tacit agreement to use only five of these for their outdoor appointments. They are: Charing Cross Post Office, Leicester Square Tube, Piccadilly Tube, under the Clock at Victoria, and Oxford Circus Tube; and I have never known my friends telephone me for a meeting and fix a rendezvous outside this list. Indeed, I can now, by long experience, place the habits and character of casual acquaintances who wish to meet, from their choice among these places, — THOMAS BURKE, Out and About.

6.

At last a picture rose before our eyes, a large picture, very blue. Now who shall describe that picture which was so blue, blue even to the grass under the soldiers' feet, the complexion of the soldiers' faces, and the rifles in the soldier's hands? Over against a blue tree stood a man, and miserably blue was his face, while the soldiers stood very stiffly with their backs to us, holding their rifles in a position which gave one no room to doubt but that they were about to shoot the solitary man for some misdemeanour. He was the loneliest looking man I have ever seen. — MICHAREL ALEN, These Charming People.

7.

Everyone who could be was at Rosehill today. And in several ways the gathering was more catholic than a superficial intelligence might have expected. It was natural enough that a poor public school teacher should rub shoulders here with a California millionaire, and the well-known actress seemed a not inappropriate guest, since her personal character was as unsmirched as her complexion was natural, and the South always has honoured all the great arts. But a Jewish banker and his beautiful daughter, a Punjabi prince and the Siamese Minister might have seemed to some a little unaccountable. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN, Mr and Mrs Sen.

8.

I shall never forget my first sight of her, for she had the saddest face of any woman I have ever seen. Standing there, dressed entirely in black, a bowl of lilies by her side, her face rose from the shadows like one who has known every suffering. Beautiful? I am not sure about that. A beautiful expression, certainly. A beautiful bearing, too. But my first impression remains, also my last. The very air which she breathed seemed heavy with sadness. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS, Twenty-five.

9.

The opening of doors is a mystic act: it has in it some flavour of the unknown, some sense of moving into a new moment, a new pattern of the human rigmarole. It includes the highest glimpses of mortal gladness: reunions, reconciliations, the bliss of lovers long parted. Even in sadness, the opening of a door may bring relief: it changes and redistributes human forces. But the closing of doors is fat more terrible. It is a confession of finality. Every door closed brings something to an end. And there are degrees of sadness in the closing of doors. A door slammed is a confession of weakness. A door gently shut is often the most tragic gesture in life. Everyone knows the seizure of anguish that comes just after the closing of a door, when the loved one is still near, within sound of voice and yet already far away. — CHRISTOPHER MORLEY, Mince Pie.

10.

I knew a man once who told me that the thing he had most enjoyed in his life was drifting down a full river in an unknown land, gently touching the waters with the paddle of his canoe, sleeping in the wholesome bank at evening, and carrying on from open day to open day. He was fortunate enough to have found unknown land, and a full river, and conditions without peril and solitude all combined. Now, good autobiographies are of this kind. — HILAIRE BELLOC, A Conversation with a Cat.

228. Paragraph Development.By paragraph development is meant writing a paragraph round its topic. A paragraph is developed by developing the topic, often by developing the topic sentence.

There are said to be many methods of paragraph development: (1) details, (2) definition, (3) examples, (4) explanation, (5) comparison, (6) reasons, (7) repetition, (3) analogy, etc. Two or more methods may often be used in a single paragraph. The important thing to remember is that by whatever method you develop your paragraph, you must confine yourself to the topic.

229. Qualities of a Good Paragraph.A paragraph should possess unity, coherence, and emphasis.

Unity, which is the fundamental quality, can be secured by sticking to the topic. This is not difficult when you have a carefully made outline to follow.

Coherence can be secured by the use of connecting words and phrases and the avoidance of successive short sentences. Notice the italicized words in the following paragraphs:

.1.

In the World War, when chance made me a spellbound witness of some great occasions, some part of me — the incorrigible journalist I suppose — kept saying: “This will be something to remember. This will be something to remember”. Well, it seems I was wrong about that. I find I do not often think of the war at all, and when I do, it is the small, unimportant days that come drifting back, the ones that have no part in history at all. For example, of late my thoughts have taken unaccountably to jogging back along the road to Savenay, an ancient Breton village of steep, cobbled streets, and windmills that still, I suppose, turn, sleepily against the sunset sky. And here I am, bent to the task of telling about the evening of the strange inspection there. — ALEXANDER WOOLLCOTT, White Rome Burns.

.2.

I spent but four months of the seven that I was in America in travelling, and I regret it, for I have never been in any country where the mere act of journeying from place to place was more seductive. Willingly could I, who have always imagined that I loathed travelling by land, have done nothing but wander on from town to town up and down the length and breadth of the United States. This is partly due to the genius of the place, but it is also due to the extreme comfort of American trains. It is true that they are all of them equipped with instruments of torture in the form of an apparatus known as the air brake, which works in such a way that every time the train starts there is a preliminary jar so severe that it feels as if not only every carriage but every individual had been struck a heavy blow with a club. The explanation is, I fancy, that the average American is so full of nervous energy that he can suffer this violent shock without the pain that we depleted and over-sensitive creatures feel: but it may be that some slight measure of discomfort has to be inserted into the railway system to deter people from spending their entire lives on the train. I found myself sometimes regretting that I need ever step out of the Pullman car save to have a bath. — REBECCA WEST, “Travelling in America”, The New Republic.

Below are some common connecting words and phrases:

accordingly, after all, again, also, and as a result, as I have said, at the same time, besides, but, consequently, even so, finally, first, for, for example, for instance, further, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, in addition, in the first place, in the second place, likewise, moreover, nevertheless (or nonetheless), next, notwithstanding, now, on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, otherwise, secondly, similarly, so, so that, still, that is, then, therefore, though, thus, to be sure, too, while, yet.

Emphasis can be secured by writing the topic sentence at the beginning or at the end, by giving more space to the central idea, and by using one or more of the methods of emphasis in sentences mentioned in Section 222.

Exercise 85

Write ten paragraphs by developing ten topics of your own choice (read Section 42 again). Underline the connecting words and phrases.

230. Transition between Paragraphs.The transition between paragraphs should, needless to say, be as easy and smooth as possible, so that the reader will feel no break of thought but merely a natural step forward. This result can usually be accomplished by the use of connecting words and phrases at the beginning of paragraphs. Notice the italicized words at the beginning of the second of each two paragraphs:

.1.

Right in the middle of a ride cut in the woods, a ride he must have shot and ridden over a thousand times, under a great grass mound, looking like an ancient tumulus of some prehistoric, chief, sleeps Wilfrid Blunt.

Sweet chestnuts, birches, and scrub-oak trees fringe the ride. Under their branches is a row of yew-trees, planted by himself. In future years, when they are tall and dark, they will stand sentinels in a long line on each side of the grave, and in the winter nights the owls will sit amongst their branches, calling and answering one another, a nightly threnody. — R B CUNNINGHAME GRAHAM, Redeemed and Other Sketches.

.2.

It is well that the commonest fruit should be also the best. Of the virtues of the orange I have not room fully to speak. It has properties of health-giving, as that it cures influenza and establishes the complexion. It is clean, for whoever handles it on its way to your table, but handles its outer covering, its top coat, which is left in the hall. It is round, and forms an excellent substitute with the young for a cricket ball. The pips can be flicked at your enemies, and quite a small piece of peel makes a slide for an old gentleman.

But all this would count nothing had not the orange such delightful qualities of taste. I dare not let myself go upon this subject. I am a slave to its sweetness. I grudge every marriage in that it means a fresh supply of orange blossom, the promise of so much golden fruit cut short. However, the world must go on. — A A MILNE, Not that it Matters.

.3.

Hearing that the sage was in London and prepared to reveal his secret to anyone who was interested in it (and who would not be?), I visited him at his Bloomsbury hotel.

I found him seated at his desk before the telephone. He had on one side of him the Telephone Directory and on the other an even larger book. A black velvet cap concealed some of the loftier regions of his massive and overwhelming cranium. — E V LUCAS, You Know What People Are.

.4.

Conway felt that the question was pertinent, for Mallinson's attitude left little doubt as to what he would do as soon as he reached India. It was his favourite theme, and he had often enlarged upon it.

But all that, of course, was in the mundane world that was gradually being pushed out of his mind by the rich, pervasive world Shangri-La. Except when he thought about Mallinson he was extraordinarily content; the slowly revealed fabric of this new environment continued to astonish him by its intricate suitability to his own needs and tastes. — JAMES HILTON, Lost Horizon.

.5.

There was another abrupt accidental silence, and Noel found himself listening with irrational rigidity for the ugly voice of the beautiful bird outside. But it did not speak. He had the subconscious and still more meaningless fancy that it had been strangled in the dark.

Then the poet for the first time turned his face to Humphrey Crundle, and looked straight into the goggling eyes as he spoke. — G K CHESTERTON, The Poet and the Lunatics.

.6.

It was quite still now. Through a chink in those powder-blue curtains he could see some stars. Big Ben chimed ten.

He had slept, perhaps, dozed at least, dreamt a little. A small sound woke him. A very little dog, tail down, yellow, low and unimportant, was passing down the room, trailing across it to the far corner. “Ah!” thought Michael, closing his eyes again: “You!” — JOHN GALSWORTHY, The White Monkey.

.7.

They came to the place where they were to dig in. They had to pass through a village first. They understood that they were to defend that village, that their trenches were to run across its front, outside it. Other men were digging on their right.

A staff car dashed into the village. Stray shells were dropping among the houses. Tim, passing the car, saw a staff officer jump out and make for a house. In a flash he recognized the man. He saw at once a big house half-way up Putney Hill. He used to go there to shave an old man who was an invalid, and the boy used to come in. — J B MORTON, The Barber of Putney.

.8.

A dog howled in the village and another echoed it, and then from far behind us the jungle answered, though whether the high, long-drawn cry that sounded like a mocking imitation came from a bird or a beast I could not tell. The dogs grew silent at once.

Here, day was not the decorous successor to night known to us at home, lazily resuming sway over a drowsy world when the darkness thins an dies, bequeathing its lost kingdom to the unwilling light. This struggling un-born life in forest, swamp, and teeming air was too urgent and too ephemeral to wait for the going of night before resuming its unchanging day-labour of growth, fruition, and exhaustion once more. Day extended its reign into the darkness, stealing precious time from the night, and when the sky paled perceptibly at last the feeling of full day was already abroad on this impatient earth. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON, Four Frightened People.

Exercise 86

Write two paragraphs round each of ten topics of your own choice (read Section 42 again). Underline the connecting words and phrases at the beginning of the second of each two.

CHAPTER Ⅷ FORMS OF COMPOSITION

231. Narration, Description, Exposition, and Argument.Books on composition generally regard English prose as being of four kinds — Narration, Description, Exposition, and Argument. They are known as the “four forms of discourse”. These terms are such common words as to need no definition.

The four forms, however, are not entirely distinct from each other. The same piece of writing may contain two or more forms in it, though it is nearly always possible to say to which kind a given piece mainly belongs.

Before you write a piece of composition, whatever its kind, you are advised to be careful in note-taking and outline-making (see Sections 44—47).

232. Point of View in Narration.Before you begin a narrative, decide on a point of view. When you have decided on one, stick to it. While skilful authors often change their points of view, especially in narratives of great length, such as novels, you, who, being students of composition, are engaged in writing short narratives only, are advised to maintain a single definite point of view.

Roughly speaking, there are only two points of view to be adopted in narration, the first-person and the third-person. For example, “I, John, called on Paul yesterday” is in the first person, but “John called on Paul yesterday” is in the third person.

Liam O'Flaherty's story “The Letter” has been condensed in Section 36 as follows:

On a fine summer afternoon, a peasant and his family were working happily in a little field. A letter came from the eldest daughter, Mary, who had gone to America in early spring and had sent home only one letter since. Both parents were very glad to find a cheque for twenty pounds in the letter. But they were deeply grieved to learn from the letter that their daughter was lonely and unhappy in America, and to think how hard it must have been for her to earn that money.

This is written in the third person. It may be rewritten the first person from the point of view of the peasant as follows:

On a fine summer afternoon I and my family were working happily in a little field. A letter came from my eldest daughter, Mary, who had gone to America in early spring and had sent home only one letter since. Both my wife and I were very glad to find a cheque for twenty pounds in the letter. But we were deeply grieved to learn from the letter that our daughter was lonely and unhappy in America, and to think how hard it must have been for her to earn that money.

Now the same thing may also be rewritten in the first person from the point of view of Mary as follows:

On a fine summer afternoon my father and his family were working happily in a little field. A letter came from me, his eldest daughter, who had gone to American in early spring and had sent home only one letter since. Both my parents were very glad to find a cheque for twenty pounds in the letter. But they were deeply grieved to learn from the letter that I was lonely and unhappy in America, and to think how hard it must have been for me to earn that money.

Notice the italicized words, which help to keep the same point of view in each narrative.

Each of the two points of view has its advantages and disadvantages, and often one has to be adopted instead of the other. When first-person experience is to be narrated, however, the first-person point of view is almost always to be preferred because of its greater vividness. Notice how vivid the following narrative is:

A good many years ago I had a painful experience. I was discovered by my housemaster reading in bed at the unauthorized hour of midnight. Smith minor in the next bed (we shared a candle) was also reading. We were both discovered. But the most annoying part of the business, as it seemed to me then, was that Smith minor was discovered reading Alton Locke, and that I was discovered reading Marooned among the Cannibals. If only our housemaster had come the night before!Then he would have found me reading Alton Locke. Just for a moment it occurred to me to tell him this, but after a little reflection I decided that it would be unwise. He might misunderstand the bearings of the revelation. — A A MILNE, Not that it Matters.

Exercise 87

Read the following selections carefully and rewrite them in the first person, the first from the point of view of Martin Trevor, the second from that of Nora, the third from that of Mr Wu, and the fourth from that of Mrs Sadgrove:

1.

Martin Trevor, one of the ablest young criminal barristers of the day, had seen many a grim human drama in the course of his brief career, but none had been as poignant as the tragedy on which the curtain had rung down within the walls of the Old Bailey that afternoon. He was not a sentimental man; among his colleagues he had a reputation as a ruthless cross-examiner. Tears and bitter human distress in the dock never moved him when he was pressing a point to win a case. He was above all things ambitious. But now, as he stood in the tiny room behind the court, alone with this girl whose man had been sentenced to death, no thought entered his mind of lost cases or lost prestige, nor even did he think of the awful plight of his old friend in the condemned cell. He thought only of the girl — of the misery she must be suffering, but would not show — and his whole heart went out to her. — ARTHUR MILLS, Judgement of Death.

2.

Nora looked at her curiously. She was very fond of Drusilla, but she quite failed to understand her; it seemed strange to her that a girl who could talk casually one moment of putting up with a life of almost unbearable hardship and insult for the sake of ultimate gain, could the next moment sentimentalize over a moonlit garden. — RUBY M AYRES, The Making of a Lover.

3.

There lived in the city of Shanghai in the western year nineteen hundred and twenty-six, a rich banker whose surname was Wu, who had two sons. His family for several generations had been wealthy, and for at least three had been known in the life of the city, although in differing ways. Mr Wu held the family's present position because he was the head of the Great China Bank, which had branches all through central and southern China. He had as a young man gone abroad to Japan and to Europe to visit banks, and upon his return had at once begun to build the bank which later became so powerful in the new republic. — PEARL S BUCK, The Patriot.

4.

“Come and take a look at the meadow” said Mrs Sadgrove to him, and they went into the soft smooth meadow where the black pony was grazing. Very bright and green it was, and very blue the sky. He sniffed at the pink rose in his buttonhole, and determined that come what might he would give it to Mary if he could get a nice quiet chance to offer it. And just then, while he and Mrs Sadgrove were strolling alone in the soft smooth meadow, quite alone, she suddenly, startlingly, asked him: “Are you courting anybody?” — A E COPPARD, Fishmonger's Fiddle.

233. What Tense to Use?It is hardly safe to say that the past term should generally be used in narration. The following suggestions will be helpful:

1. In narrating what took place in the past, use the past tense.

2. In narrating what takes place every day or for all time, use the present tense.

3. In narrating what will take place in the future, use the future tense.

4. In a narrative of fiction, use the past tense as a rule, though it is permissible to use the present tense occasionally for effect.

5. In writing a summary of a story, a drama, etc, use either the past tense or the present tense. (Reread the summaries of Arnold Bennett's The Old Wives' Tale in Sections 36 and 154).

Exercise 88

1.

Write three or four paragraphs on what you did last Sunday, on what you do every day, and on what you will do next Sunday.

2.

Write an account of an imaginary incident, accident, or adventure.

234. “Story[1]Style” and “News Style”.A narrative may be written either in the “story style” or in the “news style”. The former, being an artistic form, aims at arousing interest; the latter, being a practical form, aims at giving information. The chief difference between the two forms is that the point of the narrative is expressed at the end in the “story style” but at the beginning in the “news style”. Compare the two following selections:

.1.

Wrapped in the glorious mists of requited love, the young man entered a jeweller's to buy the engagement ring.

“What's the price of this one?” he asked.

“One hundred guineas, sir” replied the jeweller gently.

The young man's eyes popped. He whistled loud and long and then pointed to another ring.

“And this one?”

“That, sir,” said the jeweller, still more gently “is two whistles!” — Answers.

.2.

Miss K Slattery, of Swiftfoot Farm, Framfield, Sussex, who was ordered at Uckfield Police Court last week to destroy eleven setter dogs because of sheep worrying, still hopes that the animals will be saved.

She told a Sunday Express representative yesterday that the RSPCA and other animal societies were helping her, and she had also received more than 500 letters and telegrams, many of the writers offering to look after the dogs.

Miss Slattery said she did not know which dog, or dogs, was guilty of sheep worrying. “Probably it was one of the puppies” she added.

Mr James Nesbitt, of Belfast, asks dog lovers to appeal to the Uckfield magistrates. “It is terrible” he says “for all the dogs to face death for the crime of one”. — The Sunday Express.

The “news style”, which is used in matter-of-fact narration, is of course more useful than the “story style”. The general principle of this style is that the first one or two sentences should be so framed as to give the reader the gist of the whole thing. When the narrative is of some length, the introductory sentences may often form a separate paragraph by themselves.

Exercise 89

Narrate five occurrences in the “news style”. Take care to write the introductory sentences in such a way as to give a summary of the whole matter.

235. Plain Account of Events.A narrative is sometimes just a plain account of events, neither giving the reader a summary at the beginning nor keeping him in suspense for anything at the end. It may be said to have no point at all. The summaries of Arnold Bennett's The Old Wives' Tale as given in Sections 36 and 154 may be taken as examples.

This form seems to be as useful as the “news style”. It is also used in matter-of-fact narration — much used in brief biographical and autobiographical sketches, and in summaries of stories, dramas, etc. Below are a biographical sketch and an autobiographical sketch:

.1.

Charles Lamb was born in London, February 10, 1775. He was educated at Christ's Hospital, where he met Coleridge, as he has beautifully told us in a famous essay. He became a clerk in the South Sea House, and then, in 1792, in the East India Company, where he remained until he retired on a pension in 1825. His life was devoted to his sister Mary, and literature was his chief recreation. He is best known for the Essays of Elia, which appeared first in the London Magazine and then in two collections in 1823 and 1833. Almost as famous are the Tales from Shakespeare, which he wrote in collaboration with Mary Lamb. Few of his poems are important, but the three in the present collection are famous. “The Old Familiar Faces” appeared in Blank Verse, by Charles Lamb and Charles Lloyd, in 1798. He died at Edmonton, December 27, 1834. — The “Biographical Notes” in W P Trent and John Erskine's edition of Francis T Palgrave's The Golden Treasury.

.2.

I was born at Salaverry, Peru, in 1907. My father was of Scotch and my mother of Anglo-German parentage. At the age of three I was brought over to England with my brother and sisters and I was educated first at a preparatory school in Plymouth and then at a Public School in Worcestershire. In 1923 I went to South America and worked for several years in the offices of a British-owned railway. After a short visit to New York I returned to London and then went to Spain, where I was teaching English and running a small advertising agency in partnership with a Swede when the civil war broke out. I have contributed short stories to The Passing Show, the American magazine Esquire, and a number of humorous articles to Punch. — J W WALLACE, Penguin Parade,4.

Exercise 90

Write a biographical sketch of a relative and a friend of yours and an autobiographical sketch.

236. Artistic, Practical, and Scientific Description.“Description” is a rather vague term. When I say “artistic description”, I mean the term as used in its narrowest sense. “Practical description” and “scientific description” may be said to belong to exposition as well as to description, so that both may be called either expository description or descriptive exposition. Artistic description is also called literary description; practical description is also called informational description, simple description, or delineation; and scientific description is also called technical description.

Suppose you describe a tree as “graceful” or “beautiful”; this description aims at conveying an impression; it is of the artistic kind. Suppose you describe a tree as so many feet in height; this description aims at enabling one to identify it: it is of the practical kind. Suppose you describe a tree as of a certain species; this description aims at enabling one to understand it; it is of the scientific kind.

Scientific description being useful to students of science and technology alone, I shall deal with only the other two kinds.

237. Avoid “Fine Writing”.The very term “artistic description” reminds you of the word “beautiful” and its synonyms, doesn't it? Yes, artistic description depends much upon beautiful language. But beautiful language is by no means the same thing as “fine writing”. I have already advised the avoidance of “fine writing in Section 214. I have to repeat the advice here because I am afraid that you are under more temptation to use that kind of bad writing in artistic description than in any other form of composition.

238. What is Beautiful Language?Beautiful language, as I have just said. is not the same thing as “fine writing”. It consists rather in the use of plain words that create vivid images. When I say “plain words”, I do not mean that figurative language is not beautiful. Figurative language is of great value in artistic description; but then good figurative language comes of the felicitous use of plain rather than pretentious words. When a plain word is so well chosen as to create a vivid image, it is beautiful, be it figurative or not.

Notice the italicized words in the following beautiful sentence:

In a morning sharp with dew and bright with sunshine, I had climbed to a great undulating heath, a rolling sea of copper-coloured bracken that spread like a double tide to either margin of the moorland road and foamed about the feet of sombre firs which dotted the heath with rare islands. — MARTIN ARMSTRONG.

“Sharp” and “sombre” are here non-figurative; “rolling”, “sea”, “tide”, “foamed”, arid “islands” are here figurative. Figurative or not, however, all these words create vivid images, and the whole sentence is beautifully written.

A descriptive sentence does not need to contain many such words to be beautiful. Very often the beauty or a sentence depends upon the use of a single words aptly chosen for vividness. Notice the italicized words in the following sentences:

1. Jane wore garments which were a somewhat confused compromise between afternoon and evening dress. — I COMPTON-BURNETT.

2. The primrose was more vulgar, a homely pleasant creature who appeared in every cranny like a weed. — DAPHNE DU MAURIER.

3. And, instantly, at the sound of his voice, her joy died, the light was out. — MARY ARDEN.

4. He stood still in the middle of the room, frozen by a sudden thought. — L A G STRONG.

5. Her beautiful, haunted eyes seemed scarcely to see us. — RICHMAL CROMPTON.

6. Emma Snow was house-proud. — LOUISE JORDAN MILN.

7. Outside, a small detached wind went through the trees, touching them almost leaf by leaf, turning them over, looking, as it seemed, for some lost treasure. — MARGARET PRESCOTT MONTAGUE.

8. There were geese marching. — PADRAIC COLUM.

9. But the roof of the room, naked under more red tiles, sloped up to a plaster wall at the other side, on which someone had made mathematical drawings in red and black. — NAOMI MITCHISON.

10. It rained very often; the mud rose higher and higher in the streets; on many days a thick heavy pall hung over the place and everyone walked with bent shoulders, as though they dreaded a blow. — HUGH WALPOLE.

11 . It was a low, rambling, picturesque old house with funny little chimneys and a red roof, placed in the middle of the most charming country. — P G WODEHOUSE.

12. With oaths that rang across the cluttered trackage he drove his crew. — KARL W DETZER.

13. Her beauty was light and delicate, her eyes were translucent and expressed all the shades and tones of youth with unforgettable, ravishing loveliness. — H E BATES.

14. All day the hot summer sun had scorched the earth. — LIAM O'FLAHERTY.

15. Flatropers Wood was a shadowy place, glanced with golden spears of sunshine, sweet-smelling of leaves and moss. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH.

16. They crossed through the broken spine of the mountain. — MELVILLE D POST.

17. Sleet whipped along the comparatively deserted street. — STRUTHERS BURT.

18. Through a sandy waste where twisted pine trees rift and whisper in a sea wind, I wandered disconsolately; beyond me a desolate seashore, behind me creasted mountains. — ROMER WILSON.

19. She smiled in a meek, wondering way. —V S PRITCHETT.

20. He lay quiet there in the shadow of his desk, a Z-shaped string of bones, like a patent two-foot rule. —WILBUR D STEELE.

Exercise 91

Point out in the following sentences the words that you find well chosen for vividness:

1. The front line was crude and inhuman. — EDMUND BLUNDEN.

2. The books were chiefly classical, for that had been his subject; there was, however, a seasoning of history and belles-lettres. — JAMES HILTON.

3. She had devoured every detail of the case in the papers day by day, and the fact that the man who had been condemned to die was leaving behind the girl he was going to marry had seemed to her a particularly dramatic morsel. — ARTHUR MILLS.

4. Unwholesome sandflats waited to suck his treading soles, breathing upward sewage breath. — JAMES JOYCE.

5. Praed Street watches with indifference the thronging crowds which pass along, and they in turn take little heed of the uninviting thoroughfare through which their journey leads them. — JOHN RHODE.

6. Lack-lustre eyes, heavily pouched, glared from a square and sallow face. — BEVERLEY NICHOLS.

7. His scraggly moustache and fan of white whiskers were much too large for the bony face; his cheek bones were shiny, but his bald head looked as though it had been covered with dust. — JOHN DICKSON CARR.

8. There was not a wrinkle about the haggard blue eyes, for all their tale of strain and desperate feeling. — E C BENTLEY.

9. In appearance she is small and provocative, rather like a lovely naughty child, with her flashing gipsy eyes and her shining black hair. — ETHEL MANNIN.

10. She was one of those imperfectly self-assured individuals who are magnificent and autocratic as long as they are not seriously opposed. — SAKI.

11. Her bright red silk dressing-gown made a lovely splash of colour in the restrained little room. — SUSAN ERRZ.

12. There was a star among tumbled grey clouds. — J B MORTON.

13. She was not truly religious — too sure of herself, too incurious, she kept of the faith of her fathers nothing but some habits, and some rags of superstition. — R H MOTTRAM.

14. From underneath her wide-brimmed straw hat, her face, so fair and beautifully strong with its expression of cool independence, kept turning up to him and sometimes smiled at what he said. — MORLEY CALLAGHAN.

15. The monotonous patter of rain on the tin roof lulled him into gentle restfulness. —ROARK BRADFORD.

16. The hour was very late, the night pleasantly dark and cool, and the stillness of a sleeping city broken only by the cameo noises of the narrow hours. — MICHAEL ARLEN.

17. In contrast, however, to his deplorable condition his manner seemed philosophically hearty; and his eyes, magnified by large gold-rimmed spectacles, seemed positively to flash forth sparking beams of good cheer. — BEN TRAVERS.

18. The trees stormed and whistled in the southerly wind that blew from across Merrow Downs. — ROSE MACAULAY.

19. The two white men, not having shaved for a week, were growing past the villainous early stage of scrubbiness and were approaching bearded respectability. — E ARNOT ROBERTSON.

20. Her hat, also home-made, was the outcome of many winter evenings of ungrudged labour. — EVELYN WAUGH.

239. Examples of Artistic Description.Although you are not expected to find it easy to learn to describe as well as experienced authors, yet you may learn a great deal by reading examples from them.1. Persons.

.1.

Walt Whitman — a tall, heavy figure like an heroic statue, well-shaped, full-chested, broad-shouldered, unafraid. A face framed in flowing white hair, and a beard of silvery texture falling to his massive breast. Ruddy cheeks that told of good digestion and a cheerful spirit. An unruffled brow fine in shape and reaching high over grey-blue eyes with deep tufts of white eyebrow. They looked at you with an honest frankness and sweetness that kindled friend-ship: a sort of large, tolerant, benignant gaze, not as of a superior, but out of the soul of sympathy and equality. A voice of many soft vibrations that rippled now and then into humour and laughter, seldom loud, always measured, and even hesitating for the right word, grave in season and never monotonous nor complaining. His clothes of light-grey homespun, and his shirt, of spotless linen, open at the throat in Byronic freedom from form. He was clean from top to toe and bristling with health, except for the remnants of paralysis which led him to lean on a cane. To top off this embodiment of unhurried and noble manhood there was a soft grey hat, high in crown and broad of brim, that united the fashions of the Quaker and the Cowboy. — HARRISON S MORRIS, Walt Whitman.

.2.

As I came face to face with her I saw that she was more beautiful than her portrayed likeness. But there was something too reposed about her beauty. Her eyes were not exactly dull, they had some sparkle, but her pupils were unmoving and she did not blink. Her lips rested gently together. Her nostrils were so still I suspected she held her breath. Her hands hung straight at her sides. Her feet were together. She stood straight. She did not move or seemed capable of movement. She did not speak. Yet, I was conscious of her being intensely alive. It was a most strange contact. — W A HEAVEN, “Brief Biography”, Penguin Parade, 3.

.3.

Hetta Ponsonby was a pale, fair, upright woman of forty-eight, who was vital without being physically vigorous, and stately without being tall. She had the family flattish features and pale grey eyes in so much finer a form, that she seemed as good-looking as Victor in another way. Her brother was a tall, top-heavy-looking man, a few years older, with a dark, ruddy face, dark, clear eyes, a wide, nervous nose, and a deep, square head which linked him with his elder children. He resembled on the whole his father, whose type he had transmitted to his younger son, without great likeness to himself. There was a touch of the conscious artist in his clothes and his pointed beard, the result of his break with tradition and service to the pen. His mother surveyed him with controlled, maternal eyes, as if she would have seen him differently, if he had not been her son. His face was old for his years, and had a look of exhaustion beneath its colour and constant change. — I COMPTON-BURNETT, Daughters and Sons.

.4.

I saw a man and woman walking slowly down one of the garden paths. At first sight they looked about the same age. It was only when they came quite near that you realized that he was younger than he looked and she was older. She certainly was charming and looked amazingly young. It was something about her eyes and lips when her face was in repose that betrayed her age. — RICHMAL CROMPTON, Ladies First.2. Places.

.1.

A small, untidy garden lay between the dwelling-house and the drive. Nothing much grew in it except two apple trees. The real orchard was some way off, behind the house, just as the real, big flower garden and the kitchen garden were round at the back of the farmyard. The house was built of brick, with a tiled roof; the main part was about two hundred years old; the gable wing was new, but softening under the trail of an old-fashioned rose. At the bottom of the garden, at the ends and in the middle of the hedge, stood three tall poplar trees. — SHEILA KAYE-SMITH, The Children's Summer.

.2.

Everything in Peking pointed upward to the sky. The peaks of the gables, the tilted corners of the roofs, the tapering shrines, the arches of the pailows, those memorials to the pious widows of whom there seem to be so many in China, the glorious uplifted roofs of the Temple of Heaven, the very wall itself that, ever curving, drew the gaze of the beholder up and upward to the deep blue dome above. ANNE DUFFIELD, Miss Mayhew and Ming Yun.

.3.

Seen from the sea, Valparaiso is picturesque, and has a marked character of its own, though the dryness of the hills and the clearness of the light make it faintly recall one of those Spanish or Italian towns which glitter on the steep shores of the Mediterranean. It resembles Messina in Sicily in being very long and very narrow, for here, as there, the heights, rising abruptly from the shore, leave little space for houses, and the lower part of the town has less than a quarter of a mile in breadth. On this narrow strip are all the places of business, banks, shipping offices, and shops, as well as the dwellings of most of the poorer class. On the hills above, rising steeply two hundred feet or more, stands the upper town, which consists chiefly of the residences of the richer people. Their villas, interspersed with gardens, have a pretty effect seen from below, and in rambling along the lines that run up to heights behind one gets charming views over the long line of coast to the north. Communication between the lower and upper towns is carried on chiefly by elevators (lifts) or trolley-cars worked on the cog-wheel system. — JAMES BRYCE, South America.

.4.

Somehow the room looked as if fifty people had been eating and drinking and smoking in it for days. There were two sandwiches and a flattened cigarette-end on the carpet; somebody had spilt some port on the little table; there was the glass that Fred had broken; there were the forlorn bottles, the dirty glasses, the remnants of food, the cigarette ash, the smoke rapidly going stale; the whole room, the pride of the house and as nice a parlour as you would find in the length of Chaucer Road, looked tipsy, bedraggled, and forlorn, and as its disgusted owner wearily moved about, throwing bits of stuff into the fire and straightening things, he felt as if the Mitty crew had left their sign and mark on it for ever. He threw open the windows and was just in time to hear from outside the last good nights. — J B PRIESTLEY, Angel Pavement.3. Objects.

.1.

When first you catch sight of a sequoia, it does not impress you particularly except as a very fine tree. Its proportions are so perfect that its effect is rather to belittle its neighbours than to show in its true magnitude. Then, gradually, as your experience takes cognizance of surroundings, the size of a sugar-pine, of a boulder, of a stream flowing near — the giant swells and swells before your very vision until he seems at the last even greater than the mere statistics of his inches had led you to believe. And after that first surprise over finding the sequoia something not monstrous but beautiful in proportion has given place to the full realization of what you are beholding, you will always wonder why no one who has seen has ever given anyone who has not seen an adequate idea of these magnificent old trees. — STEWART EDWARD WHITE, The Mountains.

.2.

But the little calf was so sweet — she loved it so terribly the instant she saw it. Its head really was shaped like the tiny kittens'. But its eyes were very large and coloured a soft deep brown under a surface of rounded brightness so gentle and so sad too, that it seemed to her as if the colour showed in each eye under a big tear. The calf turned its head towards her. Its frail legs bent inward, to prop it up. Its coat looked like cream spilt over with shining tar. There were curls, like the curly knots showing in freshly planed wood; and the shining ends of the hair looked as if they had curled, because the whole coat had just been licked by the mother. — RUTH SUCKOW, The Little Girl from Town.4. Action or movement.

.1.

A very small funeral procession passed through a very small churchyard on the rocky coast of Cornwall; carrying a coffin to its grave under the low and windy wall. The coffin was quite formal and unobtrusive; but the knot of fishermen and labourers eyed it with the slanted eyes of superstition; almost as if it had been the misshapen coffin of legend that was said to contain a monster. For it contained the body of a near neighbour, who had long lived a stone's throw from them, and whom they had never seen. — G K CHESTERTON, The Poet and the Lunatics.

.2.

The endless processions of automobiles, with black tops shiny in an autumnal drizzle, filled the long avenues of Manhattan, creeping busily between quivering halts, were like armies of beetles on the march through gloomy ruts in wet stone. Not unlike detached smaller beetles upright and gesticulating to the greater were the traffic directors in gleaming black oilskin, while other imperious coleoptera stood at the awning entrances to apartment houses, and as the electric lights came on in the late afternoon, outlined themselves in dark wet glitterings that became flashingly active when automobiles drew to the curb. At such times there seemed a deposit of larvae; the hard and darkly shining sides of the cars opened, emitting plastic beings to be taken in charge, apparently, by the attendant beetles at the awning ends, and, upon the fashionable avenues, the larvae were of a superior, tender kind; — delicate things, exquisitely swathed, they were handled sweetly and hygienically with deferential white gloves. — BOOTH TARKINGTON, Claire Ambler.

Exercise 92

Write two descriptions of persons, two descriptions of places, two descriptions of objects, and two descriptions of action or movement. The following are some suggested subjects:

1. Persons.

2. Places.

3. Objects.

4. Action or movement.

240. Practical Description.As you must have gathered from Section 236, while artistic description aims at conveying an impression, practical description aims at enabling one to identify what is described. It has an informational purpose. Such descriptions are found in catalogues, prospectuses, advertisements, notices, stage directions, etc. The following are some examples:

.1.

OXFORD ENGLISH TEXTSThis Series is now thirty volumes. The price for the set is ￡18 net.

Library editions handsomely printed on good paper, the texts constituted by critical recension of the original printings with such MSS as are extant, with numerous facsimile title-pages and other illustrations. Demy 8vo. Printed from type, not plated, and consequently limited in supply in this form; uniformly bound in cloth with paper labels, or alternatively in blue cloth, gilt lettering. — Oxford University Press Select Catalogues. (a little adapted)

.2.

VALUABLE FREE SUPPLEMENTSTHE literary courses conducted by the Regent Institute definitely solve the problem that perplexes most beginners — “How can I get ideas?” — There are no more fascinating pages in the lessons than those which reveal exactly how successful contributors find subjects for articles and plots for short stories. Once you have learnt their methods you should have no difficulty in getting a constant flow of ideas.

In addition, the following valuable supplements — which cannot be obtained elsewhere — are presented to students:

(1) The Regent Dictionary of Subjects,which is given with Lesson 3 of the Journalism Course, contains hundreds of ideas for saleable articles. Most of the subjects are of perennial interest and can thus be written about at any time.

The value of this Dictionary is not limited to the wide variety of subjects given: the principles that guided its compilation are clearly explained, and the student is shown how to evolve further ideas. This unique supplement is the simplest time-saver ever devised for the contributor who wants to produce a big output of saleable work.

(2) The Regent Plot Finder,presented with Lesson 4 of the Journalism Course and Lesson 2 of the Short Story Course, gives fifty-five typical sources of inspiration and describes how endless plots can be found.

Here is something that sets a new standard in literary tuition; nothing like it has ever been done before. It shows how to tap the sources of material for stories and how to work up into saleable plots the hints and suggestions gathered by observation.

“The Plot Finder stimulates imagination, until we can see the colours, lights and shades, changes, surprises — the very stuff of story making — even in the drab streets and commonplace lives of ordinary men and women” writes a pupil.

(3) The Regent Vocational Subject Indicatory,which is presented with the sixth lesson of the Journalism Course, shows the student how to turn his experiences into saleable articles. Examples are given for over fifty trades and professions to demonstrate the journalistic possibilities of the students' occupation. Persistent effort on the lines described cannot fail to yield results. — How to Succeed as a Writer, A Prospectus of the Regent Courses in Journalism and Short Story Writing, issued by The Regent Institute, London.

.3.

Most people miss most of the sunlight. There isn't very much of it, and what there is generally disappears before “knocking-off” time!But the remedy is to have an Aladdin Lamp in your home. The light it gives is the next best thing to daylight — it is unsurpassed by any other form of artificial lighting. It has an incandescent mantle but burns ordinary paraffin, without pumping or pressure, at a cost of less than a farthing an hour. No smoke or smell. Just a wonderful diffused 80 c p light. The standard table model costs but two guineas (shade 6 / - extra). See one at your ironmonger's today. — The Strand Magazine.

.4.

HOUSES with up-to-the-minute fittings. Luxurious bathrooms. Easily run kitchen, tiled and fitted magnificent cabinet. Panelled staircase. 3 bedrooms. 2 large sitting-rooms. Very good gardens. Garage space. Soundly constructed, solid red brick exterior.

PRICES ￡685 to ￡725 Freehold, or Leasehold at ￡565. All prices inclusive of legal costs and other charges, all roads and pavements.

TERMS ￡35 deposit and 17/6 weekly on Freehold or 14/5 weekly Leasehold.

TRAVEL by bus No 211 Ealing Broadway to Estate, or buses 105, 18c, 55 and 97, alight at Greenford Broadway and walk along Ruislip Road to Crawford Estate. — The Sunday Express.

.5.

SCHEN: A large room with a door at the back and another at the side opening to an inner room. A desk and a chair in the middle. An hourglass on a bracket near the door. A creepy stool near it. Some benches. An astronomical globe. A blackboard. A large ancient map of the world on the wall. Some musical instruments. Floor strewn with rushes. A WISE MAN sitting at his desk. — WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS, The Hourglass.

It is to be noted that the same person, place, or object may be described in the artistic or the practical way according to the purpose for which the description is written. For example, in a story or essay you would describe your dog in the artistic way, but in a report to the police you would describe your lost dog in the practical way.

Exercise 93

Change the descriptions of persons, places, and objects you wrote for Exercise 92 into practical ones.

241. Exposition is Explanation.“Exposition” means explanation, explaining. I might have used the commoner term “explanation” in this book but for the fact that the less common term “exposition” is the one generally used in books on composition. The verb “expound” is as much less common than “explain” as “exposition” is than “explanation”.

While narration and description appeal primarily to the emotions and the imagination, exposition appeals primarily to the understanding. Instead of trying to tell the reader about something as happening or to give him an impression of something, it aims at making him understand something.

242. Definition.Definition is a fundamental element in exposition. The simplest form is the giving of a commoner word; for example, “Exposition is explanation”. Below are more examples:

1. Myopia is short-sightedness.

2. Nostalgia is homesickness.

Very often, however, a term needs a phrase or clause to make its meaning clear. The definition “Short-sightedness is myopia” is not incorrect; but it is a poor one, because a person who does not understand “short-sighted” can hardly be expected to understand the less common term “myopia”. The definition “Short-sightedness is near-sightedness” is also unsatisfactory, because a person who fails to understand “short-sightedness” will very likely fail to understand “sight”. The following definitions are much better:

1. Short-sightedness is not seeing clearly at a distance.

2. Short-sightedness is seeing distinctly at short distances only.

3. Short-sightedness is inability to see far.

4. Short-sightedness is failure to see objects at a distance.

5. Short-sightedness is a condition of the eye in which objects are seen clearly only when near to the eye.

The following are some definitions of “homesickness”.

1. Homesickness is an ardent desire to go home.

2. Homesickness is depression due to absence from home.

3. Homesickness is pining for one's home.

4. Homesickness is longing for one's home.

5. Homesickness is a mental state in which one feels low-spirited on account of absence from home.

A common fault in definition is to use a clause beginning with “if”, “when”, “where”, or “that”. The following definitions are bad:

1. Short-sightedness is if one cannot see clearly at a distance.

2. Short-sightedness is when one cannot see clearly at a distance.

3. Short-sightedness is where one cannot see clearly at a distance.

4. Short-sightedness is that one cannot see clearly at a distance.

“Myopia”, “nostalgia”, “short-sightedness”, and “homesickness” arc all nouns. When you define a word, you must take care to see what part of speech it is, and, in the case of a verb, to see whether it is transitive or intransitive. “Congratulate” is transitive and “condole” is intransitive; this can be seen from the following definitions:

1. “Congratulate” is to wish joy to.

2. “Condole” is to express sympathy.[2]

To omit the “to” in the first definition and to insert “with” after the “sympathy” in the second would render both incorrect.

Notice that in defining a verb the infinitive form is usually used.

Exercise 94

With the help of one or more dictionaries correct the following definitions:

1. A poem is poetry.

2. A watch is a timepiece.

3. A hobby is something one is interested in.

4. A dream is when one sees persons or things in sleep.

5. A religion is that a person believes in a form or faith.

6. A verb is a word that expresses action.

7. A typewriter is a machine with which we write.

8. An hour is two half-hours.

9. An epitaph is where words are inscribed on a tomb.

10. An umpire is a person who makes decisions in games.

11. Honesty is the best policy.

12. Blindness is if one has no eyesight.

13. Originality is ability to think or act in an original manner.

14. Grammar is the correct use of a language.

15. Geometry is the science of space.

16. Insanity is that a man or a woman is crazy.

17. Literature is writing.

18. Silence is where there is no sound whatever.

19. Victory is a war that is won.

20. Education is teaching at school.

21. “Discuss” is to talk about something.

22. “Succeed” is to have success in.

23. “Convince” is to bring certainty to the mind.

24. “Satisfy” is to meet someone's expectations or desires.

25. “Careless” is not to take care.

26. “Delightful” is high pleasure.

27. “Often” is the frequency with which something is done.

28. “Quite” is complete.

29. “As soon as” is immediately after something is done.

30. “With a view to” is to aim at.

243. What to Avoid in Exposition.In Section 242 I have explained why the definitions “Short-sightedness is myopia” and “Short-sightedness is near-sightedness” are not good. In exposition, you had better, as far as possible, avoid using words that those for whom the exposition is intended are even less likely to understand than what is explained to them. For instance, in explaining short-sightedness it is not advisable to use any oculistic or ophthalmological term; for that would make the subject difficult instead of easy to understand.

244. Examples of Exposition.Every section in this book may be taken as an example of exposition. Indeed, all textbooks are of an essentially expository nature. The examples of paraphrasing and condensing (see Sections 32, 34, 35, and 36) may all be taken as examples of exposition.

In studying the following examples, notice the various methods of paragraph development:

.1.

The plan of the book was dictated by the following considerations. It is notorious that English writers seldom look into a grammar or composition book; the reading of grammars is repellent because, being bound to be exhaustive on a greater or less scale, they must give much space to the obvious or the unnecessary; and composition books are often useless because they enforce their warnings only by fabricated blunders against which every tiro feels himself quite safe. The principle adopted here has therefore been (1) to pass by all rules, of whatever absolute importance, that are shown by observation to be seldom or never broken; and (2) to illustrate by living examples, with the name of a reputable authority attached to each, all blunders that observation shows to be common. The reader, however, who is led to suspect that the only method followed has been the rejection of method will find, it is hoped, a practical security against inconvenience in the very full Index. — H W FOWLER and F G FOWLER, Preface to The King's English.

.2.

This volume will serve its purpose if it proves a useful companion to ordinary everyday readers of English literature. It is necessarily a work of compilation and selection, because the range of the possible subject-matter is so great. English literature has a continuous history of over a thousand years, it has been produced in many lands, and there is no subject on which it does not touch. Completeness in a moderate compass, and the equipment of a specialist at all points, are therefore impossible. — PAUL HARVEY, Preface to The Oxford Companion to English Literature.

.3.

The pronunciation of the proper names has been ascertained by the same methods as were adopted in the case of other words. The pronunciation of personal names not already known to me was generally ascertained by applying either to persons bearing those names, or to persons acquainted with persons bearing them. The pronunciation of place-names not already known to me was generally obtained from persons knowing the places in question, or from competent observers who were in a position to find out the pronunciation at first hand. — DANIEL JONES, Introduction to An English Pronouncing Dictionary.

.4.

It so happens that I possess exceptional means of ascertaining what linguistic usages, now more or less acclimatized in England, have been taken over from America during the present century. My first period of residence in the United States was between 1900 and 1905. After I had spent a year or two in New York, I found myself becoming impressed by the unexpectedly large number of differences between English and American idiom, and it occurred to me that it might be worth while to jot down instances that I came across of an American linguistic usage that was unfamiliar to me. Accordingly, I began some time in 1902, to make notes of them. Several of these usages have since come to be so frequent in this country that scarcely any Englishman regards them today as importations, and, if I trusted to my memory alone, I doubt whether I should myself think of them as originally American. But when find examples of them set down in black and white, with dates, in my notes, I know for a certainty that, in the early years of the century, they struck my attention as not being then in use at home. This conclusion is confirmed when, as commonly happens, I find the usage in question not recognized in the dictionaries published in England at about that period. — H W HORWILL, Preface to A Dictionary of Modern American Usage.

.5.

Much time has been spent in the effort to explain the origin of parties. To some they are born of the natural contrast between those who cling to the old and those who embrace the new. To others, they arise from the pugnacious instinct of men. It is, however, clear that no single explanation suffices. There is a conflict of wills in society, an that conflict is decided by the decision of the intermediate mass which is not firmly convinced of the truth of any general cause. To attract its support it is necessary to advertise one's view. Parties are the natural method of effecting that end. Their form is largely dependent upon the conditions of any given time. They may group themselves about religious issues, as in sixteenth-century France; they may group themselves about economic issues, as in the England of our own day. Naturally, they arouse the pugnacious instinct; naturally, also, there will be a tendency for the radical solution to attract the young. What, at least, is certain, is that without parties there would be no means available to us of enlisting the popular decision in such a way as to secure solutions capable of being interpreted as politically satisfactory. — HAROLD J LASKI, A Grammar of Politics.

.6.

Instruction in the practice of composition is now commonly given in many American universities, and there are signs of its approach here. I have heard of an American lady who took her PhD in Short Story Writing. Manuals on that art abound in America. The kinds of short stories are classified, modes of progression are analysed, and lists which purport to be exhaustive of permissible “ingredients” are set down. I have not yet seen, though I am prepared to believe in their existence, handbooks on the composition of poetry, but an extensive literature is available for aspiring dramatists, and works of a general character which, like the present anthology, are intended to assist the writer, in whatever kind, to know himself and perfect his expression, are numerous. In this country students of English are being more and more encouraged to “show up” original compositions, and teachers like Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch are propounding from lecture platforms those elementary principles of good writing which are commonly agreed upon by good writers conscious of the nature of their own activities. — J C SQUIRE, Book Reviewed.

.7.

If the value of man's life on earth is to be measured in dollars and miles and horsepower, ancient Greece must count as a poverty-stricken and minute territory; its engines and implements were nearer to the spear and bow of the savage than to our own telegraph and aeroplane. Even if we neglect merely material things and take as our standard the actual achievements of the race in conduct and in knowledge, the average clerk who goes to town daily, idly glancing at his morning newspaper, is probably a better behaved and infinitely better informed person than the average Athenian who sat spellbound at the tragedies of Aeschylus. It is only by the standard of the spirit, to which the thing achieved is little and the quality or mind that achieved it much, which cares less for the sum of knowledge attained than for the love of knowledge, less for much good policing than for one free act of heroism, that the great age of Greece can be judged as something extraordinary and unique in value. — GILBERT MURRAY, The Legacy of Greece.

.8.

A brogue is not a fault. It is a beauty, an heirloom, a distinction. A local accent is like a landed inheritance; it marks a man's place in the world, tells where he comes from. Of course it is possible to have too much of it. A man does not need to carry the soil of his whole farm around with him on his boots. But, within limits, the accent of a native region is delightful. 'Tis the flavour of heather in the grouse, the taste of wild herbs and evergreen-buds in the venison. I like the maple-sugar tang of the Vermonter's sharpedged speech; the round, full-waisted r's of Pennsylvania and Ohio, the soft indolent vowels of the South. One of the best talkers now living is a schoolmaster from Virginia, Colonel Gordon McCabe. I once crossed the ocean with him on a stream of stories that reached from Liverpool to New York, He did not talk in the least like a book. He talked like a Virginian. — HENRY VAN DYKE, Fisherman's Luck.

.9.

The result today is simply a reiteration of the old Biblical adage that the fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children's teeth are set on edge. Young China, being wearied of the revolutionary ardours of its fathers, is going back to old China. It is almost amusing to see the often self-conscious determination to be really Chinese, to eat Chinese food, to live in Chinese ways, to dress in Chinese clothes. It is as much of a fad and a pose to be entirely Chinese these days among certain young westernized Chinese as it was for their fathers to wear foreign clothes and eat with knives and forks and want to go to Harvard. These present young people have worn foreign clothes all their lives and eaten foreign food and they did go to Harvard, and they know English literature infinitely better than their own, and now they are sick of it all and want to go back to their grandfathers. — PEARL S BUCK, Introduction to Lin Yutang's My Country and My People.

.10.

In its loosest sense, thinking signifies everything that, as we say, is “in our heads” or that “goes through our minds”. He who offers “a penny for your thoughts” does not expect to drive any great bargain. In calling the object of his demand thoughts, he does not intend to ascribe to them dignity, consecutiveness, or truth. Any idle fancy, trivial recollection, or flitting impression will satisfy his demand. Day-dreaming, building of castles in the air, that loose flux of casual and disconnected material that flows through out minds in relaxed moments are, in this random sense, thinking. More of our walking life than we should care to admit, even to ourselves, is likely to be whiled away in this inconsequential trifling with idle fancy and unsubstantial hope. — JOHN DEWEY, How We Think.

.11.

The airmail pilot is distinctive among airmen. He is no fair-weather flier; he does not go up into a storm with the knowledge that he need not go far and can land when necessary. His is the continuous strain of plunging into weather unfit for ordinary fliers — weather in which passenger planes would be grounded — and of relying on his long experience to guide him through the treacheries of the air. To ride an occasional storm, to meet abnormal conditions unexpectedly and win through them, is far different from taking off, with the nonchalance of the airmail pilot, to meet sleet or thunderstorm and to ride one's way blindly, with only instruments and a cultivated instinct for guidance. — RUSSELL OWEN, “Flying the Mail”, The New York Times Magazine.

.12.

Before describing the fascinating picture of the school at work, let us briefly review its various phases. There might be said to be five departments in the Ford “University”. Most important of these is the Henry Ford Trade School for boys from twelve to eighteen years of age, which is incorporated to operate without profit. It attempts to train boys so that they can earn their own living, and directs their energy towards work and not away from it. The school enrols eighteen hundred, which may soon be increased to five thousand. It accepts those who have no chance to help themselves, those who are so handicapped by environment and other forces that without this opportunity they would not even have a chance to learn a trade, much less go to school. One hundred and eighty of the boys are orphans. Seven hundred and fifty are widows' sons. Four hundred are the children of Ford employees. Each boy receives at the start seven dollars and twenty cents a week, but his rate is being constantly increased according to his ability. Besides this, he receives two dollars a month for a savings account and a daily hot luncheon which, in the aggregate, costs the company one hundred thousand dollars annually. With the addition of the funds used for scholarships and thrift, the total expenditure is over a million. Including the various holidays, there are approximately five weeks of vacation with pay every year. — JEROME DAVIS, “Henry Ford, Educator”, The Atlantic Monthly.

Exercise 95

Write six expositions of one or two paragraphs each explaining processes, facts, and ideas. Below are some suggested subjects:

1. How to prepare a school composition.

2. How to keep a diary.

3. How to install a television set.

4. How to get a letter registered.

5. How to keep fit.

6. How to organize an English-speaking club.

7. How to enjoy a walk.

8. How to play tennis.

9. How to take photographs.

10. How to collect postage stamps.

11. College spirit.

12. Learning writing from reading.

13. Physical training.

14. Patriotism.

15. Punctuality.

16. Early rising.

17. Self-cultivation.

18. Superstition.

19. My ambition.

20. Good manners.

245. Argument and Exposition.Argument can hardly be treated as a separate form of composition. It is a kind of exposition; that is to say, it is exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading. While exposition does not always contain argument, argument always contains exposition.

246. Question and Answer.An argument is in reality an answer to a question. The question is one that can be definitely answered by “yes” or “no”, and the answer is either in the affirmative or in the negative, with a reason or reasons given. Suppose you write an argument for or against having more hours devoted to English than to mathematics in the curriculum. Your question is “Should more hours be devoted to English than to mathematics in the curriculum?” Your answer is either in the affirmative or in the negative. You not only answer the question in the affirmative or in the negative but also say why you do so.

The question and the answer are not necessarily stated in the argument. But they are always implied; otherwise there can be no argument at all.

247. What to Avoid in Argument.False reasoning is an enemy to argument. Not writing a treatise on logic, I do not need to go much into this interesting subject or to attempt any sort of classification. The following few examples will surely serve to put you on your guard:

1. The food you buy, you eat. You buy raw meat. Therefore you eat raw meat.

2. Your father is certainly a great scholar. Otherwise how could he have published so many books?

3. I am sure that the girl has not stolen the watch. You see, she is well-mannered. Besides, her mother is a teacher.

4. I have never seen him before. He must have come to live in this town only a few days ago.

5. They are my friends, and are very clever men. They cannot fail to help you with your homework.

6. Examinations should be abolished in our school. During our last examination in English, three students in my class cheated and got good marks.

7. It has rained heavily on the past five Sundays. So we had better cancel our picnic planned for next Sunday.

8. I have just received a letter from a college student. Not a single sentence in it is grammatically correct. That shows that the teaching of grammar is a mere waste of time.

9. Her uncle is a well-known professor of biology. Of course she is right when she says this book on biology is very poorly written.

10. Films are of great educational value. They are often based on stories written by famous English authors.

11. Traffic in this street is really much too heavy. Two accidents happened here during the past week.

12. She will never master French. Though she is well versed in the Han language, she is very weak in mathematics, physics, and chemistry.

13. When I saw him last, he looked very pale. Nearly a month has since passed; therefore he must have improved much in health.

14. I do not think the brothers love each other. For I have never seen them walking together.

15. How is it possible that she has the reputation of being the best musician in her city? She has declined my invitation to a concert.

16. My advice has been thrown away upon him. I have not heard from him since I wrote to advise him about a fortnight ago.

248. Formal and Informal Argument.Franklin William Scott and Jacob Zeitlin say in the Notes to their College Readings in English Prose, Third Edition: “The distinction between formal and informal argument is somewhat arbitrary and no sharp line between the two can be drawn. But an analysis of the selections under each head will reveal a considerable difference in spirit and method. Formal argument is commonly concerned with questions capable of direct proof or refutation and requires that its contentions shall be supported by material evidence, while informal argument, being usually the expression of an opinion or a conviction, needs to be justified only by a process of general or theoretical reasoning. The latter is the form of argument which people are most commonly called to employ and its most familiar illustration is to be found in newspaper editorials”.

It is hardly possible to give examples of argument of either kind in single paragraphs; so I have to content myself with giving none here.

Exercise 96

Write a short informal argument on each of the following questions:

1. Should mid-term examinations be abolished?

2. Should our school have a new library?

3. Is it worth while to discuss the question “Which came first, the chicken or the egg”?

4. Should the speaking of one's native language be allowed in teaching a class of a foreign?

5. Is a lie ever justifiable?

6. Is a dramatic society of more help to language students than a debating society?

—THE END—

[1] The word “story” is here of course not used in the originally American sense of a news article.

[2] As a definition, this sentence is quite right, though it would prove helpful to students of English to add “(with)” at the end.

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余幼时诵方望溪姚姬传刘大櫆诸先生所为古文辞，窃喜其意在言外，淡而弥永，至于循玩不忍释手。长习英吉利文字，仍嗜读其隽逸有神味者。求诸国内殆鲜其人；有之自嘉定葛君传椝始。葛君夙赋天禀，又能力学不倦。骤聆其言论，似尚诡辩，多偏见；然静焉思之，确有至理存乎其间。譬食谏果，初甚涩口，终则齿颊间津津有余味也。其为文善取不伦不类者以为比，轻描淡写，寓讽深刻。余尝拟为英文之桐城派，英文学者中之东方生。虽人事百忙，读之便觉大快。君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊；论文往往多独到处。生平著述极富，所作《致友人书》及《英文学生日记》，尤风行海内。兹更汇其生平所作，付梓问世；以余相知较深，驰书索言，因泚笔而乐为之序。

苏兆龙

PREFACE

Except for the fact that it is issued in three volumes，this book may be properly called an omnibus. It contains special articles，letters，prefaces，little essays，poems interpreted，and essays concerning the study of English. Most of the things included have been first published in The Chung Hwa English Weekly，under the headings “Talks on Things”，“This and That”，“Thoughts and Impressions”，“The Open Classroom”，“Chats on Writing English”，and “Helps to the Study of English”. The “Thoughts and Impressions” series and three other essays originally appeared under a pseudonym.

It is a matter of regret that I did not make a duplicate of my first letter to Mr H. W. Fowler，and therefore cannot include it in this book. The one printed herein，as is mentioned in “To the Memory of Mr H. W. Fowler”，was written a fortnight after his death.

The essays concerning the study of English must not be regarded as a systematic treatment of the subject. Many of the points touched upon are more fully dealt with in my How to Master English Without a Teacher.

The following publishers have kindly permitted the inclusion of the pieces the titles of which follow their names in brackets：The China Journal （“On the Europeanization of the Chinese Language” and “Some Fragments of Pai Chü-i’s Poetry concerning Women”）； The English Weekly （“Letter to Mr H. W. Fowler” and “Letter to Mr A. J. Fowler” [dated March 23，1934]）； The Ching Wen Book Company （“Preface to ‘The Diary of a Student’”，“Preface to ‘The Peacock Flies South-East’”，and “Preface to ‘A Chinese Schoolboy Visits England’”）.

Hertz C. K. Kê

December，1936

说明

《葛传椝英文随笔》所收文章均出自《葛传椝英文集》（Man and Student）第二集。《葛传椝英文集》第一集和第三集的文章分别收入《葛传椝英文书信序言选编》和《葛传椝英文学习法》中。

IN A BARBER’S SHOP[1]

As soon as[2] you enter a barber’s shop，you lose your freedom.[3] You are not to regain[4] it till you have paid for it after a full hour’s slavery.[5]

Well，[6]you may not wish to call it slavery. You may call it enjoyment. Many persons call it enjoyment； perhaps they enjoy slavery. Drunkards[7] enjoy being slaves to drink.[8] Young lovers enjoy being slaves of their sweethearts’ caprices.[9]And many persons enjoy being slaves to a barber once a week！

I，for one，[10] do not enjoy being a slave to a barber. As soon as I enter a barber’s shop，I feel I lose both my freedom and my dignity.[11] For I have to resign[12] myself，and especially that important part of myself，the head，to the control of an ignorant[13] or at least ill-educated[14]barber （I beg barbers’ pardon）. He turns about my head as though[15] it were his own instead of mine. He sometimes offers me a newspaper as much as to say，[16] “While I improve the outside of your head for you，you ought to improve its inside[17]yourself”. But in fact[18]，he does not care a bit[19] about what is in my head. He treats my head，which contains a knowledge of English grammar，rhetoric，[20] phonetics，[21] literary history，[22] versification，[23]etc.，in the same way as any head that does not contain a single word of English.

Talking of [24] English，I wonder[25] why the barbers in some fashionable shops in Shanghai often speak English — surely pidgin English[26]— among themselves. But this is by the way.[27]

To return to[28] the question of slavery. I feel my slavery more keenly as often as[29]I look into the glass before me. Is it not enough to make a slave of me？ Is it necessary to remind[30]me that I am a slave？

I am glad that I do not make so much of [31] my hair as to require it to be shampooed[32] or singed[33]in a barber’s shop. I want to have my hair cut，and have it cut，that’s all.[34] Thus，if[35] I have to be a slave once every three or four weeks，my period of slavery is always a short one.

Emerging[36] from a barber’s shop，I often heave a sigh of relief.[37]

[1]barber’s shop：理发店

[2]as soon as：一俟

[3]lose my freedom：失去我之自由

[4]are not to regain：不可复得

[5]a full hour’s slavery：足有一小时之奴隶生活

[6]well：语气助词

[7]drunkards：酒徒

[8]enjoy being slaves to drink：以耽于狂饮为乐

[9]their sweethearts’ caprices：彼等之情人之任性

[10]for one：就我个人而言

[11]dignity：尊严

[12]resign：抛弃

[13]ignorant：无知识的

[14]ill-educated：教育不良的

[15]as though：宛如

[16]as much as to say：若曰

[17]improve its inside：改善其内部 （意即增加知识）

[18]in fact：在事实上

[19]does not care a bit：毫不留意

[20]rhetoric：修辞学

[21]phonetics：语音学

[22]literary history：文学史

[23]versification：诗学

[24]Talking of：今既论及……

[25]wonder：不知；不解

[26]pidgin English：洋泾浜英语 （一种中国人与欧美人间所用之极不纯正之英语，“pidgin”原系“business”之转误）

[27]by the way：偶然说及

[28]To return to：回至；再说

[29]as often as：每次

[30]remind：提醒

[31]make so much of：如是重视

[32]shampooed：用洗发水洗

[33]singed：烫

[34]that’s （= that is） all：如是而已

[35]if：虽

[36]Emerging：走出

[37]heave a sigh of relief：因得安慰而叹息

DO YOU ENJOY THE TELEPHONE？[1]

Some time ago I talked to you about slavery in a barber’s shop. Today I will talk about another form of slavery：I mean being a slave to the telephone.

If you have seen telephoning[2] in the movies[3] but have never talked on the telephone yourself，you cannot possibly know the meaning of being a slave to the telephone. On the screen[4] the telephonic system[5] is a perfect one. The man，or the woman，just snatches the receiver[6]and speaks，“Hullo … yes … please … all right … thank you … good-bye”. There seems to be no delay，no indistinctness[7] of sound，no wrong number，no “engaged”[8] — in a word，[9]no slavery.

In real life，however，telephoning is quite a different thing. The number is often wrong，though oftener right. The right number is often “engaged”，though oftener not “engaged”.

Granting[10] that the number is right and is not “engaged”，still[11]there is much slavery. “I wish to speak to Mr Wang”，you say. But you get the reply “Here we have no Mr Fang”. “I wish to speak to Mr Wang”，you say again，with emphasis[12] on Wang. But you get the reply “Here we’ve[13] twenty Wangs”. “I mean Mr A. B. Wang”，you say. But you get the reply “Here we’ve two Mr A. B. Wangs”. “I mean the one who is rather tall but not very tall，who sometimes wears a blue silk gown but always a low-crowned[14]hat，and who is a native of Shanghai”，you say. But you get the reply “And may I know your name”？ You say your name three or four times and then wait，wait，wait.[15] When waiting，you are a perfect[16] slave. You are not allowed to read a book，nor to write a letter，nor to have a cup of tea，nor even to build castles in the air.[17]You can only imagine how the man at the other end of the line[18] is going to tell Mr A. B. Wang and how Mr A. B. Wang is hastening to the telephone.

At last，fortunately，you hear Mr A. B. Wang speaking. Then you two begin to talk — but I do not think so easily as those in the movies. Indistinctness of sound，repetition，misunderstanding，[19] annoyance[20] — all these are highly probable.

I am glad that I do not often have to talk on the telephone. I wonder why some people like to telephone as often as they have the least occasion.[21] I know a little boy who rings up[22] his father in his office more than ten times a day. Of course，[23]he enjoys doing it.

[1]telephone：电话机；电话

[2]telephoning：打电话

[3]movies：电影

[4]screen：银幕

[5]telephonic system：电话之组机

[6]snatches the receiver：执住听筒

[7]indistinctness：不清爽；糊涂

[8]engaged：有人正在打电话 （即电话占线）

[9]in a word：总而言之

[10]granting：假定

[11]still：仍；但

[12]emphasis：着重

[13]we’ve = we have

[14]low-crowned：低冠的

[15]wait，wait，wait：继续等待

[16]perfect：完全的；纯粹的

[17]build castles in the air：冥想；空想

[18]line：电线

[19]misunderstanding：误解

[20]annoyance：困恼

[21]have the least occasion：虽只有极微之理由

[22]rings up：用电话唤

[23]of course：当然

GETTING AND LOSING

Once I lost a small dictionary only a few days after I bought it. A short time later I got a letter from a friend informing me of his being jilted by his sweetheart.[1] In reply I remember I wrote something like this：

I am very sorry to learn that you have lost your sweetheart. I also have a loss to tell you of； that is，[2] I have recently lost a small dictionary，which I bought but a fortnight ago.[3]

You want me to console[4]you？ Well，losing things is common enough，and losing a sweetheart is no exception.[5]So far as I can see，[6] the only way not to lose a thing is not to get it. If I had not bought the small dictionary，I could not possibly have lost it. I have never had a sweetheart，and so[7] I have never had the sad experience of losing one.

What do you think of my opinion，reader？ Don’t think that I wrote the letter in jest.[8] I was perfectly serious.[9]I meant what I said.[10] All we have may be lost at any moment — and for ever.[11]One may lose one’s life when one least expects it.[12] A clerk may lose his position when he counts on[13] promotion. A girl may lose her chastity[14]when she thinks she has most force of character[15] among her friends.

As soon as you come into possession of [16] something，you begin to run the risk of [17]losing it. By something I mean everything； it may be a dictionary，a fountain-pen，[18] a reputation，[19] a friendship，a love，and so forth.[20]

A student of mine lost an umbrella in a tram-car[21] the other day.[22] I am glad that he does not seem to have lost the few rhetorical principles[23]that I had explained to him only two or three days before he lost his umbrella.

[1]jilted by his sweetheart：为其爱人所弃

[2]that is：即谓

[3]but a fortnight ago：仅两星期以前

[4]console：安慰

[5]exception：例外

[6]So far as I can see：就我所知

[7]so：故；所以 （此字应重读）

[8]in jest：嬉戏

[9]serious：认真的；非说笑话的

[10]meant what I said：意与言合

[11]for ever：永远

[12]least expects it：最不期望之；以为决不临到此事

[13]counts on：预冀

[14]chastity：贞操

[15]force of character：品性之力量；自持之力

[16]come into possession of：得到

[17]run the risk of …：冒……之险

[18]fountain-pen：自来水笔

[19]reputation：名誉

[20]and so forth：以及其他

[21]tram-car：电车

[22]the other day：数日前

[23]rhetorical principles：修辞学原理

A SICK MAN’S THOUGHTS

Owing to[1] ill health I have not talked to you for a long time. I am now well[2] again，and，fearing the editor[3] may have been growing[4] impatient over my delay in sending him my “talks”，have decided upon the above-given subject，[5] to assure[6]him — and also you — that I really was a sick man till but a few days ago.

I hasten[7] to add[8] that I had only slight attacks of fever[9]and a cough.[10] I was not very ill. I was simply poorly，[11]and too unwell to write.

But if I was too unwell to write，I was yet well enough to think. Hence my thoughts.[12]

As is often said，[13] one does not realize[14]the value of health till one is taken ill.[15] Needless to say，[16] my chief thought during my indisposition[17]was how to get over[18] it. I tried to account for[19] it in several ways，and regretted[20] having stayed too late at a friend’s house on a certain[21] night，having gone out too early on a certain morning，having walked too much on certain days，and，having …

I thought a great deal[22] besides.[23]Perhaps one cannot afford[24] to spend whole days thinking and thinking[25] except when ill in bed. Then one thinks and thinks； for the only thing one then can do is to think — if one can then think at all. During my recent illness，I thought of many things that I do not usually think of. I thought of particular little incidents[26]in my early childhood，of particular passages[27] in books that I had read long before，of particular faces I had seen，and of ...

Nor did I think altogether aimlessly and carelessly. I thought seriously of life and its problems. I thought of the most serious thing in my mind — the reading and writing of books. I considered what an ideal[28] series of English readers for Chinese students should be. I planned （of course merely mentally[29]） a handbook[30]of English composition for Chinese college students that should teach them to write English as Englishmen write it.

I wonder I did not think much of any of my favourite authors[31] during my last illness. Last year，when I was laid up with a cold，[32] I used to think so much of Burns[33]and Blake[34]that I dreamt of them in the night.

[1]owing to：因

[2]well：健全的

[3]editor：主笔

[4]growing：变

[5]subject：题

[6]assure …：向……郑重声明

[7]hasten：赶快

[8]add：加言

[9]slight attacks of fever：寒热病之小袭击；小寒热

[10]cough：咳嗽

[11]poorly：身体不适的

[12]Hence my thoughts：故有我 （下文所述） 之思想

[13]As is often said：有如人所常言者

[14]realize：知

[15]taken ill：起病

[16]Needless to say：不必说

[17]indisposition：小病

[18]get over ...：由……复原

[19]account for …：说明……之理由

[20]regretted：悔

[21]certain：某

[22]a great deal：多

[23]besides：除此以外

[24]cannot afford：不能；不会得

[25]thinking and thinking：继续思想

[26]incidents：事

[27]passages：文字之片段

[28]ideal：理想的，完美的

[29]mentally：在心上

[30]handbook：小书

[31]favourite authors：喜读之作家

[32]was laid up with a cold：因伤风而卧

[33]Burns：即Robert Burns，罗伯特·彭斯，苏格兰诗人，生于1759年，卒于1796年

[34]Blake：即 William Blake，威廉·布莱克，英国诗人，生于1757年，卒于1827年

BUYING SECOND-HAND[1] BOOKS

Money being no consideration，[2] perhaps no-one would prefer second-hand clothes to[3] new clothes or second-hand furniture[4] to new furniture. But we must not jump at the same conclusion[5] in regard to[6]books — and women. One may seek twenty excuses[7] to break off an engagement[8] for the purpose of marrying，or “keeping”，[9]a woman who has either buried[10] or divorced[11]her fifth husband. One may also fall in love with a “ragged veteran” [12] at first sight[13] and keep it for God knows how long.[14]

Not being here concerned with[15] women，let us imagine a hard[16] student parting with[17]a favourite book[18] for his next meal. the book has its pages badly thumbed，[19] and probably its binding[20] somewhat loosened，but it bears[21] its owner’s signature，[22] the date of its being bought （and maybe also that of its being sold），and his copious notes and comments.[23]Another hard student （but by no means[24] so hard up[25] as the first student） sees it at a second-hand book-shop，opens it，reads it here and there，[26]finds it interesting，looks at it again and again，talks （mentally） with it，thinks of its fate，[27] takes pity on it，and falls in love with it. Having inquired the price，he buys it. Having bought it，he carries it home. Having carried it home，he reads it and caresses[28] it，and caresses it and reads it.

Have you ever had such an experience？ Do you believe me when I say one may prefer a second-hand book to a brand-new[29]copy of the same book？ It seems to me that while new books are mere things，second-hand books are personalities[30].

I have to add，however，that in saying so I have had only literary books in mind.[31] Dictionaries，scientific treatises，[32] grammars，[33]and all sorts of text-books cannot develop a personality. They are the best when the newest. If I sometimes buy a second-hand dictionary，it is because money is[34]a consideration with me. It is cheap，and I hold it cheap.[35]

[1]Second-hand：已被他人用过的；旧的

[2]Money being no consideration：在并无金钱问题之时 （意即在不必省钱之时）

[3]prefer … to …：爱……而不爱

[4]furniture：家具

[5]jump at the same conclusion：贸然得出同样之结论

[6]in regard to：关于

[7]seek twenty excuses：利用许多托词

[8]break off an engagement：解除婚约

[9]“keeping” …：与……姘；包养

[10]buried：葬

[11]divorced …：与……离婚

[12]“ragged veteran”：穿破衣之老兵 （指旧书）

[13]fall in love with … at first sight：与……一见钟情

[14]God knows how long：无人知多久

[15]concerned with：论及

[16]hard：勤奋的

[17]parting with：与……分离

[18]favourite book：喜读之书

[19]badly thumbed：被拇指弄污

[20]binding：装订

[21]bears：载；带有

[22]signature：签字

[23]copious notes and comments：许多注解及评语

[24]by no means：决不

[25]hard up：无钱的；穷困的

[26]here and there：随处

[27]fate：命运

[28]caresses：抚弄

[29]brand-new：簇新的

[30]personalities：人

[31]had … in mind：想到……

[32]treatises：论文

[33]grammars：文法书

[34]is：实系；果是 （此字应重读）

[35]hold it cheap：轻视之

OWNING A WATCH

“What time is it by your watch？”[1] This question，which is undoubtedly[2] one of the most frequently asked in the world，suggests the idea that each of us has a separate[3] time of his own，just as he has a separate head of his own.

And as a matter of fact，[4] it often happens that the watches produced[5] by two or more persons at the same time show different times. One of them may be right，and yet often none of them are right. At any rate，[6]only one of them may be right，and the other or others must be wrong.

Well，I seem to hear you say，“Mr Kê，you are referring to[7] poor watches. You must own but a poor watch.” Reader，I do not own a watch at all. Once I owned one，but I soon had to get rid of it[8] for economy’s sake.[9]

For so far as watches are concerned，[10] owning is almost the same thing as owing.[11]Buying a watch may be compared to borrowing money. Sudden stoppage，high speed，slow movement，going by fits and starts[12] — all these remind you to pay the interest falling due.[13]

Nor is it true of [14]poor watches only. I know people who have paid large sums for their watches，but who have to make periodical[15] little payments on them. And the larger the principal，the larger the interest.[16]

I know a lady who says her watch is such a good one that she takes care[17]not to wind it up[18] until it runs down.[19] Is it true that a good watch must not be wounded up until it runs down？ If so，it seems to be necessary that anyone who owns a good watch should own a poor one as well.[20] Moreover，the poor watch would have to serve the good one — for the simple reason that it is poor.

[1]What time is it by your watch？：君之表上此刻为何时？

[2]undoubtedly：无疑

[3]separate：各别的

[4]as a matter of fact：在事实上

[5]produced：取出

[6]At any rate：无论如何

[7]referring to：说及

[8]had to get rid of it：不得不弃之

[9]for economy’s sake：为节省起见

[10]so far as watches are concerned：就表而论

[11]owing：欠 （钱）

[12]going by fits and starts：时走时停

[13]interest falling due：到期之利息 （指修表所用之钱）

[14]of：关于

[15]periodical：定期的

[16]the larger the principal，the large the interest：本金愈大，则子金亦愈大

[17]takes care：留心

[18]wind it up：开此表；给表上发条

[19]runs down：（发条走完而） 停

[20]as well：亦

MY IDEAL HUSBAND

I have not yet met my ideal husband，though I know several young men in whom I like to think I have found some or other qualification[1] of a good husband. An ideal husband is perhaps as hard to find as an ideal teacher，an ideal guide to English composition，[2] or an ideal snapshot camera.[3]

The first requirement of my ideal husband is that he should treat his wife as a personality，not as a thing. He would love me as he loves his parents and brothers and sisters rather than[4] as he loves his stick，his gramophone，[5] his favourite book，or his evening read.[6]It sounds[7] laughably absurd that a husband should ever treat his wife as if [8] she were his stick （I do not exactly mean when he walks with her），his gramophone，his favourite book，or his evening read. Yet it is nevertheless true that husbands often look upon their wives as[9]things，to be liked and loved. I have heard a young man say that he cannot conveniently afford to have so great a luxury[10] as a wife. Personally I would not glory[11]in being considered a luxury，nor would I ever think of making a luxury of myself.

Being passionately fond of English literature，I would sooner remain single[12] for life than[13] have a husband who does not have the same taste as I. My ideal husband would read to me[14]and enjoy being read to by me. He would talk with me about sixteenth-century English writers as interestingly[15] and as interestedly[16] as so many couples[17]in Shanghai talk about American film stars.[18]

I do not have much to say besides[19] the above-mentioned two requirements. I have simply to add that my ideal husband would also possess the ordinary qualifications of a good young man. He would be honest，energetic，and trustworthy. He would take good care of his health and his conduct.[20] He would use his money wisely. He would forbear[21] borrowing or begging or stealing. He would not under any circumstances[22] commit a murder.[23]

As I have said，I have not yet met my ideal husband. I am yet to wait and see.[24]

[1]some or other qualification：某种资格

[2]guide to English composition：英文作文指南

[3]snapshot camera：快照相机

[4]rather than：而非

[5]gramophone：留声机

[6]read：阅读 （时间）

[7]sounds：似乎

[8]as if：好像

[9]look upon … as …：视……如……

[10]luxury：奢侈品

[11]glory：自豪；自以为荣

[12]single：不嫁的

[13]would sooner … than …：宁愿……而不愿……

[14]read to me：读书给我听

[15]interestingly：令人感到兴趣

[16]interestedly：自己感到兴趣

[17]couples：夫妇

[18]film stars：电影明星

[19]besides …：除……之外

[20]conduct：行为

[21]forbear：免于；不

[22]would not under any circumstances：无论如何决不

[23]commit a murder：杀人

[24]wait and see：静待

THE DEATH OF A MOTH[1]

I was casting about in my mind for a topic[2] just now，[3] when a moth came to flutter[4] about the light. Somehow[5] it got hurt and lay beside my ink-bottle，dying. Dying，dying — dead. Truth to tell，[6]I feel pity for it. But I do not feel too much pity for it to write. I am even making use of [7] its death in my “talk”. It seems that this trifling incident[8] has put a world of [9]thoughts into my mind.

Do I say “this trifling incident”？ Yes，the death of a moth is trifling enough in human eyes.[10] Equally trifling is the death of thousands of innocent[11]people in the eyes of war-lords.[12] We men are men[13] and can think only as men think； we cannot take the point of view[14]of moths and realize the value of their lives as they see it. War-lords，too，can think only as war-lords think，and cannot bring themselves to believe that a beggar prizes[15] his own life as highly as a war-lord does.

I have said I am making use of the death of the moth in my “talk”. But is not the death of a human being[16] often made use of？ A young man may hug himself [17]on an uncle’s death，because that uncle happens to be a rich one and his flight from this world to the other[18] means the transfer[19] of wealth from his hands to the young man’s. I do not here care[20] to say anything about the highwayman[21] who kills a traveller to take his money.

Figuratively，[22] a moth fluttering about the light is a man hovering[23]round some sort of temptation.[24] How many men and women fall a prey to[25] what they hover round！ Let us learn a lesson from the death of the moth and see that we are after all[26]wiser than moths.

[1]moth：飞蛾

[2]casting about in my mind for a topic：思索欲得一题目

[3]just now：片刻之前

[4]flutter：飞扑

[5]Somehow：为某种原因

[6]Truth to tell：按实情而言

[7]making use of：利用

[8]trifling incident：微细之事

[9]a world of：许多

[10]in human eyes：在人类之目光中

[11]innocent：无罪的

[12]war-lords：军阀

[13]We men are men：我们人类终为人类而已

[14]point of view：观点；意见

[15]prize：珍重

[16]human being：人

[17]hug himself：自幸

[18]his flight from this world to the other：彼之死亡

[19]transfer：移交

[20]care：欲

[21]highwayman：拦路抢劫之盗

[22]figuratively：就譬喻而言

[23]hovering：徘徊

[24]temptation：诱惑物

[25]fall a prey to …：为……而牺牲

[26]after all：毕竟

ON GAMBLING[1]

“Would you mind joining our mah-jongg party？[2]”

“Sorry，but I do not gamble.”

“Not gamble？ Why not learn to，[3] just for amusement？”

As if [4] one could take gambling as serious work！ As if one could gamble as seriously as one teaches school，[5] defends a fortress，[6]saves a friend from drowning，or does something or other[7] with a view to the immortality of his soul！[8]

Well，there are people who do[9]gamble seriously，though they say they gamble merely for amusement. And it seems that most of those who gamble at all gamble seriously. Moreover，there are those who gamble seriously but are serious in doing nothing else. I do not mean that most of those who gamble do it for money. I mean that while they may not have money in view，[10] they are nevertheless seriously absorbed in the game. They show accuracy，[11]promptness，[12] thoroughness，[13] carefulness，and other elements of personal efficiency.[14]They observe the time-honoured rules.[15] Their watchword is “fair play”.[16] What is more，[17]when the table is removed，[18] they never fail to hold[19] a warm[20] discussion about their game，with as much gusto[21] as though[22] they were debating a newly-discovered law of the universe.[23]

Personally[24] I hate gambling. I hate both the sight and the sound of a gambling party. I hate gambling as much as I hate opium-smoking and prostitution.[25]

I am told that gambling is one of the best means for fostering[26]friendship. Indeed，there are friendships that are kept up[27] merely by occasional rounds[28] of gambling. But I would rather lose a friend than keep him by doing with him what I have a strong dislike to. I wonder whether a friendship is possible — I mean a friendship in the true sense of the word — when nothing else can maintain it than mah-jongg or poker.[29]

I do not wish to talk of the evils of gambling here. Those who have a passion[30]for gambling would never desist[31] till they have gambled themselves out of house and home.[32] May every student of science or literature take a leaf out of the confirmed gambler’s book[33]in regard to earnestiness and seriousness！

[1]On Gambling：论赌博

[2]Would you mind joining our mah-jongg party？：君肯加入我等之雀牌团体否？

[3]learn to = learn to gamble

[4]As if：好像；岂

[5]teaches school：在学校中当教员 （美语）

[6]defends a fortress：守炮台

[7]something or other：某事

[8]with a view to the immortality of his soul：以求其灵魂之永生

[9]do：实在；竟然

[10]have money in view：以金钱为目的

[11]accuracy：精确

[12]promptness：迅速

[13]thoroughness：彻底

[14]efficiency：效力；能力

[15]observe the time-honoured rules：遵守由来已久之规则

[16]“fair play”：均等机会；公正

[17]What is more：更有甚者

[18]when the table is removed：当桌已移去之时 （指赌毕之后）

[19]never fail to hold：必举行

[20]warm：热烈的

[21]gusto：兴趣

[22]as though：竟像

[23]universe：宇宙

[24]personally：就我个人而言

[25]prostitution：卖淫

[26]fostering：养成

[27]kept up：保持

[28]rounds：回；次

[29]poker：扑克牌戏

[30]passion：嗜好

[31]desist：停止

[32]gambled themselves out of house and home：因赌而倾家

[33]take a leaf out of the confirmed gambler’s book：效仿时常赌博之人

IN THOSE DAYS

What do you think of this phrase？ When you read in a fairy-tale[1] about medieval Europe[2] that “in those days young men and young women had a far more romantic[3] time of it than in the twentieth century”，[4] how does the phrase “in those days” strike you？[5] When you are caught writing a love-letter[6]by your grandfather and he，commenting[7] on the present age and recollecting[8] his own youth，say，“In those days love-making was taboo”，[9]how does the phrase impress you？

I suppose that the same phrase impresses you differently on different occasions. On one occasion，it may cause you to wish you had lived hundreds of years ago； on another，it may make you bless your stars[10] that you belong to this century. You may think how great[11]it would be to make friends with[12] or merely to see a knight-errant[13] wandering in search of chivalrous adventures.[14]You may also regard motoring[15] and dancing and seeing the movies as the highest possible forms of pleasure in this world.

When old people say “in those days”，they usually mean to condemn[16] the present and praise the past. They perhaps consider everything old good — old customs，[17]old fashions，old wines，etc. Hence the ironical phrase[18] “good old days”.

Personally I like reading “in those days” in literature. I like reading both. “In those days all had enough to eat and to spare” and “In those days all scholars and authors were poor”. I have the prejudice[19] that literature must tell of the bygone[20] days. I do not delight in any piece of writing of the literary kind that contains nothing but motor-cars，telephones，and aeroplanes.[21]

[1]fairy-tale：神仙故事

[2]medieval Europe：中世纪之欧洲

[3]romantic：浪漫的；富有情趣的

[4]century：世纪

[5]how does the phrase “in those days” strike you？：君对“in those days”一语之感想如何？

[6]are caught writing a love letter：被人查获方写情书

[7]commenting：论

[8]recollecting：回忆

[9]taboo：禁止的

[10]bless your stars：自己庆幸

[11]great：大快乐的

[12]make friends with …：与……交友

[13]knight-errant：（中世纪之） 侠客

[14]in search of chivalrous adventures：找寻武侠之事；求作侠客之事

[15]motoring：坐汽车

[16]condemn：严责

[17]customs：风俗

[18]Hence the ironical phrase …：故有……之讽刺语

[19]prejudice：偏见

[20]bygone：过去的

[21]aeroplanes：飞机

TALKING SHOP[1]

The other day I had occasion[2] to inquire the price of cod-liver oil[3] at a dispensary.[4] By a slip of the tongue，[5] I asked if [6]the shop kept any form of the oil published[7] in China. Of course，I was aware of my mistake the moment[8] I made it，and hastened to say prepared. （I spoke in Chinese，not in English.）

If the salesman did pay some attention to my mistake，he would gather[9]from it that I have something to do[10] with books. As a matter of fact，I made the mistake simply because I am accustomed to talk about books and editions[11]of books and publishers[12] of editions of books.

Surely it is absurd to speak of publishing any medicine[13] or tonic.[14]But does one’s use of words not often betray one’s profession[15] or calling[16] or social rank？ A scientist[17]analyses anything； a clergyman[18] expounds anything； a public man[19] investigates anything. A lawyer[20] receives his fee； a teacher draws[21] his salary； a workman gets his wages. A student must have read one or more books on rhetoric when he accuses a note[22] from his little sister of [23]lacking force and coherence.[24] A man must have some knowledge of economics[25] who calls his superannuated[26]father an unproductive consumer.[27]

In a way，[28] we all talk shop，as the saying is.[29]We often take care to sink the shop，[30]but often in vain. We may talk shop without our own knowledge[31] — and yet to the amusement of [32] our hearer or hearers.

[1]talking shop：三句不离本行

[2]had occasion：须

[3]cod-liver oil：鳕鱼肝油

[4]dispensary：药房

[5]slip of the tongue：误言

[6]if = whether

[7]published：出版

[8]the moment = as soon as

[9]gather：推测

[10]have something to do …：与……有关

[11]editions：版本

[12]publishers：出版家

[13]medicine：药

[14]tonic：补品

[15]profession：职业

[16]calling：行业

[17]scientist：科学家

[18]clergyman：教士

[19]public man：公务人员

[20]lawyer：律师

[21]draws：支取

[22]note：短信

[23]accuses … of …：指摘……；谓犯……之弊

[24]coherence：连贯；顺适

[25]economics：经济学

[26]superannuated：老而无用的

[27]unproductive consumer：不生产之消耗者

[28]in a way：有几分

[29]as the saying is：如习语所云

[30]sink the shop：不谈本行

[31]without our own knowledge：为我们自己所不知

[32]to the amusement of …：使……引为好笑

HOW OLD ARE YOU？

This question，as a question，is none too polite.[1] But I hope I do no wrong in making it the title[2] of my “talk”. I suppose it is an attractive title.

How old are you，reader？ And how old do you feel？ And how old do you look？ And how old do you wish you were？ And how old do you think others think you are？

Well，how old do you think I am？ I am afraid you think I am about forty. Some[3] five years ago，when a student who had read my articles[4] for a long time came to see me，he told me that he had thought I was at least forty and was surprised to find that I was yet about twenty-five. I must have looked about twenty-five then. In fact，however，I was then only twenty or twenty-one.

To be exact，I am at present twenty-six.[5] But I am told that I look thirty or so.[6]And I feel fifteen or so. And I wish I were ten or so.

I have grown into a young man before I knew it. Perhaps you are growing into a young man or a young woman without your knowing it.

Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore，

So do our minutes hasten to their end[7]；

Each[8] changing place with that[9] which goes before，

In sequent toil all forwards do contend.[10]

— Shakespeare[11]

We are young. But we were younger. And we shall be older，older，older. We grow up，up，up — and then down，down，down.

It is said that men are now young at fifty.[12] But I find that many men and women are now old enough at twenty-five. I mean that at twenty-five they have done with[13] their reading and study，leaving this “young people’s work” to their children and their children’s children to do.

[1]none too polite：极不客气的

[2]title：题目

[3]Some：大约

[4]articles：论文

[5]I am at present twenty-six：按此文系1932 年所作

[6]or so：或多或少；大约

[7]Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore，so do our minutes hasten to their end：光阴之前奔，有如海浪之流向多砾之岸

[8]each = each minute

[9]that = that minute

[10]In sequent toil all forwards do contend = all do contend forwards is sequent toil：光阴努力，继续前进

[11]Shakespeare：即William Shakespeare，威廉·莎士比亚，英国大戏剧家兼诗人，生于1564年，卒于1616年

[12]are young at fifty：年至五十而尚觉年轻

[13]have done with：完毕

SOUR GRAPEISM[1]

This expression I have found only in Mrs Gaskell’s novel Cranford.[2] It occurs in “There，[3] economy was always elegant，and money-spending ‘vulgar and ostentatious’；[4] a sort of sour grapeism，which made us very peaceful and satisfied”. The allusion[5] is to the well-known fable[6]of the fox that tried in vain to get at some grapes hanging from a vine，[7] but when he found he could not reach them went away saying “I see they are sour”.

Cases of sour grapeism we meet with on all sides，[8] and perhaps most of us sometimes play the “sour grapeist.”[9]To quote from Cranford again，“If we walked to or from a party，[10] it was because the night was so fine，or the air so refreshing； not because sedan-chairs[11]were expensive. If we wore prints，[12] instead of summer silks，it was because we preferred a washing material[13]，and so on，till we blinded ourselves to the vulgar fact that we were，all of us，people of very moderate means”[14]. It seems that sour grapeism is resorted to[15] more often to conceal one’s poverty than for any other purpose.

For my part，[16] I am not a “sour grapeist”. My fountain-pen was lost in Shanghai some time ago，and I have not yet bought a new one. Not because I do not like a fountain-pen，but because I wish to save a few dollars. I would gladly have The Great Oxford English Dictionary[17] if I could afford[18] the price. As things are，[19] however，I could not at present conveniently manage[20] to get even a copy of the American edition of The Pocket Oxford Dictionary.[21] Often I hang[22] about a second-hand book-shop[23]and cast a loving eye at some favourite book or other，but very seldom I make bold[24] to spend a dollar or two for a few hundred pages of fiction or poetry or belles-lettres.[25] There are lots of [26]sweet grapes that，alas，I have to forbear eating simply because I do not have the money！

Well，if sour grapeism as the term is usually understood always implies dishonesty and falsehood，sour grapeism as a philosophy or a religion，I should think，would serve a very good purpose. Would a young man not find great comfort in it when he is thrown over[27] by his girl of girls[28]？

[1]Sour Grapeism：酸葡萄主义

[2]Mrs Gaskell’s novel Cranford：盖斯凯尔夫人所著小说《克兰福德》（Mrs Gaskell 即Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell，原姓Stevenson，英国小说家，生于1810年，卒于1865年）

[3]there：指Cranford

[4]vulgar and ostentatious：鄙陋而炫耀的

[5]allusion：典故

[6]fable：寓言

[7]vine：葡萄树

[8]on all sides：各处

[9]play the “sour grapeist”：为酸葡萄主义者

[10]party：宴会

[11]sedan-chairs：轿

[12]prints：印花布

[13]washing material：可洗之衣料

[14]very moderate means：极微薄之财

[15]resorted to：利用

[16]For my part：就我而言

[17]The Great Oxford English Dictionary：此字典系全世界最详备之英文字典，英国牛津大学出版社出版

[18]afford：供给

[19]As things are：按诸事实

[20]manage：设法

[21]The Pocket Oxford Dictionary：此书亦系牛津大学出版社出版；其美国版系美国Albert & Charles Boni 出版，中多美语

[22]hang：徘徊

[23]second-hand book-shop：旧书店

[24]make bold：鼓起勇气；冒险

[25]belles-lettres：美文学

[26]lots of：许多

[27]thrown over：弃绝

[28]girl of girls：爱人

SNOW-BOUND[1]

Snow-bound，I have been reading John Greenleaf Whittier’s[2] famous poem “Snow-bound”，[3] which is an idyll[4] on country joys as serene[5] and beautiful in its way as Robert Burns’s “The Cotter’s Saturday Night”[6]and Oliver Goldsmith’s “The Deserted Village”.[7] These three poems are the best among the longer poems on rustic[8] life that I have ever read，and I hope you will find them very delightful and charming if you are at all interested in literature of their nature. They are not very hard to read：they，and many other good English poems，are rather easy. Do not fear poetry，reader. Poems are written by human beings[9]like you and me. I think it is merely because they believe all poetry is hard that many of those students who profess[10] a genuine[11]interest in English literature do not try to read any poem at all.

But I digress.[12] Snow-bound，I have been reading Whittier’s “Snow-bound”. It is the only long snow poem in English that I know of. It is a vivid[13] picture of the honest，laborious，and God-fearing life of the Massachusetts[14]farmer as he is shut in by the snow.

Snow everywhere. I read “Snow-bound”，and I wish I were in the poet’s house and were helping him as he did his “nightly chores”，[15] when

Unwarmed by any sunset light[16]

The grey[17] day darkened into night，

A night made hoary with the swarm[18]

And whirl-dance[19]of the blinding storm，[20]

As zigzag wavering to and fro

Crossed and recrossed the winged snow.[21]

But I am in Shanghai，where snow does not bring any scenes[22] like those described in Whittier’s poem.

I recall the throwing of snowballs on the housetops at Christmas as portrayed[23]in Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol.[24] Even such a sight I am denied[25] in the world-known city where I make my bread！[26]

[1]Snow-bound：被雪所困

[2]John Greenleaf Whittier：约翰·格林里夫·惠蒂埃，美国诗人，生于1807年，卒于1892 年

[3]“Snow-bound”：惠蒂埃所著长诗名

[4]idyll：田园诗；乡景诗

[5]serene：清静的

[6]Robert Burns’s “The Cotter’s Saturday Night”：罗伯特·彭斯的《农人的星期六夜晚》（彭斯系苏格兰农民诗人，生于1759年，卒于1796年）

[7]Oliver Goldsmith’s “The Deserted Village”：奥利弗·哥尔德斯密斯的《荒凉的村庄》（哥尔德斯密斯系爱尔兰诗文名家，生于1730年，卒于1774年）

[8]rustic：乡村的

[9]human beings：人 （类）

[10]profess：自认

[11]genuine：真的

[12]digress：离题

[13]vivid：生动的

[14]Massachusetts：马萨诸塞州，美国州名

[15]chores：杂役

[16]sunset light：夕阳

[17]grey：灰色的

[18]swarm：群

[19]whirl-dance：旋舞

[20]blinding storm：令人眼花的雪阵

[21]as zigzag wavering to and fro crossed and recrossed the winged snow （= the winged snow crossed and recrossed）：当雪花飞舞，错综曲折而往来之时

[22]scenes：景象

[23]portrayed：描写

[24]Charles Dickens’s A Christmas Carol：查尔斯·狄更斯的《圣诞颂歌》（狄更斯系英国小说家，生于1812年，卒于1870年）

[25]even such a sight I am denied：我竟不得见此景

[26]make my bread：谋生

WRITING FOR OTHERS

Almost in every ten of fifteen days some friend or other[1] of mine asks me to write something in English. It may be a letter，an essay，a story，or a few sentences as an exercise in grammar or rhetoric. It may be something that my friend has to write himself，or it may be something that a friend，an acquaintance，or a relative of my friend has asked him to write，or it may be something that a relative of an acquaintance of a friend of my friend has asked that acquaintance of that friend of my friend，and that acquaintance of that friend of my friend has asked that friend of my friend，and that friend of my friend has asked my friend，to write. At any rate，it is something that my friend asks me to write.

Often what I am asked to write is a practical letter，such as one to the Municipal Council[2] applying for[3] the use of a tennis court[4] in some park or one requesting a foreign missionary[5] to help a poor boy through his primary school course.[6]Sometimes it is two or three sentences illustrating[7] some grammatical or rhetorical principle. In both cases I delight in the work and like to think that in so doing I am doing my friend，or somebody else，a useful service.

Often，however，I am asked to write an essay or a story that my friend，or somebody else，ought to write himself：it may be either his school work or something by which his ability is to be tested. In either case，my friend should not make，and I should not grant，the request. The reason is plain.

Once a teacher of my acquaintance[8] asked me to translate an article into English，saying that a friend of his would like to learn some idiomatic expressions[9]from my translation. I believed every word he said，and translated the article as requested. Later on[10] I heard that my translation had helped the teacher to get a lucrative post，[11]and wondered whether he really had a friend who was interested in the study of English.

[1]some friend or other：某友

[2]Municipal Council：工部局

[3]applying for：请求

[4]tennis court：网球场

[5]missionary：教士

[6]help a poor boy through his primary school course：资助一贫困儿童，使之读毕小学课程

[7]illustrating：说明

[8]a teacher of my acquaintance：我所相识之某教师

[9]idiomatic expressions：习语

[10]later on：后来

[11]lucrative post：可以获利之职位

LIONS[1] AND LIONISM[2]

If you are at all interested in literary news[3] and have a fairly good memory，[4] you must remember that George Bernard Shaw，[5] the famous Irish writer，[6]was quite a lion in Shanghai on February 17.[7]

I am sure that you learnt the word “lion” long，long ago. But here I use the word in a special sense.[8] I mean a person of literary or other celebrity[9]who is sought after[10] to be shown off [11]at social gatherings.[12] Used in this sense the word is sometimes enclosed in quotation-marks，but as the sense is not now uncommon，[13] I do not think the quotation-marks necessary.

George Bernard Shaw，as you probably remember，was a lion in Shanghai on February 17. He is one of the few people in the world who are lionized wherever they go.[14]Can you tell the name of any of the others？ Do you remember any other person who has ever been lionized in Shanghai？ Do you remember John Dewey？[15] And Rabindranath Tagore？[16] And Bertrand Russel？[17]

Have you ever read of any case of lionism in history？ What do you think most lion-hunters[18] aim at in their lion hunt？ Do you think all lions enjoy being lionized[19]？ Have you read what Thomas Carlyle[20] has to say about Robert Burns as a lion in Edinburgh[21] and those who lionized them？ You may read it in Carlyle’s Heroes and Hero-worship[22] and The Essay on Burns.

By the way，do you think there is any difference between lions and heroes and between lionism and hero-worship？ Do you know of any hero who has never been lionized，and of any lion who is anything but[23]a hero？

[1]Lions：名人 （详见本文）

[2]Lionism：追求名人

[3]If you are at all interested in literary news：若君尚留心文学界消息

[4]fairly good memory：尚佳之记忆力

[5]George Bernard Shaw：乔治·伯纳德·萧伯纳，爱尔兰文豪，生于1856年，卒于1950年

[6]Irish writer：爱尔兰的著作家

[7]February 17：指1933年

[8]sense：意义

[9]celebrity：名望

[10]sought after：追求

[11]shown off：炫耀

[12]social gatherings：社交上之集会

[13]is not now uncommon：现在并不生僻

[14]are lionized wherever they go：到处被人以名人相待

[15]John Dewey：约翰·杜威，美国教育家，生于1859年，卒于1952 年

[16]Rabindranath Tagore：罗宾德拉纳德·泰戈尔，印度诗人，生于1861年，卒于1941年

[17]Bertrand Russel：伯特兰·罗素，英国哲学家，生于1872 年，卒于1970年

[18]lion-hunters：追求名人者

[19]enjoy being lionized：以被人以名人相待为乐

[20]Thomas Carlyle：托马斯·卡莱尔，苏格兰文豪，生于1795年，卒于1881年

[21]Edinburgh：爱丁堡，苏格兰首府

[22]Hero-worship：崇拜英雄

[23]is anything but：决非

SIMPLY CANNOT[1]

Several years ago，when I was on the English editorial staff [2] of the Commercial Press，[3] I received a letter from a hard self-taught student of English[4] requesting me to correct some short essays for him. In reply I said that I was very sorry I could find no time to do so. The student wrote[5] again to repeat his request，saying，if I remember right，[6]“I would kneel and I would remember you even after my death”. As I could not conveniently arrange[7] to correct his essays for him，I had to reject[8] his request once more，[9]though at the same time I gave him much advice and encouragement[10] concerning[11]the writing of English.

Perhaps we are all of us sometimes asked by somebody to do something that it is beyond our power to do.[12] I have been several times asked by someone or other to find him a position[13] as teacher or clerk or salesman[14]or servant. In fact，however，I have never succeeded in securing any sort of position for any person.[15] For I am a man with but few[16] friends and of absolutely no influence.[17]

Nor can I possibly help any young man in hunting for[18] a wife. I have no girl friends，and，to tell the truth，[19] I have never seen a girl who I think would make[20] a perfect wife for any young man I know，nor vice versa.[21]

To return to[22] the student. I do not know how he felt on reading my second letter. I hope he did not take offence[23]at it. At any rate，he must have felt disappointed. I wish I had corrected his essays for him. But then I could find no time to do so. I wish I could help others in their search for positions and wives. But I simply cannot.

[1]Simply Cannot：竟然不能

[2]English editorial staff：英文编辑部

[3]Commercial Press：商务印书馆

[4]hard self-taught student of English：勤奋自修英文之学生

[5]wrote：写信

[6]if I remember right：倘我所记不误

[7]arrange：设法

[8]reject：拒绝

[9]once more：再

[10]encouragement：鼓励

[11]concerning：关于

[12]it is beyond our power to do：为我们所不能为

[13]find him a position：为之寻一位置

[14]salesman：售货人

[15]have never succeeded in securing any sort of position for any person：从未为任何人谋得任何位置

[16]but few：极少

[17]of absolutely no influence：绝对没有势力的

[18]hunting for：追求

[19]to tell the truth：说实话

[20]make：成为

[21]nor vice versa：反之亦无 （“vice versa”系拉丁文）

[22]return to：再谈

[23]take offence：见怪

WHAT DO WOMEN DESIRE MOST？

Well，I simply cannot answer this question. I know very few women and very little about women.[1] I am sure that what women desire most is not poverty，nor ill health，nor bad luck. But then[2] there does not seem to be any man who ever seeks poverty，ill health，or bad luck. Nor does the average woman，any more than the average man，wish most for a good knowledge of English[3] — though you may happen[4] to be more deeply interested in this subject than in anything else.

What，after all，[5] do women desire most？ According to[6]Geoffrey Chaucer，[7] known as the Father of English Poetry，[8] once there was in England a young bachelor knight[9]who saved his own life by answering this question. He had been sentenced by the King to be killed[10] on account of a certain crime.[11]The queen，however，persuaded her husband to grant him his life[12] and turn him over to her for her to deal with him as she thought fit.[13] She put the question “What do women desire most？” to the young knight and gave him leave[14]to go away for a year and a day[15] to prepare his answer. Upon that answer was to depend whether he would keep or lose his head.[16]

The knight went from town to town in search of a satisfactory answer.[17]But he could not find two people of one mind[18]. Some said women desire wealth most，some said honour，[19] some said happiness，some said beautiful dress，and some even said being often widowed and wedded.[20]

At last，he met an ugly old woman and he asked her advice. After making him pledge his honour[21] that he would do whatever she should require next of him，[22] if that was in his power，[23]the old woman whispered a short sentence in his ear and bade him be glad and have no fear.

The knight came to the court[24] on the fixed day and said that he was ready with his answer. When commanded to say it，he replied in a manly[25] voice，so that the whole court could hear it，“My noble lady，what women desire most is to obtain dominion[26]over their lovers and husband”. The court pronounced[27] that he had fairly obtained his pardon.[28]

This is not yet the end of the story. But as the remaining part has nothing to do with[29]my topic，I think I may well stop here.

[1]very little about women：甚少关于妇女之知识

[2]but then：但

[3]Nor does the average woman，any more than the average man，wish most for a good knowledge of English：普通女子并不最希望得良好之英文知识，犹普通男子之并不如是也

[4]happen：适

[5]after all：毕竟

[6]according to：依据

[7]Geoffrey Chaucer：杰弗里·乔叟，英国诗人，生于1340年，卒于1400年

[8]known as the Father of English Poetry：称为英诗之祖

[9]bachelor knight：尚未婚娶之武士

[10]sentenced by the King to be killed：为国王判定死罪

[11]on account of a certain crime：因为某种罪恶

[12]grant him his life：赦彼

[13]turn him over to her for her to deal with him as she thought fit：将此人交伊由伊自由处置

[14]leave：允许

[15]a year and a day：一年又一日 （法律所规定之限期，一年加一日乃所以得实足一年也。）

[16]keep or lose his head：保其首或失其首；生或死

[17]in search of a satisfactory answer：寻一满意之答复

[18]of one mind：意见相同的

[19]honour：贵显

[20]often widowed and wedded：时作寡妇而时作新娘

[21]pledge his honour：以其人格作保

[22]require next of him：接下来向彼要求

[23]power：权力

[24]court：朝廷

[25]manly：雄壮的

[26]dominion：统治权

[27]pronounced：宣称

[28]had fairly obtained his pardon：已应得赦罪

[29]has nothing to do with…：与……无关

A KITTEN[1]

A kitten has recently been brought to my home. It is not a pretty one，but，like all kittens，has its engaging manners[2] and many delightful tricks.[3] It jumps from bed to table and from table to chair. It catches at everything that is moving. It runs quickly and hides behind the door，and in an instant[4] sallies forth[5] as if to seize upon something. It mews[6]and purrs[7] by turns.[8]

And just as a cat may look at a king，[9]a kitten may look at an author. Ours often watches me write. If it had not been for this，[10] I should not have thought of writing this article. At this moment our kitten is looking at its master and seems to be wondering whether he is not producing some feline literature.[11]

I have not read much about cats and kittens in English literature. I remember only four pieces，two poems，an essay，and a joke，in which a cat or a kitten forms the subject. One of the poems is Thomas Gray’s “On a Favourite Cat，Drowned in a Tub of Goldfishes”.[12] The other poem is a long description of a kitten by a Scottish poet[13] whose name I have forgotten. The essay is entitled[14]“A Kitten” written by Agnes Repplier.[15] The joke consists of a conversation between a little girl and an old lady. It runs somewhat like this：

Little girl：We have lost our kitten.

Old lady：Is it dead？

Little girl：No.

Old lady：Has it escaped？

Little girl：No.

Old lady：Has it been stolen？

Little girl：No.

Old lady：Has it been given away？

Little girl：No.

Old lady：What，then，has become of it？[16]

Little girl：It has grown into a cat.

This joke reminds me of what a young man once said to a friend. “I shall never see my fiancée[17] again”，he said. The friend replied in surprise，“You don’t mean —” “As you know，we are to be married the day after tomorrow. I shall soon see my bride，[18] but never my fiancée again.”

[1]Kitten：小猫

[2]engaging manners：动人之态

[3]tricks：技；戏法

[4]in an instant：片刻后

[5]sallies forth：冲出

[6]mews：（猫） 鸣

[7]purrs：作呜呜声

[8]by turns：相替；更换

[9]a cat may look at a king：猫亦可注视君主 （谚语）

[10]If it had not been for this：若不因此事；若不如是

[11]feline literature：论及猫之文学

[12]Thomas Gray’s “On a Favourite Cat，Drowned in a Tub of Goldfishes”：托马斯·格雷的《咏淹死于金鱼缸中之爱猫》（格雷系英国诗人，生于1716年，卒于1771年）

[13]Scottish poet：苏格兰诗人

[14]entitled：名曰

[15]Agnes Repplier：阿格尼斯·雷普利尔，美国女文学家，生于1855年，卒于1950年

[16]What，then，has become of it？：然则彼曾何所遭？

[17]fiancée：未婚妻

[18]bride：新娘

NO LONGER A BOY[1]

Of [2] his entrance at Trinity College，Cambridge，[3] at the age of twenty-seven，George Gordon Byron[4] wrote，“I know not[5] how，it was one of the deadliest[6]and heaviest feelings of my life that I was no longer a boy”. I am barely[7] twenty-seven，but I have had the same feeling for a long time. During the past ten years，except in my parents’ presence[8]，I have always felt that I am a man，not a boy. Not that[9]I try to look and walk and talk like a man. Far from it，[10] I try to look and walk and talk like a boy — a good boy of about fourteen. But I am reminded on every hand[11]that I am no longer a boy. I work in an office，and of course one cannot be very childish in an office. I am called Mr Kê，and of course one cannot be both a mister and a boy. I write and edit，[12] and of course boys are too young to write and edit.

I am really a man，though I wish I were a boy. I am glad that if no longer a boy，I am still a youth. Time goes quickly，however. We do not feel any older from week to week，from month to month. But months make years，and as years go by，[13] we are surprised to find that we are older and older. When I was about ten，I thought that I ought to be ten and my parents ought to be a little over forty.[14]But now I am twenty-seven，and my parents are sixty or so.

Not being a boy，a man does not usually retain[15] any of his boyish interests[16] and ambitions.[17]William Makepeace Thackeray[18] said，“When I was a boy，I wanted some taffy.[19] It was a shilling； I hadn’t one. When I was a man，I had a shilling，but I didn’t want any taffy.” Can you see any truth in these words，reader？

[1]No Longer a Boy：不复为孩子；已为成人

[2]Of：关于

[3]Trinity College，Cambridge：（英国） 剑桥大学圣三一学院

[4]George Gordon Byron：乔治·戈登·拜伦，英国诗人，生于1788年，卒于1824年

[5]know not = do not know

[6]deadliest：最可恨的

[7]barely：仅仅

[8]in my parents’ presence：在我父母之面前

[9]Not that …：并非……

[10]Far from it：大非如是

[11]on every hand：在各方面

[12]edit：编辑；校订

[13]go by：过去

[14]a little over forty：略过四十

[15]retain：保存

[16]interests：关心之事物

[17]ambitions：志向

[18]William Makepeace Thackeray：威廉·梅克比斯·萨克雷，英国文学家，生于1811年，卒于1863年

[19]taffy：牛奶糖

PLEASING EVERYBODY

A novel by Jane Austen[1] has been recently printed from the manuscript[2] for the first time in England. I read an extract[3] from it in a newspaper some time ago and found it very interesting. The extract tells of a young lady who has decided to make everyone happy. An old man proposes to her[4] one day，and she accepts him.[5] On the same day a young man proposes to her，and she accepts him too. It is not until the next morning that she recollects the double engagement she has entered into.[6]Then she commits suicide[7] by throwing herself into a stream.

Jane Austen was born in 1775，and the manuscript is dated 1793. In those days young ladies were quite different from those of today，and it does not seem probable that the author ever knew of [8] such a lady as she described in her novel. Times have changed，however. Modern young ladies are more inclined[9]to please men than their grandmothers and great-grandmothers.[10] I have lately[11]read of [12] a bride who ran away with a young man and wrote to[13] her husband to say that though she had decided to elope[14]with her lover she still loved her husband with all her heart.[15]

What do you think of such ladies，reader？ I think they are no good[16] and will come to no good.[17]

Well，it often proves disastrous to try to please everybody. Have you ever read the very popular story of an old man with his son and their donkey？ Father and son are leading[18] their donkey to the market to sell it. To please various persons，now the father sits on the donkey and the son walks beside him，then[19] the son sits on it and the father walks； now both father and son ride，then they carry the donkey instead of having it carry them. At last the beast[20] struggled and fell into a river.

[1]Jane Austen：简·奥斯丁，英国小说家，生于1775年，卒于1817年

[2]manuscript：稿本

[3]extract：摘录之文字

[4]proposes to her：向伊求婚

[5]accepts him：允其求婚

[6]It is not until the next morning that she recollects the double engagement she has entered into：直至翌晨始忆及伊所缔结之二重婚姻

[7]commits suicide：自杀

[8]knew of：闻及

[9]inclined …：有……之倾向的

[10]great-grandmothers：曾祖母

[11]lately：近来

[12]read of：读及

[13]wrote to：致函与

[14]elope：私奔

[15]with all her heart：竭诚

[16]are no good：无益于人

[17]come to no good：无好结果

[18]leading：牵

[19]now … then …：时而……时而……

[20]beast：兽 （指驴）

PRACTICAL JOKES[1]

While a joke is something said or done to excite laughter，a practical joke is a trick played on some person in order to excite laughter at his expense.[2] It puts him into a ridiculous[3] position or shows him in a ridiculous light.

Jokes are almost always harmless. But practical jokes often produce bad results. For example，a boy may be drowned in consequence of [4] being ducked[5] in a pond by some other boys by way of [6]practical joke. What do you think of the following story of a practical joke，which has horrified a number of people in England？

A young man of title[7] was the guest at a great house[8] in the country.[9]One night some of the younger members of the houseparty[10] removed his bed-clothes and hid them in another room. This wanton act，[11]when discovered，caused a sudden rush of blood to the head of the victim.[12] He upset the furniture of the room. Paintings[13] were removed from the walls to the corridor，[14]movable objects of art[15] followed，and chairs and mirrors were overturned. The man then rushed from the house，took his car from the garage，[16] and drove away into the night.[17]

I hope you hate rather then[18] like such a practical joke. I myself hate it. I hate all practical jokes and never play any on others. One like the following does not seem to do much harm，yet it is at any rate[19] a dishonest act.

Two brothers in England decided to have a dinner at a tavern[20] and then go to the play.[21] When it was time to call for the reckoning，[22] one of them dropped a guinea.[23]They searched for it in vain，[24] and came to the conclusion[25] that it had fallen between the boards of the uncarpeted floor. The other young man called the waitress[26]and said to her，“We’ve[27] dropped two guineas. See if you can find them.” The girl went down on her hands and knees，and found the one guinea，which had rolled under the fender.[28] “That’s a very good girl，”[29]said the young man，pocketing[30]the coin； “and when you find the other you can keep it for your trouble”. The brothers went with a light heart[31] to the play.

One day，when I was a little boy，a school-mate of mine，an L.，said to me，“Mr C. wants to speak to you”. Mr C. was one of our teachers and was not over kind to the boys.[32] My school-mate meant to play a practical joke when he told me that Mr C. wanted to speak to me. But I believed what L. said. I went to Mr C. accordingly.[33]“Who has told you to come to me？” Mr C. asked. “L.”，replied I； “he says you want to speak to me”. Mr C. sent for[34]L. at once[35] and put him in the corner.[36]

[1]Practical Jokes：恶作剧

[2]in order to excite laughter at his expense：目的在以彼为资料而引人发笑

[3]ridiculous：可笑的

[4]in consequence of：因为

[5]ducked：淹入水中

[6]by way of：当作

[7]young man of title：有爵位之青年

[8]great house：大家；巨室

[9]country：乡间

[10]houseparty：别墅中之宴会

[11]wanton act：无理之举动

[12]caused a sudden rush of blood to the head of the victim：使此受害者忽然大怒

[13]paintings：油画

[14]corridor：走廊

[15]objects of art：艺术品

[16]garage：车库

[17]drove away into the night：驱车入黑夜中

[18]rather than：而非

[19]at any rate：无论如何

[20]tavern：酒馆

[21]go to the play：观剧

[22]reckoning：账单

[23]guinea：英国昔时之金币名

[24]searched for it in vain：寻不着此枚金币

[25]came to the conclusion：决定；认定

[26]waitress：女侍者

[27]We’ve = We have

[28]fender：炉围

[29]That’s （= that is） a very good girl：汝乃一甚佳之女郎

[30]pocketing：放入袋中

[31]with a light heart：欣然

[32]was not over kind to the boys：不甚善待诸童

[33]accordingly：因此；即

[34]sent for：唤

[35]at once：立即

[36]put him in the corner：使之立于屋角 （即立壁角）

WHEN THE CAT COMES HOME

My cat disappeared three days ago and did not return till towards evening[1] today （November 15）. He came back from a neighbour’s house mewing at the top of his voice[2] and presenting a very miserable appearance.[3] Evidently[4] he had been imprisoned[5] and cruelly treated by my neighbour’s children during the entire period of his disappearance. As soon as he saw me，he ran up to me，sat before me，and looked into my face，as much as to say “Your puss[6]was lost and is found”.

I happened to be reading a sarcastic[7] essay on some modern scholars by a certain modern scholar. I had to put down my book and caress my cat. I thought and thought as my cat purred and purred.

O the cruelty of man！[8] Why do you harass[9]harmless cats，you children？ Why do you attack your fellow scholars，you scholars？ Without the cruelty of man — to man and beast[10] — there is enough distress in this world of ours.[11]

To all appearance[12] my neighbour’s children worried[13] my cat merely for amusement. They did not intend to kill him. Why，[14]if they had killed him，they would have killed him merely for amusement. They did not hate him at all.

As most schoolboys can tell，bullying[15] in school is often done simply for the fun of it. “Look at that little boy over there”，says a schoolboy tyrant.[16] “I will just throw this ball at his back for fun”. No sooner said than done.[17]The ball hits the poor boy’s back. The tyrant laughs in triumph.[18] One boy’s pain is another boy’s joy！

I have lately read a life sketch of a king who took infinite delight in war. He killed thousands and thousands of people not because he hated them but because he liked manslaughter.[19] More and more men and women died. He was simply having a good time.[20]

To return to my cat. He is home again. Thanks to my neighbour’s children，he has all his nine lives intact.[21] Incidentally，[22] I suppose those children will soon be able to write a short composition on “Be Kind to Animals”.

[1]towards evening：傍晚

[2]mewing at the top of his voice：大声而鸣

[3]presenting a very miserable appearance：为状甚为可怜

[4]Evidently：显然

[5]imprisoned：关起

[6]puss：猫

[7]sarcastic：讽刺的

[8]man：人类

[9]harass：恶弄

[10]man and beast：人类及兽类

[11]there is enough distress in this world of ours：世界上已有不少苦痛

[12]To all appearance：显然

[13]worried：恶弄

[14]Why：语气助词

[15]bullying：欺凌

[16]tyrant：恶霸者

[17]No sooner said than done：一说即行

[18]triumph：胜利

[19]manslaughter：杀人

[20]having a good time：取乐

[21]has all his nine lives intact：保全其九命 （按英人谓每猫有九命）

[22]Incidentally：顺便说及

SOME CASES OF MISUNDERSTANDING[1]

Here is an amusing[2] case of misunderstanding，which I found in a foreign newspaper some time ago：

“And now”，said the teacher，“can anyone give me a sentence using the word ‘candour[3]’？” “I can”，said a little boy in the front seat； “my papa had a pretty stenographer[4] and my mamma saw her and so my papa candour.”

Reader，do you understand this case of misunderstanding？ I am afraid you do not. Let me explain. “Candour”，as your probably know，is a noun meaning frankness. Of course，“my papa candour” has neither grammar nor sense.[5] What，then，did the boy mean？ The fact was that he did not know the word “candour”，and that when he heard the teacher say it，he mistook it for[6]“caned her”[7]. Now read the boy’s sentence again，reading “caned her” for “candour，” and you will understand all.

Below is another amusing case of misunderstanding.

A woman said to another，“Oh，Mrs Jones，[8] I have never seen a child as badly spoilt as that son of yours”. Mrs Jones replied，“Why，Mrs Murphy，[9]I don’t believe you”. “Oh，yes，he is too bady spoilt”，said Mrs Murphy； “just come out and see what the fire-engine did to him[10]”.

You will easily find out where the misunderstanding lies，if you know that “spoilt” may mean both seriously injured and too much indulged.[11]

The first of the above-mentioned cases tells of beating and the second tells of injuring. Both are sad tales. I will now mention one that contains a happy event，the birth of a baby. It is as follows：

Boss[12]：Late again！

Clerk：Well，my wife presented me with a baby[13] last night.

Boss：She would have done a lot[14]better with an alarm clock.[15]

Clerk：Come to think of it，[16] that would have been quite an achievement.[17]

Indeed，did you，reader，ever heard of any woman’s being delivered of [18] an alarm clock？

[1]misunderstanding：误解

[2]amusing：令人发笑的

[3]candour：坦白

[4]stenographer：速记员 （此处指女速记员）

[5]sense：意义

[6]mistook it for …：误认之为……

[7]caned her：以杖击伊

[8]Jones：琼斯，姓氏

[9]Murphy：墨菲，姓氏

[10]see what the fire-engine did to him：请看此消防车已有何事发生于彼 （谓此儿已被消防车撞伤也）

[11]too much indulged：过份姑息

[12]boss：领袖；长 （俚语）

[13]presented me with a baby：赠我一孩 （意即生下一孩）

[14]a lot = much

[15]alarm clock：闹钟

[16]come to think of it：试思此事

[17]achievement：奇事

[18]being delivered of：生出；产

A TRIBUTE[1] TO MAH-JONGG

I well remember the advice given me some years ago by a Chinese doctor whom I consulted about a slight indisposition. “There is nothing serious”，[2] he said，with an air of importance[3] assumed by nearly every doctor when he says something that his patient knows only too well.[4] “You are in low spirits[5] because you study too hard. My advice to you is to learn to play mah-jongg in your spare time.[6]Mah-jongg is a harmless pastime，and it would help to improve your health.” As a matter of fact，I set no more store by the doctor’s advice than if he had suggested suicide as a means of improving my health，[7] and I have since had no more to do with the art and science of mah-jongg than I had had before.

But because I did not follow his advice，I can now offer no proof that it was sheer[8] nonsense. Possibly mah-jongg is a tonic，[9]even a panacea.[10] There are people whose headache cannot be otherwise stopped than by mah-jongg，and whom mah-jongg，and nothing else，can keep sitting up all night long.[11]If it were not for this panacea，the pressure of life might even send them to their graves.[12]

Aside from its value as a universal remedy，mah-jongg may be called a liberal education.[13] It teaches fair play，scientific methods，order，regularity，tact，[14]and alertness. Which of the many subjects in school or college can teach so many things？

I say a liberal education. The word “liberal”，as you may have learnt，is here used in a sense that is almost obsolete except in the term “liberal education”，which means an education fit for a gentleman as opposed to[15] technical or professional or any special training. I use the term quite advisedly.[16] A gentleman，or a lady，who does not play mah-jongg，is not much of [17]a gentleman，or of a lady. Times have changed. Modern ladies and modern gentlemen of 1934 dance and drive，[18] things frowned upon by ladies and gentlemen of the old school，[19]who stick to their chess and poetry，[20] things that do not seem to be very fashionable. But mah-jongg is practised by both those who dance and drive and those who affect[21] chess and poetry — those who adore what they call Western civilization and those who look on China as the only civilized country in the world.[22] The lady or gentleman of twenty-five says，“China has nothing good except mah-jongg”； the lady or gentleman of sixty-five says，“China has everything good，and mah-jongg is the best”.

I have read in an American magazine that mah-jongg was invented by Confucius.[23]Well，Confucius was the greatest Chinese sage，and therefore mah-jongg has made Chinese civilization what it is.[24]

[1]Tribute：赞词

[2]There is nothing serious：并无大病

[3]air of importance：自矜之状

[4]knows only too well：却甚知晓

[5]in low spirits：精神不佳的

[6]spare time：暇时

[7]I set no more store by the doctor’s advice than if he had suggested suicide as a means of improving my health：我之不重视此医生之劝告，有如彼若竟谓自杀乃增进我健康之方法也。

[8]sheer：完全的

[9]tonic：补品

[10]panacea：万应药

[11]sitting up all night long：彻夜不眠

[12]If it were not for this panacea，the pressure of life might even send them to their graves：若无此万应药，人生之压迫或竟驱彼等入墓矣。

[13]liberal education：意义观下文自明

[14]tact：机敏

[15]as opposed to …：别于……而言

[16]advisedly：故意

[17]is not much of …：非为完全之……

[18]drive：乘汽车而游

[19]things frowned upon by ladies and gentlemen of the old school：老派之士女所不赞成之事

[20]stick to their chess and poetry：保守其围棋与吟诗

[21]affect：喜

[22]look on China as the only civilized country in the world：视中国为天下唯一之文明国

[23]Confucius：孔 （夫） 子

[24]has made Chinese civilization what it is：使中国有今日之文化

DEATHS OF OLD PEOPLE

Leigh Hunt[1] wrote charming essay on “Deaths of Little Children”，which has been reprinted in various collections of English essays.[2] But I do not remember ever having read an essay on the death of old people. This subject may not be interesting to young readers； but it has been in my mind ever since the death of my uncle last December，[3] and I feel compelled to[4] write on it.

I am not yet thirty，but I have lost no less than five[5] relatives by death — my grandparents，my uncle and aunt，and a sister. My uncle was the last to go，[6]and his death seemed to me to be the saddest because the other four deaths had all occurred before I was old enough to feel a bereavement[7] keenly.

My uncle died after an apparently slight illness of a few weeks. As a matter of fact，the doctor did not give him up[8] till within a few days of his death. （Dear Dr —，you know as much about health and death as I do； I honour you.） My uncle remained conscious till death，and had even a long chat with me the day before. He died at sixty-seven.

My uncle is dead. It seems impossible，but it is true，cruelly true. It is equally true，however，that I often try to persuade myself [9]that he is still living. I have several times dreamt that he had returned to life，and even that he was discussing with me the wording[10] of the memorial couplets[11]hung on the walls.

“Even children may die”，said a certain[12] Englishman whose name I have forgotten. But I feel inclined to say，“Even old people may die！” Year after year goes by. Some old man or old woman，near and dear to you，continues to live，to all appearance to the end of time.[13] But all too soon[14]the inevitable[15] happens，without a warning. Is it not sad？

Not sad，of course，to those who believe that old people have no business[16] to live and should therefore make their exit[17]as early as possible to make room for[18] the young. The trouble is that this principle does not seem to be very popular among those who are old enough to act up to[19] it.

[1]Leigh Hunt：利·亨特，英国小品文作家，生于1784年，卒于1859年

[2]reprinted in various collections of English essays：重印于各种英文小品文集中

[3]last December：指1934年12月

[4]feel compelled to …：觉有……之必要

[5]no less than five：足有五个之多

[6]go：死去

[7]bereavement：死亡

[8]give him up：声明彼为不可治

[9]persuade myself：使我自己相信

[10]wording：措辞

[11]memorial couplets：挽联

[12]certain：某

[13]to all appearance to the end of time：宛若将无尽期

[14]all too soon：何其速

[15]the inevitable：不可避免之事 （指死亡）

[16]business：权利

[17]make their exit：死

[18]make room for：让

[19]act up to：实行

A SORT OF FALSE PRIDE[1]

In 1821，then at college，Nathaniel Hawthorne[2] wrote to his mother：“What do you think of my becoming an author and relying for my support upon my pen？[3] Indeed，I think the illegibility of my handwriting[4] very author-like.” I agree with Hawthorne that his illegible handwriting is very author-like. Moreover，most great authors write illegibly. But，of course，it is not to be inferred[5] that one cannot possibly write a legible hand[6]as well as write fine books，nor that[7] authorship can be learnt by learning to write illegibly.

There are people，however，who are proud of their inability to write a legible or careful hand. And also[8] proud of their inability to do things that ladies and gentlemen are not generally supposed to have to do.[9]What we call a fine lady[10] may say “I don’t know anything about cooking” with as much pride in her eyes and voice as if she said “I am the best musician[11]in China”； and if you catch her sewing or knitting，[12] she will feel more ashamed than if you catch her kissing her lover.

And I know a returned student from England[13] who boasts of his ignorance of niceties[14]of English grammar，and a professor[15] of English who boasts of his never having paid any attention to any system of phonetic symbols.[16] Perhaps it is not very difficult to find returned students who look upon their inability to speak and write correct Chinese as one of the proofs of their having received a good Western education，and professors who take a pride in[17]saying to their students：“I teach you literature； therefore never mind my mis-spellings and mispronunciation[18]”.

Similar instances may be given in regard to personal conduct.[19] Punctuality[20] and promise-keeping are regarded by many[21] as things to be ashamed rather than proud of. “The dinner starts at seven； so I must arrange not to arrive before seven-thirty[22]” — this is their way of observing the rules of polite society.[23]

[1]False Pride：错误之自尊

[2]Nathaniel Hawthorne：纳撒尼尔·霍桑，美国小说家，生于1804年，卒于1864年

[3]relying for my support upon my pen：借我之笔以为生；操文字生涯

[4]illegibility of my handwriting：我之书法之不清楚

[5]inferred：推论

[6]hand：书法

[7]nor that … = nor is it to be inferred that …

[8]And also = And there are also people who are

[9]have to do：不得不为

[10]fine lady：时髦女子

[11]musician：音乐家

[12]catch her sewing or knitting：发现正在缝衣或编织

[13]returned student from England：留英回国之学生

[14]niceties：微细点

[15]professor：大学教授

[16]phonetic symbols：注音符号

[17]take a pride in …：以……为荣

[18]mis-spellings and mispronunciations：误拼及误读

[19]in regard to personal conduct：关于个人之行为

[20]punctuality：守时刻

[21]many：许多人

[22]must arrange not to arrive before seven-thirty：必须设法在7：30后方到

[23]polite society：上流社会

CO-EDUCATION[1]

Co-education is said to have originated in America. It was adopted in China more than ten years ago. There are many other things that originated in foreign countries and were later adopted in China，such as the telephone，Christmas cards，[2] neon light，[3] and permanent waves[4] that need to be renewed permanently. And as there are people who dislike the telephone，or make it a rule never to send a Christmas card，or hate the sight of neon light or permanent waves，there are those who do not favour[5] co-education.

Like some old authors and old books，co-education，after being neglected as a topic for discussion for a long time，began to be much discussed recently，as a result，it seems，of [6]the alleged fact[7] that an effort had been made in certain quarters[8] to put an end to[9]co-education.

In my opinion — well，I do not care[10] to repeat any pros and cons[11]here. My opinion is that so long as[12] boys and girls are well，or ill，educated，it makes little difference[13] whether they are educated together or separately. Take the teaching of English.[14]You can never make a boy and a girl，no matter[15] whether at the same desk or in two rooms a hundred miles apart，learn to use correct current English by teaching Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare.[16]

It is time that[17]education was[18] taken good care of instead of [19] paying much attention to the question of “co-educating”[20] or “de-co-educating”.[21] I do not think there are any boys who cannot learn anything when there are girls or no girls in the same room，nor any girls who cannot learn anything when there are boys or no boys in the same room. And I suppose that a good teacher can teach well in one-sex[22] rooms and two-sex[23]rooms alike，while a bad teacher — well，can he ever teach well？

[1]Co-education：男女同校

[2]Christmas cards：圣诞节贺卡

[3]neon light：霓虹灯

[4]permanent waves：电烫卷发

[5]favour：赞成

[6]as a result，it seems，of：似因

[7]alleged fact：据述之事实

[8]certain quarters：某方面

[9]put an end to：制止

[10]do not care：不欲

[11]pros and cons：赞成及反对之理由

[12]so long as …：在……之时，只要……

[13]makes little difference：不甚重要

[14]Take the teaching of English：例如英文之教授

[15]no matter：不论

[16]Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare：兰姆的《莎士比亚故事集》（Lamb 即Charles Lamb，英国文学家，生于1775年，卒于1834年，此书系Charles 与其姊Mary 合著）

[17]It is time that …：此时应……

[18]was：按“it is time …”后所用动词常用过去式

[19]instead of：而不

[20]“co-educating”：男女同校

[21]“de-co-educating”：制止男女同校

[22]one-sex：只有男或女的

[23]two-sex：男女兼有的

LOVE OF NEW NAMES

The other day I was asked to write a “foreword”[1] for a new book. I wrote one； but，being in doubt whether I should call what I wrote “foreword” or “preface”，I consulted The Concise Oxford Dictionary，[2] which told me that “foreword” is usually used of a preface written by another than the author of the book. Looking up[3] the same word in Modern English Usage，[4]I found it described as a vogue-word[5] with people who love a new name for an old thing.

That people are fond of novelties is obvious.[6]For instance motor-cars of 1935 are more in demand[7] than those of 1934.

But it is not quite obvious that people are also fond of new names for old things. It is nevertheless true，though.[8] A lady’s gown used to[9]be called a “dress”，but nowadays[10] there are many who like to call it a “frock”. And，what is more interesting，[11]an old thing may come into vogue as soon as it has got a new name.

I know some persons who always seek to use new names. They never have a cold，but sometimes have a catarrh.[12] They wear spectacles not because of near-sightedness but because of myopia.[13]

I could give many examples of the vogue of Chinese new names； I do not do so，simply because this is an English essay. I do not think it improper，however，to give one or two. Modern men and women do not refer to poverty as “穷”，but dignify[14]it with the phrase “经济压迫”. And I am inclined to think that the frequency with which we read and hear of cases of suicide is to some extent[15] due to[16] the vogue of the phrases “自杀” and “厌世”.

New names of persons are as popular as new names of things. There are persons who change their names as often as they change their shirts. Pseudonyms[17]are a kind of new names. Though I am by no means a novelty-hunter，[18] yet I use the pseudonym Thomas Tsun in this series of essays instead of my real name，which is H—z and something after it.

[1]forward：序文

[2]The Concise Oxford Dictionary：此书系英国牛津大学出版社出版

[3]looking up：查得

[4]Modern English Usage：此书亦系英国牛津大学出版社出版

[5]vogue-word：时髦字

[6]That people are fond of novelties is obvious：人之喜新奇事物，乃显然者也

[7]in demand：被人需要的

[8]though：但

[9]used to …：往往……

[10]nowadays：现今

[11]what is more interesting：事有更足注意者

[12]catarrh：伤风

[13]myopia：近视

[14]dignify：使……尊贵

[15]to some extent：多少；有些

[16]due to：因

[17]pseudonyms：笔名

[18]am by no means a novelty-hunter：决非追求新奇事物者

DOCTORS

An English poet — I forgot who — says that he hates theft but does not hate thieves. He probably means that while theft is in itself very abominable，[1] thieves are usually poor creatures[2] to be pitied rather than despised and hated. I am inclined to hold a similar opinion in regard to medical science[3] and medical men：[4] in plain English，[5] I believe in medical science but do not believe in doctors.

The reason why I am inclined to hold this opinion is that I have heard of many cases of patients’ being made worse or even killed by their doctors，[6]though the science itself is no doubt[7] making constant progress. Some time ago I mentioned my opinion to a friend who is one of the few Chinese young men I know who can write fine English. As he looked surprised at my words，I explained that just as there are many people who，despite their studies in English，[8] cannot use the language correctly，there are many who are or have been careful students of medical science but are not quite well versed in the art of healing.[9]“I don’t quite agree with you”，said my friend； “for medicines can deceive no-one”. “Well，” I replied，“medicines，as well as words，are apt to be misused. When you condemn a sentence as un-English，the fact is not that the words composing it are not in themselves good English but that they are not properly used. Moreover，to talk about rules of grammar and principles of rhetoric is one thing，but to write faultless English is another.[10] Likewise，to lecture on medical science is not the same thing as to save a man from death or to restore him to health. And the trouble is that while many teachers of grammar and rhetoric are clever enough to content themselves with[11]teaching others to write English，there do not seem to be many people who do not care to make some practical use of the medical principles and rules that they have learnt enough of the science to talk about.”

I do not mean，however，that there are no good doctors under the sun.[12] Elizabeth Stevenson Gaskell[13] says in the first chapter of her novel Cranford：“But every man cannot be a surgeon[14]”. Nor can every doctor be a good doctor. We have but[15] one life to live and therefore cannot well afford[16] to treat it as material for doctors’ experiment.

[1]abominable：可恨的

[2]poor creatures：可怜之人

[3]medical science：医学

[4]medical men：医生

[5]in plain English：明言之

[6]patients’ being made worse or even killed by their doctors：病人之被其医生所加重其病或竟被杀

[7]no doubt：无疑；当然

[8]despite their studies in English：虽彼等研究英文

[9]not quite well versed in the art of healing：不甚精于医术

[10]… is one thing，but … is another：……为一事，但……乃另为一事

[11]content themselves with …：以……自足；不作……以外之事

[12]under the sun：天下

[13]Elizabeth Stevenson Gaskell

[14]every man cannot be a surgeon：并非人人得而为外科医生

[15]but：仅；只

[16]cannot well afford：不堪；不能

MONEY IS TIME

“Time is money” is a very popular saying，in spite of the sad fact that[1] in the prevailing world-wide depression[2] there are only too many who are trying in vain to turn part of their time into money. Fortunately，I do not now happen to be one of these. But then I have come to find as much truth in “Money is time” as in “Time is money”. While I am indeed much luckier than those whose only work is to seek work，[3] I always have too much work to do to have much time that I may call my own. It is Arnold Bennett[4] that says something to the effect that[5] with man and cat alike a day consists of twenty-four hours. But I almost have a feeling that with me a day is much shorter than with many other people. This is due to the necessity I am under of [6]working and working to support myself and those whom it is both my duty and my right to support.

Besides spending six hours and a half in an office，I have to work about four hours every week-day，[7] and on Sundays I also have to work a few hours. So that[8] I have very little time left for reading and correspondence and any form of “having a good time”. Reading is a great pleasure to me，but I blush to own that I can now find time to read practically[9]nothing except this Weekly and occasionally a short story，an essay，a poem，or an article in some newspaper or magazine — and even this much I do not think I could read if I were not the fairly[10] quick reader that I am. The other day I said in jest to an intimate friend，“I wish I could be paid for reading”. Well，if you will send me ten or fifteen dollars a week，I will undertake to read a new book，say[11]of three hundred pages，during the same period and submit a weekly report to you.

The saying “Money is time”，however，is not mine. I came across[12] it some years ago，when I had more time to read，in George Gissing’s Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft，[13] the hero[14]of this book，who is an elderly scholar，speaks feelingly[15] of the days when he was perhaps even less of a “leisured gentleman”[16] than I am.

The frequent references that I make to authors and books in this series of articles may lead you to think that I devote a good deal of [17]time to reading every day. I have to confess，however，that I have not read five books[18] during the past year or so.

[1]in spite of the sad fact that …：虽有……之可悲事实

[2]world-wide depression：全世界之不景气

[3]whose only work is to seek work：其唯一之工作为寻工作 （谓欲求工作而不得也）

[4]Arnold Bennett：阿诺德·本涅特，英国文学家，生于1867年，卒于1931年

[5]to the effect that …：其意谓……

[6]the necessity I am under of …：我之不得不……

[7]week-day：工作日

[8]So that：故；所以

[9]practically：几乎

[10]fairly：尚可

[11]say：假定

[12]came across：遇

[13]George Gissing’s Private Papers of Henry Ryecroft：乔治·吉辛的《四季随笔》（吉辛系英国文学家，生于1857年，卒于1903年，此书系属笔记体）

[14]hero：主人公

[15]feelingly：深有所感

[16]leisured gentleman：有闲之上等人

[17]a good deal of：许多

[18]have not read five books：未读满五本书

ARTIFICIAL[1] SPEECH

If I am not mistaken，[2] one of the essential differences between a modern Chinese gentleman or lady and a Chinese gentleman or lady who is not modern at all is that the former[3] uses an artificial speech and the latter[4] uses a natural speech. Calling a spade a spade[5] is now as much out of fashion[6]as any custom in dress that obtained[7] twenty or thirty years ago.

Believe me or not as you will，[8] but I，who am in no way[9]“modern”，have lately discovered this characteristic of modern Chinese gentlemen and ladies； that is，[10] they use a speech that is something like translation from some foreign tongue.[11]They will say “我很和你表同情”，when they mean they sympathize. They will say “生活太单调了”，when they suffer from ennui.[12] They will ask you “你的健康怎样”，and if you say you are all right，they will reply “我乐于听到这句话”. When you are in their good graces，[13] they treat you as their “亲爱的对象”. They may from time to time take you with them on an excursion to “陶醉在大自然的怀抱中”，though they hold[14]that it is only the “弱者” that “逃避现实”.

Such artificial expressions abound in all the Chinese talkies[15] that I have ever attended. In one of them a young gentleman courts[16] a servant girl by making an eloquent appeal in this kind of speech. I wonder whether in real life servant girls would understand this gentleman-like speech. But then a girl cannot possibly fail to[17]understand when a young man speaks to her，whatever form of speech he may use. She knows what he says without troubling to find out the meaning of the words and phrases he says.

To return to artificial speech，which，as I have said，is something like translation from some foreign tongue. By the way，it seems to me that no-one who uses this artificial speech can speak perfect English. I cannot tell why.[18]

[1]Artificial：人造的；不自然的

[2]If I am not mistaken：若我所见不误

[3]the former：前者

[4]the latter：后者

[5]Calling a spade a spade：作直截了当之语

[6]out of fashion：不合时的

[7]obtained：盛行

[8]Believe me or not as you will：不论君信我此言与否

[9]in no way：绝不

[10]that is：即

[11]foreign tongue：外国语

[12]ennui：无聊；厌倦

[13]are in their good graces：被彼等所爱

[14]hold …：持……之意见

[15]talkies：有声电影

[16]courts …：向……求爱

[17]cannot possibly fail to …：必能……

[18]cannot tell why：不知何故

THE IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING WEN-LI [1]

Granting that[2] pei-hua[3] is not only easier to read and write but also more expressive[4] than wen-li，I still hold that it is necessary for all of us to learn wen-li — to learn to write it as well as to read it.

You must not，however，understand me to say[5] that I see in wen-li any intrinsic value[6]not possessed by pei-hua，still less[7] that I regard wen-li as a means，or even the means，[8] of national salvation.[9]My reason for insisting on the importance of learning wen-li is a “utilitarian”[10] one，so to speak.[11]

Say what you will against[12] wen-li — and I think I can say a great deal against it — you cannot but[13] have something to do with[14]it，so long as it is so widely used as it is today. If you cannot read wen-li，you cannot read newspapers，you cannot read any kind of official or legal document，[15] you cannot read any kind of regulations，[16] you cannot read many social and friendly letters，you cannot read those advertisements which are written in wen-li though the books or magazines they advertise are written in pei-hua，and you cannot read such sentences as“投稿请用白话，文言恕不刊登” and “然则文言之不应复见于今日，夫复奚疑”. You do not like wen-li，but wen-li confronts you on all hands. You cannot avoid it，any more than[17]you can bring about[18] a breeze simply by complaining of the heat.

I seem to hear you say：“Yes，I have to read wen-li，but I will not write wen-li. Pei-hua is far more expressive.” Well，there are many occasions when you are not allowed to be expressive. Suppose you are secretary[19] to some boss，you will have to write wenli for him. If you say “I should prefer pei-hua，because it is far more expressive”，he may consider you a language reformer[20] but will not agree to your suggestion. And if you insist that a letter should not be allowed to lose expressiveness by being written in the inexpressive wen-li，he may lose his temper[21] and you may lose your position.

And perhaps there are gentlemen and ladies who write their “literary” works[22] in pei-hua，but who hate being addressed as “你” or “您”. I am not one of these，however.

[1]Wen-li：文理（即文言文）

[2]Granting that：假定

[3]pei-hua：白话

[4]expressive：达意的

[5]understand me to say …：以为我意为……

[6]intrinsic value：内在之价值

[7]still less：更非

[8]the means：唯一之方法

[9]national salvation：救国

[10]utilitarian：实用的

[11]so to speak：可说

[12]Say what you will against …：君尽可作反对……之论

[13]cannot but：不得不

[14]have something to do with …：与……有关

[15]document：文件

[16]regulations：章程

[17]cannot …，any more than …：不能……犹不能……也

[18]bring about：致成

[19]secretary：秘书

[20]language reformer：文字改革家

[21]lose his temper：发怒

[22]“literary” works：“文学”作品

A STRANGE DREAM

I had a strange dream the other night.[1] I dreamt that a near relative of mine who died last year rose from the dead[2] and appeared in our sitting-room. He looked every bit[3] like himself or，if anything，[4] a little younger than when he died. I was very much frightened and ran upstairs to tell my father，who was greatly surprised to hear it and came down at once. He inquired of the old man （for my relative lived to be nearly seventy） how he had risen from the grave.[5] The old man kept silence，[6]and it was not until my father had repeated his question several times that he declared himself，[7] saying that he was a member of an amateur dramatic club[8] and that he had merely personated[9]the old man to play a trick on our family. I was going to remonstrate with the young man （for the supposed old man had now proved to be a young man），but I awoke with a start.[10]

Dreams are often unexplainable. But I can account for[11]this strange dream after a fashion.[12]

Several weeks ago I attended a performance of Shakespeare’s Hamlet，[13] in which the ghost of the murdered king appeared to his son. About a week ago I reread 侯方域’s[14]《马伶传》，in which the actor Mr 马 is described as being able to imitate 严嵩[15] exactly. On the day preceding my strange dream，I read in a newspaper of [16] the discovery of an old grave containing a corpse looking like a living man.

Coupled with[17]all this is the fact that not a day passes but[18] I think of my dead relative and wish he were still with us.

It is by no means easy to construct a story with the material afforded by a few unconnected hints. I wonder how my strange dream was possible，which was not the production of a story writer.

[1]the other night：数夜之前

[2]rose from the dead：复活

[3]every bit：完全

[4]if anything：若有不同之处

[5]risen from the grave：复活

[6]keep silence：不作声

[7]declared himself：显示自己为何人

[8]amateur dramatic club：业余戏剧俱乐部

[9]personated：扮作

[10]awoke with a start：惊醒

[11]account for：解明

[12]after a fashion：多少；约略

[13]Shakespeare’s Hamlet：莎士比亚所著之悲剧《哈姆雷特》

[14]侯方域：按侯方域系明末文学家

[15]严嵩：明朝大臣

[16]read in a newspaper of：在某报中读及

[17]coupled with …：与……相连

[18]not a day passes but …：无日不……

A “MODEL” FRIENDLY LETTER

Friends，or rather mere acquaintances，who cannot hold a conversation for ten minutes without talking about the weather often promise to write to each other[1] when they part.[2] And having promised to write，they do write，though not until each begins to think the other has forgotten his promise.

At last one of them writes，in spite of the fact[3] that he really has nothing to write about. Well，a friendly letter should not be too short. So he devotes one paragraph to expressing his surprise at not having heard from[4] the other yet，two or three paragraphs to an indexed[5] statement of reasons why he has not written before，one paragraph to an account of his “present condition” （which，by the way，he says is not well worth speaking of ），[6]and one or two paragraphs to the reasons why he has now to bring the letter to a close[7] and a promise to get off a longer letter by and by.[8]

Having received this letter，the other man writes a reply that is similar to it except that the first paragraph is given over not to expressing any sort of surprise but to mentioning the fact that he was just going to write when he received the letter.

After this exchange of letters，it will be some months before[9]one of the two men thinks of writing again. And there are always reasons for not having written before and for having to bring the letter to a close earlier than was expected. Things[10] are always going along as usual.[11]A longer letter is always promised，but never sent.

Such is what I call a “model” friendly letter. This dull and infrequent correspondence goes on till one of the men writes to the other a much shorter letter，which begins “Can you oblige me with[12] …？” or “I write to request ...” or the like. The monotony[13] is now broken. But then the letter is not a friendly one； it does not read very much unlike one addressed to “Gentlemen”[14]and enclosing a money order[15] for so much money for such and such goods.

[1]write to each other：互相通信

[2]part：相别

[3]in spite of the fact：虽有此事实

[4]heard from …：接到……之信

[5]indexed：列举的

[6]not well worth speaking of：不甚有述及之价值

[7]bring the letter to a close：结束此信

[8]by and by：不久以后

[9]it will be some months before …：须数月后……

[10]Things：一切情状

[11]as usual：如常的

[12]Can you oblige me with …？ 君能以……加惠于我否？

[13]monotony：单调

[14]Gentlemen：诸位先生

[15]money order：汇票

PERSONAL MAGNETISM[1]

I do not remember the exact words，but I remember that about twelve years ago a Dutch astrologer[2] wrote to me something to the effect that[3] after examining my handwriting he was sure that I possessed much personal magnetism.

Perhaps he regarded me as a man whom to know is to love.[4] The fact，however，is that while I sometimes receive kind and even affectionate letters from unknown friends，I have never met anybody who avowed something like a personal interest in me. I do not think I am one whom to know is to hate，nor even that my personal appearance[5] is in any way repellent.[6]But I have to own that I possess no personal magnetism at all.

And I even wonder whether what we call “personal magnetism” exists anywhere except where sex appeal[7] is involved. Between persons of the same sex personal contact does not count for much.[8] Just as it is often the distance that lends charm to a tree or a hill，[9]so it is often the mere fact of unacquaintedness[10] that causes one to respect or even worship another.

Some time ago a young man who had corresponded with me for a long time before he came to see me，sent me a few questions about points in some literary works，asking me to answer them. I answered all the questions to the best of my ability.[11]But he wrote to say that he did not find my answers as satisfactory as those published in this Weekly I had to reply as follows：

I think there are three reasons why you do not find my answers as satisfactory as those published in the Weekly. The first is that your questions are rather difficult to answer. The second is that my answers to you are written instead of printed. But the chief reason is that you are now quite intimately acquainted with me.

[1]Magnetism：吸引力；魔力

[2]Dutch astrologer：荷兰国之占星家

[3]to the effect that …：意谓……

[4]to know is to love：一经认识即生爱慕

[5]personal appearance：容貌

[6]repellent：取厌于人的

[7]sex appeal：性的诱惑

[8]does not count for much：无甚价值

[9]it is often the distance that lends charm to a tree or a hill：一树或一小山之美丽，往往因其在远处而然也。

[10]unacquaintedness：不认识

[11]to the best of my ability：尽我所能

ON MIXING ENGLISH AND CHINESE WORDS IN CONVERSATION

It[1] is now very common among the educated，[2] mixing English and Chinese words in conversation. They talk Chinese，but their Chinese contains some English words； for example：

A：Mr 王，你的salary 加了么？

B：上月加了fifteen。你知道Mr 李近来怎样？

A：我好久没有meet 他。昨天他的father 说起他将要marry了。

B：他marry 的当然是Miss 张。她年纪还不过twenty 左右。

If I am not mistaken，the English words thus contained are usually nouns and verbs，sometimes adjectives and adverbs，never pronouns，prepositions，and conjunctions. Thus，while “Dr 陆请我在Capitol 看电影” is usual，sentences like “陆博士请me at 光陆看电影” are never heard.

I do not see any good[3] in this mixed speech，except when an idea cannot for the moment[4] be easily expressed in Chinese，as，for example，that of the word “sonnet[5]”.

Perhaps some of those who talk in this way aim at practice in English conversation. But they are wrong. This is not the way to practice English conversation.

Well，I would advise practising English conversation by mixing English and Chinese words in another manner. That is，by talking English and substituting[6]an occasional Chinese word or two when an idea cannot be easily expressed in English； for example：

A：Where are you going，Mr Wang？

B：To the Chung Hwa Book Company[7] for some books and 仪器.

A：Have you read the 特大号 of the Weekly？ They contain many good articles.

B：I haven’t read them yet. I got back to Shanghai only this morning，from a visit to a 姑丈.

But I do not think that most of those who use English words in their Chinese conversation aim at learning to speak English. They do so simply because so many others do so. In speech，as well in dress，fashion has its place.[8] Man is no less imitative than[9]monkeys are.

[1]It：指下文“mixing English and Chinese words in conversation.”

[2]the educated：曾受教育者

[3]good：益处

[4]for the moment：暂时

[5]sonnet：十四行诗 （一种诗体之名）

[6]substituting …：以……代入

[7]Chung Hwa Book Company：中华书局

[8]has its place：有其地位

[9]no less imitative than：与……有同样程度之摹仿性

“BECAUSE OF” AND “IN SPITE OF”

“But great authors”，I say in my preface to Studies in English Grammar，[1] “if you please，[2] are great，not because of their faultless English，but rather in spite of the faults in their English”. Now the phrases “because of” and “in spite of” play important parts[3] in controversies and quarrels. If I say that a certain author is great in spite of his faulty English，someone else may reply that that author is great because of his faulty English. If I say that a certain young man cannot write correct current English because of his exclusive study of the classics，[4] someone else may reply that that young man cannot write correct current English in spite of his exclusive study of the classics.

When a doctor loses a patient，[5] he will say “He died in spite of my efforts to save him”. The fact，however，may be that the man died because of the doctor’s efforts to save him. “Because of” or “in spite of”，the doctor is paid.

The clever use of these two phrases may also give one an appearance of wisdom and authority. Let me speak of doctors again. If you say to a doctor，“I think I have caught cold[6]because of the scanty clothing I wear”，he may say，“No，sir； you have caught cold in spite of the scanty clothing you wear. One cannot be too scantily clothed these days.”[7] On the other hand，[8] if you say to a doctor，“I still have a headache in spite of my long rest”，he may say，“No，sir； your headache remains because of your long rest. Work vigorously，and you will get rid of [9]your headache in no time.”[10] I have heard more than one doctor give such clever replies.

The other day a text-book writer told me about a returned student’s criticism[11]of his book. “He accuses many of the sentences of lacking variety”，[12] the writer said. “He does not realize that I have made many of the sentences similar in structure on purpose to[13] impress the readers deeply”. Well，both writer and critic may have much to say. If they think fit[14]to resort to the phrases “because of” and “in spite of”，they will not find much difficulty in maintaining an interesting controversy.

[1]Studies in English Grammar：《英文文法精义》

[2]if you please：君其不以为非；竟然

[3]play important parts：占重要之地位

[4]exclusive study of the classics：专读文学名著

[5]a doctor loses a patient：医生失其病人 （谓病人死去也）

[6]caught cold：伤风

[7]One cannot be too scantily clothed these days：现今人们穿衣愈少愈佳

[8]On the other hand：反之

[9]get rid of：除去

[10]in no time：立刻

[11]a returned student’s criticism：某留学生之评论

[12]lacking variety：缺乏变化

[13]on purpose to …：以……为目的

[14]think fit to do：决定

A LETTER TO A FRIEND WHO IS SEEKING EMPLOYMENT

Dear C —，

I am very sorry，but not the least surprised，[1] to learn that you have not got a position yet. I am too small to be able to recommend any man； but even if I were as influential as I am small，[2] I do not think I could recommend you for any sort of position. For I cannot think of any sort of position that requires a man of your ability — except that some day[3] I might be rich enough to employ someone to study English literature with me.

I admire your knowledge of English. I do not know of many Chinese who can write and speak English as well as you. But you are wrong，if you think that because you can write and speak English so well，you would make[4] a good teacher of English or a good writer of English books.

Just consider the word “teacher”，which means one who teaches. A teacher of English is one who teaches English，not one who writes or speaks English. He is not required to write and speak English； he is required to teach others to write and speak English. And he is required to teach in the standard way. For instance，he must talk about unity and coherence[5] and euphony，[6]though he may not be interested in such things himself.

As to being a writer of English books，you must learn the art before you can become one. This art you can learn only by reading a number of [7] English books published in China. If you wish to write a book on English composition，the very silliest thing you could do would be to improve your own ability to write English. That would be a waste of time and energy. And it is only fools and children that believe that all writers of books on English composition can write English themselves.

Now you have learnt neither the art of teaching English nor that of writing English books. You can write and speak English well. You are free to[8] make some English friends and to marry an English girl. You are welcome to[9]correspond[10] with me in English and talk nothing but English whenever you see me. But you have only yourself to thank[11]if you cannot get a position.

Yours sympathizingly，

Thomas Tsun

[1]not the least surprised：毫不以为奇怪

[2]as influential as I am small：其有势力之程度，一如今日渺小之程度

[3]some day：将来之某日

[4]make：成为

[5]coherence：连贯

[6]euphony：和谐

[7]a number of：许多

[8]are free to …：尽可……

[9]are welcome to …：尽可……

[10]correspond：通信

[11]have only yourself to thank：乃自取耳 （非他人之过也）

POETRY AND POVERTY

The poverty of poets is proverbial.[1] It seems as if only poor men cared to write poetry. A “rich poet” is almost a contradiction in terms，[2] and，so far as I know，there does not exist any popular poem that gives a self-portrait of one wallowing in money.[3]

For my part，[4] however，I think I would and could produce a poem or two from time to time[5] if I had the money to do so. I am in danger of being misunderstood，[6]but by “if I had the money” I mean if I were better off [7] than I am. I learnt Chinese verse-writing at an early age，and to this day[8] I know by heart[9]a number of well-known Chinese poems； and as to English poetry I seem to have read more than any of my intimate friends has. I should take as much delight in composing Chinese poems as in writing little English essays like the present series. If I do not write a single Chinese poem these days，it is because I am not better off. I am now thirty years of age according to the Chinese way of computation，[10] and “Thoughts at Thirty” would be a very likely title for a series of short poems. But I am not rich enough to write any. Some time ago I said in a friendly letter：“I have for some time been thinking of writing a few Chinese poems about my birthday. But I have to give up the idea；[11]for while the work would have to take many hours，it could not possibly be sold. I must spare the time for writing English，which is certainly a better commodity.”[12]

My case does not at all belie[13] the proverbial relation between poetry and poverty. Since poetry is unsaleable，one cannot make one’s living[14]by writing poetry. To try to do so is to court[15] poverty.

Incidentally，both “poetry” and “poverty” begin with po and end in y，both are pleasant words，and in both Chinese and English literatures there are many poems that praise poverty. But there are things that seem romantic or picturesque enough when read about but are none too[16] agreeable when personally experienced. Among these are absolute loneliness，sleeplessness，benightedness，[17]lovelornness，[18] and poverty.

[1]proverbial：众人皆知的

[2]contradiction in terms：矛盾语

[3]wallowing in money：大富的

[4]For my part：至于我

[5]from time to time：有时

[6]in danger of being misunderstood：有被人误解之可能

[7]better off：较为宽裕的

[8]to this day：直至今日

[9]know by heart：熟知

[10]I am now thirty years of age according to the Chinese way of computation：依中国计算法，余今年三十 （按此文系1935年所作）

[11]．give up the idea：打消此意

[12]commodity：商品

[13]belie …：证……为妄

[14]make one’s living：谋生

[15]court：求；招致

[16]none too：极不

[17]benightedness：旅中遇夜

[18]lovelornness：失恋

HEARING SPEECHES

Hearing speeches is one of a few things that I consider a great treat[1] not to have to do often. The latest speech I ever heard was one delivered by the principal witness[2] at a wedding. I did not enjoy the speech at all. If I was patient enough to hear it out，[3] it was because I was well aware that soon after the speech the dinner would follow. I was enough of an animal to look forward to[4] the dinner，but was too little of an intellect[5] to find in the speech the least of what we call intellectual food.[6]

Speeches at weddings are admittedly uninteresting； for marriages and weddings are common enough，and it is by no means easy to say something new about them. But is seems to me that of the numerous speeches on various subjects as delivered by leaders and non-leaders in various walks of life[7] and reproduced or summarized in the papers，[8] very few are really worthy of consideration. To read them is like reading some school compositions. I simply cannot find wherein lies the difference between what some eminent men say in their speeches to graduating college students and what the average schoolboy of fifteen says in an essay with a title such as “Students and Society”，neither in matter nor in manner.[9]If you please，I have never heard a speech that is as thought-provoking[10] as some “vulgar” plays[11]I have attended.

If I were a bigwig[12] and were often requested to deliver speeches，I think I should do well to[13] employ a junior middle school student[14]and tell him to write a number of essays on international cooperation，[15] patriotism，good citizenship，student culture，punctuality，and kindred[16] subjects，as speeches to suit various occasions. I even wonder whether no bigwig has ever employed a “speech-secretary” of qualifications like those above referred to.

Of course，essays like the present series will never serve as speeches. Nor will they pass muster[17]in any sort of examination either，as you know only too[18] well.

[1]treat：乐事

[2]principal witness：证婚人

[3]hear it out：听完之

[4]look forward to：盼望

[5]intellect：智者

[6]intellectual food：智慧上之粮食

[7]leaders and non-leaders in various walks of life：各界之领袖与非领袖

[8]papers：报纸

[9]neither in matter nor in manner：无论在内容或形式上皆不能

[10]thought-provoking：启发人之思想的

[11]“vulgar” plays：俗剧

[12]bigwig：大人物

[13]do well to …：不妨……

[14]junior middle school student：初中生

[15]international cooperation：国际合作

[16]kindred：同类的

[17]pass muster：合格

[18]only too：却甚

THE GENERAL TALKER

I cannot give an exact definition of a modern gentleman as I see him，[1] nor do I think I can do him full justice in the way of portraiture[2] in a short essay of，say，three hundred words. But it seems to me to be safe to say that one cannot be a modern gentleman without being a general talker. He may not possess an accurate knowledge of anything，but he knows enough of many things to talk about them. He may not have any shop to talk；[3] if he has any，[4] he takes care not to talk it，for talking shop is ungentlemanly. But silence，too，is ungentlemanly. So he is a general talker — one who talks about things about which gentlemen in general[5] are supposed to be able to talk and to hear others talk.

For instance，the general talker talks about the Italo-Abyssinian war.[6]He talks about it to his friends in the belief that they know something about it. If someone should own that he has never heard of it，he will be put down as[7] an ungentlemanly man.

The general talker talks not as a dictionary，nor as a newspaper，but as a man，a gentleman. He has more views[8] than news to give，and is more a prophet than a chronicler.[9]He says “It is bound to lead to a second world war”[10] or “It cannot possibly lead to a second world war”，though he himself does not know what his prophecy is based upon.[11]Fortunately，he is not likely ever to be held responsible[12] for his talk. The general talker talks for talk’s sake[13] only.

It is regrettable，however，that there are people who take a leaf out of the general talker’s book when they should not talk for talk’s sake. Read accounts of interview[14]in newspapers，and you will see that in persons of [15] whom special information and responsible statements are expected we may often find the mere general talker as he talks over a cup of tea.

[1]a modern gentleman as I see him：我观察下之现代上等人

[2]do him full justice in the way of portraiture：充分描写之

[3]may not have any shop to talk：或无行话可说

[4]any = any shop to talk

[5]gentlemen in general：一般之上等人

[6]Italo-Abyssinian war：意大利与埃塞俄比亚间的战争

[7]put down as：视为

[8]views：意见

[9]is more a prophet than a chronicler：乃预言家而非作史家

[10]is bound to lead to a second world war：必引起第二次世界大战

[11]does not know what his prophecy is based upon：不知其预言有何根据

[12]be held responsible：被认为负有负责

[13]talks for talk’s sake：为谈话而谈话

[14]interviews：（与名人之） 访问

[15]of = from

“WE HAVE NO CAUSE TO BE PROUD”[1]

On a Sunday afternoon in October 1935 I visited a book-shop with a friend who is so deeply versed in English grammar as to[2] well deserve the nickname[3] “grammarian”，given him by his intimate friends，I among the rest.[4] We looked into[5] an English magazine and found a very long article written by a Chinese. It was written in fine though not absolutely faultless English[6]and did not at all betray its writer’s nationality.[7] “For all[8] our studies in English，” I said to my friend，“neither of us has ever written so long an article. You rejoice in[9]your nickname ‘grammarian’，and I rejoice in my nickname ‘pure’ （that is，one who insists on pure English[10]）. But what cause have we to be proud of our attainments[11]in English when we think of the Chinese who wrote this admirable article？”

Coming out of the book-shop we went on to a theatre to see a ballet.[12] All the girls danced very nicely，and one of them，who could not be over eighteen，[13] moved her body，especially the lower part，in an almost incredibly nimble manner.[14]We watched with undivided attention，[15] and many people clapped their hands.[16] “We have still less[17]cause，” said my friend，“to be proud，when we see these girls，who are，and deserve to be，thus acclaimed. For is it possible that we can ever do something in public that draws[18] so many people as these girls’ dancing does？”

From the theatre to a walk. On a busy street we saw a little beggar of about seven playing with a pair of knives in front of a shop. His skill was marvellous，though the copper he expected was problematical.[19] “Outdone[20] by a little beggar！” said I. “I think that boy could learn the English alphabet[21] far more easily than I could learn to practise his knife art with such dexterity”.[22]

[1]We Have No Cause to Be Proud：我们无自傲之理由

[2]is so deeply versed in English grammar as to …：对于英文文法，如是精通，故……

[3]nickname：绰号

[4]I among the rest：我为其中一人

[5]looked into：翻阅

[6]fine though not absolutely faultless English：虽非绝对无疵但亦可称佳美之英文

[7]did not at all betray its writer’s nationality：并不显露作者之国籍 （意即并不显露其为中国人）

[8]for all …：尽管有……

[9]rejoice in：享有

[10]pure English：纯粹之英文

[11]attainments：造诣

[12]ballet：芭蕾舞剧

[13]could not be over eighteen：决不过十八岁

[14]in an almost incredibly nimble manner：其灵活之状，几乎令人难信

[15]with undivided attention：聚精会神

[16]clapped their hands：拍手

[17]still less：更无

[18]draws：引动

[19]the copper he expected was problematical：彼所冀之铜钱，未必可得

[20]outdone：胜过

[21]alphabet：字母表

[22]dexterity：灵活

HOW TO KEEP FIT[1]

Many books and articles have been written on this subject. Because of，rather than in spite of，this，[2] I have decided to write this little essay. For one of my secrets of health is to abstain from[3] reading such books and articles. I often say that the reading of books on grammar and rhetoric does not help one much in composition. As to books and articles on health and hygiene，I am inclined to think that by reading them one may prevent one’s health from improving or even get worse results.

For such books and articles，as a rule[4]，contain names of diseases and seem to say that everyone is subject to[5] many of them，that even a very slight illness may result in death，and，by implication，[6]that everyone is liable to die at any time.[7] To read them is to be reminded of one’s ever-present[8] possibility of death.

I know some people who see in every second-hand book，in every cloud of dust，[9]in every cup that is not their own，even in every room that is not well decorated，the germs of some disease or other[10] that might carry them off overnight.[11]Such people always complain of bad health. They consult doctors very often，the doctors give them technical[12] advice in technical terms，they receive doses from the doctors，the doctors receive dollars from them. When they die，they die of [13] a disease the name of which they have long been acquainted with because they are really interested in diseases though they think they are interested in good health.

I have mentioned only one of my secrets of health. There are some others，but they are quite similar to the one I have just mentioned. For convenience’ sake，[14]I write some below in the form of commandments：[15]

1. Thou shalt[16] not take a physical examination regularly.

2. Thou shalt not listen to friends who call you pale or sickly.[17]

3. Thou shalt not make friends with doctors.

4. Thou shalt not marry a nurse.

Well，I do not need to go further. I am afraid you have already come to the conclusion that I have been jilted[18] by some nurse. Which is not true.

[1]Fit：健康的

[2]Because of，rather than in spite of，this：因为如此而非虽然如此

[3]abstain from：免；不

[4]as a rule：通常

[5]subject to：易患

[6]implication：含意

[7]is liable to die at any time：随时有死之可能

[8]ever-present：常在的

[9]a cloud of dust：一阵灰尘

[10]some disease or other：某病

[11]carry them off overnight：不终朝而使之死

[12]technical：专门的

[13]die of …：因……而死

[14]For convenience’ sake：为便利起见

[15]commandments：诫

[16]thou shalt：“you shall”之古文

[17]sickly：有疾的

[18]jilted：遗弃

AUTHOR WORSHIP[1]

Being the author of some books on English，[2] and some of them in English，[3] I often receive letters of appreciation from readers who credit me with[4] a far better knowledge of the language than I really possess. This makes me feel ashamed. As a matter of fact，if I seem to some of my readers to be perfectly at home with[5] English，it is mainly，if not solely，due to[6]the printed page，from which I myself am sometimes surprised to find that it should be myself that wrote what appears on it.[7]

The magic of the printed page accounts for author worship，which，strange to say，[8] is not quite uncommon among the younger generation[9]in this godless and heroless age. Gods and heroes are，so to speak，intangible； you read about them but do not see anything they have done. But a book is to its author what a photograph is to its original.[10] You read a book and become interested in its author； and because of the magic of the printed page，and because you do not know the author personally，you think he must be an extraordinary man. Hence the worship.[11]

If I am not mistaken，however，few，if any，[12] modern authors are really worth worshipping. Authorship is nowadays a trade. Authors make books in much the same[13] way as shoe-makers make shoes. They write books to sell to publishers，[14]who publish the books to sell to readers. Very often publisher and author talk the matter over[15] before the latter begins writing. He writes and writes，always keeping in mind[16] the market[17]for，and the money from，the book. He is，in a word，[18] a book-maker by trade. As to Chinese authors of books professing to teach English，I do not hold many of them in very high esteem.[19] It is only fools that think that because a man has written a grammar or a book on composition he must write correct English. Honestly，I do not think it very difficult to train an army[20] of senior middle school students in the art of making such books as readers，grammars，and manuals of composition and letter-writing — I mean such books as such books go.[21]

And I pity those who worship an author because they find many exercises in his books too much for them.[22] They think that the author must be a master of English. Alas！ they do not stop to consider[23]whether it is not possible for one who cannot swim at all to shout to a group of timid boys，“Jump into the water！” Well，if I ever tell you to write a Shakespearian drama，[24] shall you therefore call me a second Shakespeare？

[1]Author Worship：对著作人之崇拜

[2]on English：论述英文

[3]in English：用英文作成

[4]credit me with …：以为我有……

[5]at home with：精谙

[6]is mainly，if not solely，due to …：虽非完全因……，却是大半因……

[7]it should be myself that wrote what appears on it：跃然纸上者，乃我之所作也

[8]strange to say：言之殊奇

[9]younger generation：青年人

[10]a book is to its author what a photograph is to its original：书籍之于其著作人，犹照相之于其本人也

[11]Hence the worship：因而崇拜

[12]few，if any：绝无仅有

[13]much the same：大致相同的

[14]publishers：出版家

[15]talk the matter over：谈论此事

[16]keeping in mind：记于心

[17]market：销路

[18]in a word：简言之

[19]do not hold many of them in very high esteem：并不极尊敬其中之许多人

[20]army：群

[21]as such books go：指今日一般之此种书籍而言

[22]too much for them：彼所不能作的

[23]stop to consider：止而思；静思

[24]Shakespearian drama：如莎士比亚所作之剧本

THE SWEETNESS OF DISHONESTY

When A tells a lie to B and B feels sure that it is a lie，the chances are that B will take offence.[1] But not always； for dishonesty has its sweetness. Often B appreciates the spirit in which A has told the lie，and takes delight in the thought that A has had enough regard for him to avoid telling the truth，[2] which would have wounded his feelings.[3]

“Not at home” is a very common dishonest phrase that is sweet to one to whom it is said. When A calls on[4] B and B tells his servant to say “Mr B is not at home”，A may feel disappointed，but he does not feel half so much hurt as he would if [5] the servant had said something like this：“Mr B is at home. But he says he does not care to see you.”

In what we call polite society，dishonesty is considered as essential in a gentleman as a college education，a fair[6]knowledge of current events，[7] and a certain degree of neatness in dress. To be perfectly honest at all times and on all occasions is to be ungentlemanly. A gentleman never fails to be sweetly dishonest when he thinks honesty would be the reverse of [8] sweet.

If there were no sweetness in dishonesty，or if everybody preferred hard fact to[9]sweet dishonesty，I think most love-letters would well be reduced to less than half their length. For instance，sentences like the following would be spared：

1. You are the best girl on earth.

2. You are not an ordinary girl，you are an angel.

3. Never has girl written so fine a poem as that you wrote last week.

4. My life had been a desert till I saw you yesterday，and I shall not be able to sleep a single wink[10] till I see you again.

5. If you do not answer this letter，I am afraid I shall commit suicide. I simply cannot live without you. I would rather die than not have you as my sweetheart.[11]

All these are lies，and the girl who reads them are too clever not to know that they are lies. Nevertheless she enjoys their dishonest sweetness. On the other hand，an honest love-letter like the following cannot but give offence and stamp[12] its writer as an ungentlemanly man：

I am old enough to wish to have a girl. I have for a long time wanted one，but I have not yet got any. Of course，you are not the best girl on earth. But I want you，just as one wants food when one is hungry and wants water when one is thirsty. I hope you are old enough to wish to have a boy，and that you will accept me.

[1]take offence：见怪

[2]had enough regard for him to avoid telling the truth：因尊重彼而不讲实话

[3]wounded his feelings：使彼之感情受伤

[4]calls on：访

[5]does not feel half so much hurt as he would if：则见怪并不及若……之半

[6]fair：尚可的

[7]current events：时事

[8]the reverse of …：……之反

[9]preferred hard fact to …：宁欲事实而不欲……

[10]sleep a single wink：睡着片刻

[11]would rather die than not have you as my sweetheart：宁愿死而不愿不得汝为爱人

[12]stamp：给……贴标签

WHAT IS ENGLISH COMPOSITION？

“English composition” is a very common term. But many common terms admit of [1] various meanings. “Honesty”，for example，is a very common term，but when you hear a person called honest，you are not always sure why he is called honest. He may be called honest because he never tells a lie，or because he never cheats at cards，[2] or because he is always ready to be made a fool of，[3] or because he is too rich to borrow or beg or steal.

Now “English composition” also admits of various meanings. So far as I know，all manuals of English composition published in Japan talk about subject and predicate，number and gender，infinitive and participle，and other points of elementary grammar，those published in America talk about unity，coherence，emphasis，and some principles and rules of rhetoric，and those published in England talk about points of style and the faults of this and that author. And a Chinese teacher of English composition，who teaches composition by teaching a composition book，may take a leaf out of the Japanese or American or English book[4] — with the result that[5] he teaches English composition to his pupils without troubling to write English himself，and his pupils get a large amount of knowledge of English composition as a science without acquiring much skill in English composition as an art.

I have said sarcastically[6]in a letter to a friend：“If you wish to write a book on English composition，the very silliest thing you could do would be to improve your own ability to write English”. I have to say here that the reading of books on English composition is the least important thing for one who wishes to learn English composition to do. For composition is an art. You cannot learn English composition merely by reading books on English composition，any more than you can learn music merely by reading books on music. “Practice makes perfect”[7] is an English proverb； I would add：“Reading about an art means little or nothing”.[8]

How to teach English composition to Chinese students is a large subject. I wish I could address a group of teachers on this subject. But I am anything but[9]sure whether they would not pooh-pooh[10] my suggestions if I had the courage to make any.

[1]admit of …：有……之可能

[2]cards：纸牌游戏

[3]ready to be made a fool of：易于受欺

[4]take a leaf out of the Japanese or American or English book：效法日本、美国或英国

[5]with the result that …：其结果为……

[6]sarcastically：讥讽状

[7]Practice makes perfect：熟能生巧

[8]means little or nothing：无甚意义

[9]anything but：全不

[10]pooh-pooh：轻视

THE MUFFIN MAN[1]

I am going to read with you a light[2] or even childish poem. It is very simple. Perhaps it is written by a child，though I am not quite sure. Its title is “The Muffin Man”.

A muffin is a kind of spongy cake，eaten toasted and buttered.[3] Sellers of muffins，or muffin men，in England carry muffins in trays[4] and ring little bells in the streets. They ring bells to announce that they have muffins to sell. Now children like muffins. As soon as they hear the welcome sound，they run out of their houses to buy them. The following poem is on this simple subject.

On winter Sundays

　At half-past three，

When we’re[5]just beginning

　To dream of tea，[6]

There comes the sound

　That we know so well[7]—

The welcome sound

　Of a distant bell.

Sweeter than harp，[8]

　Braver than trumpet，[9]

It sings of [10] muffin，

　It shouts of crumpet，[11]

Till two of us simply

　Have to tear

Out of the house[12]

　And up the Square，[13]

Yelling as loud

　As we possibly can

To catch the vanishing[14]

　Maffin Man.

Then on he goes[15]

　With his magic tray

Poised[16] in a most

　Precarious[17] way

Flat on the top

　Of his square grey head.

（It’s practice does it[18] —

　Or so he said.[19]）

This poem I have found in number 4744 of Punch， which is a famous humorous and satirical[20] weekly published in London. The weekly was established in 1841，and therefore has now produced nearly five thousand numbers.

[1]Muffin Man：卖松饼之人

[2]light：游戏的；轻妙的

[3]eaten toasted and buttered：烘后涂黄油而食

[4]trays：盘

[5]we’re = we（指孩子）are

[6]tea：午后之茶点

[7]know so well：熟知；听惯

[8]harp：竖琴

[9]trumpet：喇叭

[10]of：关于

[11]crumpet：一种软饼

[12]Have to tear out of the house：不禁奔出户外

[13]up the Square：沿区街而去

[14]vanishing：渐去的

[15]on he goes = he goes on

[16]poised：平置

[17]precarious：冒险的

[18]It’s （= it is） practice does it：由于练习而能之；习惯而成自然（“does”前省去“that”）

[19]so he said：彼云如是 （谓彼卖松饼者自己云因练习而能之也）

[20]satirical：讥讽的

A DYING GIRL AND HER LOVER[1]

Today I will give you a poem to read.

Don’t be afraid，reader，if you have never read a poem. I know many students — some college students among them — who have never read a poem. They are afraid to read a poem. They think they cannot，and so they do not. I pity them. They are shut out from[2] much of the best in English literature.[3]

Not every poem is difficult，however. Some poems are quite easy. Those poems which tell tales are not usually difficult. I should like to advise you to read such poems before reading those[4] of other kinds. The one that I am going to give you to read today is such a poem：it tells a tale of a dying girl and her lover.

It is an easy poem. Still[5] I will first tell the tale in a few words as follows：

A girl has been seriously ill[6]for a long time，because her father has forbidden[7] her to see her lover. Now[8] she is dying，she looks out of the window to watch[9]her lover’s coming. He comes，but soon passes. She is so pale that he does not know her. The girl feels very sad and dies at once. The young man weeps and sighs，but in vain. The girl is dead — for ever and ever.[10]

Now read the poem：

Earl March[11] look’d on[12] his dying child，

And，smit with grief to view her[13] —

The youth，he cried，whom I exiled

Shall be restored to woo her.[14]

She’s at the window many an hour[15]

His coming to discover[16]：

And he look’d up to Ellen’s bower[17]

And she look’d on her lover —

But ah！ so pale，he knew her not，[18]

Though her smile on him was dwelling[19]—

And am I then forgot —forgot？[20]

It broke the heart of [21] Ellen.

In vain he weeps，in vain he sighs，

Her cheek is cold as ashes；[22]

Nor love’s own kiss shall wake those eyes

To lift their silken lashes.[23]

This poem is written by Thomas Campbell.[24] There is another poem on the same subject written by Sir Walter Scott.[25]

[1]A Dying Girl and Her Lover：一个将死之女郎及其情人

[2]are shut out from …：与……隔；不得享受……

[3]the best in English literature：英语文学中之最佳处

[4]those = poems

[5]still：仍；但

[6]seriously ill：患重病的

[7]forbidden：禁止

[8]now：今既

[9]watch：待

[10]for ever and ever：永远

[11]Earl March：马奇伯爵

[12]look’d （= looked） on：注视

[13]smit （= smitten） with grief to view her：因观伊而悲不自胜

[14]The youth，he cried，whom I exiled shall be restored to woo her：彼呼曰：“彼被我驱去之少年 （指其女之情人），必当召之来向伊求爱。”

[15]She’s （= She was） at the window many an hour：伊在窗前（在楼上之窗前） 数小时

[16]His coming to discover = to discover his coming：冀见其情人之来

[17]Ellen’s bower：埃伦之闺房

[18]so pale，he knew her not = she was so pale that he did not know her

[19]her smile on him was dwelling （= was dwelling on him）：伊之微笑，注于其身

[20]And am I then forgot — forgot （= forgotten）？：然则我竟被忘却乎？（女郎心中之语）

[21]broke the heart of …：令……心碎；使……大悲

[22]Her cheek is cold as ashes：其颊冷如灰 （盖已死矣）

[23]Nor love’s own kiss shall wake those eyes to lift their silken lashes：即有热情之吻，亦不能启其双目以举彼柔软如丝之睫毛矣 （谓死后不可复生也）

[24]Thomas Campbell：托马斯·坎贝尔，英国诗人，生于1777年，卒于1844年

[25]Sir Walter Scott：沃尔特·司各特爵士，苏格兰文豪兼诗人，生于1771年，卒于1832 年

A LOVER’S QUESTIONS TO THE MOON

The moon is one of the commonest poetical subjects in the world. I have several favourite moon poems in Chinese and in English. The first Chinese poem that I ever wrote （at nine or ten，under my father’s guidance） was about the moon. The first English poem that I ever wrote （at sixteen or seventeen，under nobody’s guidance） was also about the moon. It is entitled “To the Moon”，and reads：

O Moon，how bright

Thou art[1] tonight！

　May I be told

　If thou feel’st[2] cold，

Sitting so high

Up in the sky？

This is，indeed，a childish poem，in which，I，the child，put a childish question to the moon as I am looking at her.

It is not children alone，however，that ever put questions to the moon. I am going to read with you a poem in which a grown-up man[3] puts questions to the moon. The man is grown-up enough to fall in love[4] and to feel love-lorn.[5] The poem is written by Sir Philip Sidney，[6]a perfect English gentleman of the sixteenth century. It is as follows：

With how sad steps，O Moon，thou climb’st the skies！

How silently，and with how wan[7] a face！

What，may it be that e’en in heavenly place

That busy archer his sharp arrows tries！[8]

Sure，[9] if that long-with-love-acquainted eyes

Can judge of love，thou feel’st a lover’s case，[10]

I read it in thy looks[11]； thy languish’d grace，

To me，that feel the like，thy state descries.[12]

Then，e’en of fellowship，[13] O Moon，tell me，

Is constant love deem’d there but want of wit？[14]

Are beauties[15] there[16] as proud as here[17] they be？

Do they above[18] love to be loved，[19] and yet

Those lovers scorn whom that love doth possess？[20]

Do they call virtue，there，ungratefulness？[21]

[1]Thou art = you are

[2]feel’st = feel

[3]grown-up man：成人

[4]fall in love：发生恋爱

[5]love-lorn：失恋的

[6]Sir Philip Sidney：菲利普·西德尼爵士，英国作家，生于1554年，卒于1586年

[7]wan：憔悴的

[8]What，may it be that e’en （= even） in heavenly place that busy archer his sharp arrows tries （= tries his sharp arrows）！ 岂彼忙碌之弓手，竟在天上试其利矢乎！（谓岂天上亦有恋爱之事乎，“archer” 指爱神，相传爱神挟弓矢，被其射中者即钟情）

[9]Sure = Surely

[10]if that long-with-love-acquainted eyes can judge of love，thou feel’st a lover’s case：倘久已熟见爱情之目，果能判断爱情者，则我决尔必患相思。（谓我固深知爱情之事者，见尔之悄然徐行而知尔之必患相思也；“if that”=“if”，“that”系一连词。）

[11]I read it in thy looks：我察尔之状貌而知之

[12]thy languish’d grace，to me，that feel the like，thy state descries （= descries thy state）：尔之悴容，向我显出尔之状态，盖我固亦患相思者也。

[13]of fellowship：因同病相怜之故 （“of”作“因为”解；“fellowship”言彼此皆患相思，可引为知己也。）

[14]Is constant love deem’d there but want of wit：忠实之爱情，在天上乃被视为不过智慧之缺乏乎？（谓人间以薄情为尚，彼忠实之爱情，反受迂阔之讥，岂天上亦如是乎？）

[15]beauties：美人

[16]there：指天上

[17]here：指人间

[18]they above：天上之美人

[19]love to be loved：喜受男子之爱情

[20]Those lovers scorn whom that love doth possess = scorn those lovers whom that love does possess：蔑视彼真心恋爱之爱人 （“that love”指上文所云“to be loved”之“love”；“possess”之义为“占……之心”）

[21]Do they call virtue，there，ungratefulness？ = Do they call ungratefulness there a virtue？：彼天上之美人，岂称负情为道德乎？

TO STAND AND STARE[1]

The following is a poem，entitled “Leisure”，[2] by William Henry Davies：[3]

What is this life if，full of care，[4]

We have no time to stand and stare？

No time[5]to stand beneath the boughs[6]

And stare as long as sheep and cows.

No time to see，when woods we pass，[7]

Where squirrels[8] hide their nuts in grass.

No time to see，in broad daylight，[9]

Streams full of stars，[10] like skies[11] at night.

No time to turn at Beauty’s glance，[12]

And watch[13] her feet，how they can dance.

No time to wait till her mouth can

Enrich that smile her eyes began.[14]

A poor life this[15] if，full of care，

We have no time to stand and stare.

Well，how many rich people are leading[16] this poor life！ They do not have to work to live.[17]They are what we call the “leisured class”. But they are too busy to have the time to stand and stare. They are always occupied[18] one way or another[19] — in seeking an appointment[20] under the government，or in making love to[21] some celebrated but disreputable social butterfly，[22] or in trying to evade[23]applications[24] for loans from poor friends，or in making excuses[25] for not contributing to a charitable institution，[26]or in …

On the other hand，many people have no time to stand and stare simply because they do have to work to live. They have no leisure at all. They work so much that they have no time to be conscious of living[27] — no time to stand and stare.

Of course，no-one would enjoy standing and staring for fifteen or twenty hours a day. But，as the poet says，

A poor life this if，full of care，

We have no time to stand and stare.

[1]To Stand and Stare：立而凝视

[2]“Leisure”：“闲暇”（诗名）

[3]William Henry Davies：威廉·亨利·戴维斯，威尔士诗人，生于1871年，卒于1940年

[4]care：忧虑

[5]No time = if，full of care，we have no time：下文仿此

[6]boughs：树枝

[7]when woods we pass = when we pass woods

[8]squirrels：松鼠

[9]broad daylight：白昼

[10]streams full of stars：满布星辰之小溪 （日光下溪水闪烁，如星光然，故云）

[11]skies：天空

[12]turn at Beauty’s glance：向美人之目光看去

[13]watch：视

[14]her mouth can enrich that smile her eyes began：伊之口使伊之目所开始之微笑更丰富；口继目以笑而其笑更美

[15]A poor life this = This life is a poor life

[16]leading：度；过

[17]do not have to work to live：不必工作以生活

[18]occupied：做事；忙

[19]one way or another：在某种情形之下

[20]appointment：官职

[21]making love to …：向……求爱

[22]some celebrated but disreputable social butterfly：著名而不名誉之某交际花

[23]evade：躲避

[24]applications：请求

[25]excuses：遁词

[26]contributing to a charitable institution：捐款与某慈善机关

[27]conscious of living：觉到生活

THREE SONNETS TO SLEEP

Have you ever read any poem to Sleep，the God of sleep？ I have read several. In the following I will talk about three of them. All these three，as far as I know，are among the best and best-known of English sonnets.

“What is a sonnet？” I think you will ask. You will come to know its origin，[1] its structure，[2] and its place[3] in English literature，when you read a book on English prosody.[4] Here I will tell you only this much：a sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines.

The three sonnets that I am going to talk about are written，respectively，[5] by Sir Philip Sidney，[6]Samuel Daniel，[7] and William Wordsworth.[8] They all pay tribute to[9]Sleep. They all implore him to come. They all seem to have been written by authors suffering from sleeplessness.

The first stanza[10] of Sidney’s poem reads：

Come，Sleep：O Sleep！ the certain knot of peace，

The baiting place of wit，[11] the balm of woe，[12]

The poor man’s wealth，the prisoner’s release，[13]

Th’ indifferent judge between high and low.[14]

That of Daniel’s reads：

Care-charmer[15] Sleep，son of the sable[16] night，

Brother to Death，[17] in silent darkness born，[18]

Relieve my anguish，[19] and restore the light，[20]

With dark forgetting of my care return.[21]

The last stanza of Wordsworth’s reads：

Without Thee what is all the morning’s wealth？

Come，blessed[22] barrier[23] between day and day，

Dear mother of fresh thoughts and joyous health！

Do you agree with these poets as regards[24] what they say to Sleep？ Do you think sleep means peace？ Do you think sleep brings happiness？ Do you think sleeplessness is a great trial？[25]

Of the three poems，that by Wordsworth is the easiest. Wordsworth is one of the most easily read of the English poets. If you wish to read English lyrical poetry，[26]I believe you will do well to begin with[27] some short pieces of Wordsworth.

[1]origin：起源

[2]structure：结构

[3]place：地位

[4]prosody：诗学

[5]respectively：各别；各各不同

[6]Sir Philip Sidney：已见前注

[7]Samuel Daniel：塞缪尔·丹尼尔，英国诗人，生于1562 年，卒于1619年

[8]William Wordsworth：威廉·华兹华斯，英国诗人，生于1770年，卒于1850年

[9]pay tribute to：颂扬

[10]stanza：（诗之一） 节

[11]baiting place of wit：智慧之进食处 （意谓睡眠可以增进智慧）

[12]balm of woe：痛苦之安慰物

[13]prisoner’s release：罪人之释放 （意谓罪人睡时不知己身之在狱，不啻已得自由也。）

[14]Th’ （= the） indifferent judge between high and low：富贵者与贫贱者间之公正之法官 （意谓睡时无贫富贵贱之分）

[15]care-charmer：解除忧虑者

[16]sable：黑色的

[17]Brother to Death：死神之弟兄 （盖死后与睡中皆失去知觉，二者颇相似也。）

[18]in silent darkness born = born in silent darkness：生长于寂静之黑暗中（盖睡眠多在夜间也）

[19]Relieve my anguish：解去我之痛苦

[20]restore the light：恢复光明 （谓醒时痛苦，睡后反觉光明也。）

[21]With dark forgetting of my care return = return with dark forgetting of my care：在黑暗中忘却我之忧虑而复来 （谓使我入睡，俾得忘我之忧也。）

[22]blessed：赐人幸福的

[23]barrier：中间物

[24]as regards：关于

[25]trial：令人不快之物

[26]lyrical poetry：抒情诗

[27]begin with …：从……着手

ADVICE TO A LOVER

This is the title of an anonymous[1] English poem that I am going to read with you today. “Anonymous”，as you probably know，means of unknown authorship.[2] An anonymous poem is one of which it is not known who is the author.

The author of “Advice to a Lover” seems to have flourished[3] more than three hundred years ago. I think he wrote the poem either because he had been crossed in love[4] or because he had loved too much or simply because he could not get a sweetheart. At any rate，he advised young men not to love.

I do not quite agree with what he said in the poem. Not that[5] I am in love. I have never been and perhaps shall never be. But I hold that love in its purest form is a very beautiful and very ennobling[6]thing，and that every young man has the right to be a lover if he has a worthy object. Moreover，it seems to be of no use to offer advice on love or abstention[7] from love. We cannot talk any friend into love，nor out of love.

However，the poem is a very sweet one. You may feel it is of a “pessimistic[8]” nature. But you may enjoy it all the same.[9]It is as follows：

The sea hath[10] many thousand sands，

The sun hath motes as many；[11]

The sky is full of stars，and Love[12]

As full of woes as any：[13]

Believe me，that do know the elf，[14]

And make no trial by thyself！[15]

It is in truth a pretty toy

For babes to play withal：[16] —

But O！ the honeys of our youth

Are oft our age’s gall！[17]

Self-proof in time will make thee know

He was a prophet told thee so；[18]

A prophet that，Cassandra-like，[19]

Tells truth without belief；[20]

For headstrong[21] Youth will run his race，

Although his goal[22] be grief：—

Love’s Martyr，[23] when his heat is past，

Proves Care’s Confessor[24] at the last.

[1]anonymous：匿名的，无名的

[2]of unknown authorship：不知某氏所作的

[3]flourished：生存

[4]crossed in love：失恋

[5]Not that …：并非因为……

[6]ennobling：令人高贵的

[7]abstention：免去；弃绝

[8]pessimistic：悲观的

[9]all the same：仍

[10]hath = has

[11]hath motes as many = has as many motes as the sea has sands：有数千微尘

[12]Love：爱神；爱情

[13]As full of woes as any：极多痛苦

[14]know the elf：深知此精灵 （意即深知爱神令人痛苦）

[15]make no trial by thyself：勿自尝试 （意即勿入情网）

[16]It is in truth a pretty toy for babes to play withal：此诚为小儿之美好玩物 （意即青年人固以恋爱为乐事）

[17]the honeys of our youth are oft our age’s gall：我人青年时之甜物，恒为老年时之苦物。（意即青年时之乐事，往往致成将来老时之痛苦。）

[18]Self-proof in time will make thee know he was a prophet told thee so （= he who told thee so was a prophet）：将来自己经历后，自能知昔日告君如此者，乃一预言家也。（意即待君老时受苦后，将知我言不谬也。）

[19]Cassandra-like：如卡珊德拉然 （按卡珊德拉系一古希腊诗中之预言家，尝言大难将临而人不之信，其言终验。）

[20]without belief：不为他人所信

[21]headstrong：刚愎的

[22]goal：目标

[23]Love’s Martyr：爱情之殉道者；致身于爱情者

[24]Care’s Confessor：忧愁之忏悔者；悔罪于困苦中者

“A FAVOURITE[1] HAS NO FRIEND！”

This is the thirty-sixth line of Thomas Gray’s poem “On a Favourite Cat，Drowned in a Tub of Goldfishes”. This poem is quite simple，but very fine. I like it very much，and wish I could[2] read it with you — which，however，I find I cannot because it is rather long. I will，instead，[3] tell its story in outline as follows：

A cat is looking into a tub of goldfishes with admiration. She feels happy，and tries to get them. Unfortunately，she falls into the water and dies.

In this poem，whose story，as you can see，[4] is quite simple，the poet means to teach a lesson，especially to young women. It contains

What female heart can gold despise？[5]

What Cat’s averse to fish？[6]

and concludes[7] with

From hence，[8] ye beauties，[9] undeceived[10]

Know one false step is ne’er retrieved，[11]

And be with caution bold：[12]

Not all that tempts your wandering eyes

And heedless hearts，is lawful prize，[13]

Nor all that glisters，gold！[14]

But I like the thirty-sixth line best：

A favourite has no friend！

This line occurs immediately after the few lines that describe how the cat is mewing[15] for help，all in vain.[16] She is a favourite，but when she is dying，no friend comes to her rescue.[17]A favourite has no friend！

This line，I should say，is worthy of every young woman’s attention and consideration and remembrance. A young woman who knows that “one false step is ne’er retrieved”，and is consequently “with caution bold”，may yet be apt to revel[18] in being a favourite. Indeed，a favourite has fifty[19] “friends”，[20] but she has no friend！[21]

[1]favourite：被众人所爱者

[2]wish I could：但愿能；恨不能

[3]instead = instead of reading it with you

[4]as you can see：如你所能看出

[5]What female heart can gold despise （= can despise gold）？ 天下岂有轻视黄金之妇人心乎？

[6]What Cat’s （= Cat is） averse to fish？ 天下岂有嫌恶鱼类之猫乎？

[7]conclude：结束

[8]From hence：自今以后

[9]ye beauties：尔等妇女

[10]undeceived：觉悟

[11]one false step is ne’er （= never） retrieved：一失足即永不能补救；一失足成千古恨

[12]be with caution bold：须谨慎勿过鲁莽

[13]lawful prize：应得之物

[14]Nor all that glisters，gold （= is gold）！：且灿烂者，非皆黄金也；外观佳者，未必有真价值也

[15]mewing：（猫） 鸣

[16]in vain：无效；徒然

[17]comes to her rescue：来救伊

[18]revel：大乐

[19]fifty：五十 （言其多也）

[20]“friends”：指虚伪之朋友

[21]friend：指真正之朋友

EATING AND READING

In order that he may live[1] man has to eat. They are indeed very unhappy who cling to life[2] without anything to eat. They try every means[3] to earn a piece of bread honestly，but cannot find any work. They beg from house to house，[4] but can hardly keep body and soul together.[5] They resort to[6]stealing，but get themselves punished for thieves.[7] At last they cannot but wish that they had never learnt to eat！

Now there are poor people with whom reading is as necessary as eating，and who are as hard put to it[8] to obtain books as to obtain food. Intellectually，[9]as well as physically，[10] they often suffer from hunger，simply because they lack a small amount of money. Perhaps they，too，sometimes cannot but wish that they had never learnt to read！

Below is a little poem by Mary Lamb[11]on this subject.

I saw a boy with eager eye

Open a book upon a stall，[12]

And read，as he’d[13] devour it all；

Which when the stall-man did espy，[14]

Soon to the boy I heard him call，

“You，Sir，you never buy a book，

Therefore in one you shall not look.”

The boy pass’d slowly on，[15] and with a sigh[16]

He wish’d he never had been taught to read，

Then of the old churl’s books[17] he should have had no need.

Of sufferings the poor have many，

Which never can the rich annoy：[18]

I soon perceiv’d another boy，

Who look’d as if he’d[19] not had any

Food，for that day at least — enjoy[20]

The sight of cold meat in a tavern larder.[21]

This boy’s case，then thought I，is surely harder，

Thus hungry，longing，[22] thus without a penny，

Beholding choice of dainty-dressed[23] meat：

No wonder[24] if he wish he ne’er[25] had learnt’d to eat.

[1]In order that he may live：使他得以生存

[2]cling to life：恋着生命

[3]means：方法

[4]beg from house to house：挨门乞食

[5]can hardly keep body and soul together：几不能生存

[6]resort to：求助于；依赖

[7]for thieves：作为窃贼

[8]hard put to it：处在困难中

[9]Intellectually：在智育上

[10]physically：在身体上

[11]Mary Lamb：玛丽·兰姆，英国女作家，生于1764年，卒于1847年

[12]stall：书摊

[13]he’d = he would

[14]espy：察见

[15]pass’d slowly on：慢慢走去

[16]sigh：叹息

[17]the old churl’s books：此书摊主人之书

[18]Of sufferings the poor have many，which never can the rich annoy = The poor have many of [the] sufferings which never can annoy the rich：贫人有许多从不扰及富人之困苦

[19]he’d = he had

[20]enjoy：此词直承上文之“boy”

[21]tavern larder：酒店之伙食房

[22]longing：盼望 （食物）

[23]dainty-dressed：烹调精美的

[24]No wonder：不足怪

[25]ne’er = never

HEART AND BODY

Love is a very common subject in English literature，especially in poetry. Most of the English poems I have ever read are love poems，and most of those which are not love poems contain one or two lines about love. As a matter of fact，love is a favourite topic with poets.

It seems to be also a favourite topic with modern young men and young women. They talk and write about it more interestedly[1] and more interestingly[2] about it than about most other topics.

I am a young man. I find love a very interesting topic，though I have never been in love and most probably[3] shall never be.

Today I am going to read with you a four-line poem of Oliver Goldsmith，[4] entitled[5] “Translation of a South American Ode”. It means to say that one cannot be happy who secures a girl’s body without securing her heart.[6]

Heart and body，which do you think is the more important in love？ Do you think a girl really loves you if she eats with you，drinks with you，talks with you，walks with you，but does not give her heart to you？

Now let us read the poem：

In all my Enna’s beauties blest，[7]

Amidst profusion[8] still I pine；[9]

For though she gives me up her breast，[10]

Its panting tenant[11] is not mine.

This poem is quite easy. The only expression[12] that you may fail to understand is “its panting tenant”. What is it that pants inside the breast？ Of course，it is the heart — the seat of the emotions，[13] especially love.

[1]interestedly：自己觉得津津有味

[2]interestingly：令人觉得津津有味

[3]most probably：大约

[4]Oliver Goldsmith：奥利弗·哥尔德斯密斯，爱尔兰诗人，生于1728年，卒于1774年

[5]entitled …：题名为……

[6]secures a girl’s body without securing her heart：得某少女之身而未得其心

[7]In all my Enna’s beauties blest = blest in all my Enna’s beauties：享受我之艾娜之美色

[8]profusion：丰富 （指美色而言）

[9]pine：憔悴；萎顿

[10]gives me up her breast：向我敞开胸怀

[11]its panting tenant：其跳动之居者 （指心）

[12]expression：语

[13]seat of the emotions：情感之中心

PRESENT IN ABSENCE

There is a proverb that says “Out of sight，out of mind”. It means that we are apt to forget the absent.[1] Suppose you have an intimate friend with whom you read and play and talk and walk every day. You find in him the only ideal young man you have ever known. You feel you cannot have too much of his company.[2] But now suppose he has to go away to live in a distant place for a long，long time. You may shed a tear at the parting.[3] You may miss him[4] very much for weeks. But as time goes on，you may think less and less of him； for “out of sight，out of mind”.

With lovers （I mean true lovers），however，the proverb does not hold true.[5] On the contrary，[6]they may love each other all the more because they are far apart from each other. This is the main idea of the poem that I am going to read with you. The poem is written by John Donne，[7] whose poems are noted for their subtle imagination.[8] It is as follows：

Absence，hear thou[9] this protestation[10]

Against thy strength[11]

Distance，[12] and length；[13]

Do what thou canst for alteration：[14]

For hearts of truest mettle

Absence doth join，and Time doth settle.[15]

Who loves a mistress of such quality

His mind has found

Affection’s ground

Beyond time，place，and mortality.[16]

To hearts that cannot vary

Absence is present，[17] Time doth tarry.[18]

By absence this good means I gain，[19]

That I can catch her，

Where none can match her，

In some close corner of my brain：

There I embrace and kiss her；

And so I both enjoy and miss her.[20]

[1]the absent：不在场之人

[2]cannot have too much of his company：恨不得久与相处

[3]parting：分别

[4]miss him：因其不在而觉怅怅

[5]hold true：成立

[6]On the contrary：并不如此

[7]John Donne：约翰·邓恩，英国诗人，生于1573年，卒于1631年

[8]subtle imagination：玄妙之想象力

[9]hear thou：尔其静听

[10]protestation：抗辩

[11]strength：指离愁之甚

[12]Distance：指相隔之远

[13]length：指相违之久

[14]Do what thou canst for alteration：尔尽可尽尔之力以改变人心也

[15]For hearts of truest mettle absence doth join，and Time doth settle = for absence does join and Time does settle hearts of [the] truest mettle：尽彼质地真实之心，隔离联之而时间定之。（意即彼真正之情人，相隔愈远愈久而相爱愈切。）

[16]Who loves a mistress of such quality his mind has found affection’s ground beyond time，place，and mortality：彼爱秉性如是之情妇者，已因爱情而将自己置于时地生死之外

[17]Absence is present：相违即相处 （即所谓“两情若是久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮”）

[18]Time doth tarry：时间乃停留而不前者 （时间虽过而爱情不减，故不啻时间停留也。）

[19]this good means I gain = I gain this good means：我得此良法

[20]both enjoy and miss her：既乐之，又思之

THE BEAUTY OF THE BODY

I first read of nudism[1] and the nudist movement[2] about five years ago. At that time there was very little，if any，talk[3] about them here in China. The other day，however，I learnt from Chinese papers that possibly some nudists[4] would soon start work in Shanghai，and that some well-known men were endeavouring to nip the “evil” in the bud.[5]

I have not made a study of the subject，and so have no definite opinion on it. All that I can say is that even if nudism has its advantages，it cannot become popular for a long time to come[6]simply because it is something too new to most people，and that even if it is in fact an unqualified curse，[7] it is bound[8] to be supported and advocated by many men and women simply because it is something “new under the sun”.[9]

I do not know whether nudists believe that the human body is the most beautiful thing in the world. I myself do not think so：I find a beautiful sunset or a beautiful poem far more beautiful. But I remember reading somewhere that nothing can be more beautiful than the body.

And I have read two seventeenth-century English poems each praising the body of the poet’s sweetheart，one by Robert Herrick[10] and the other of unknown authorship. Both poems say that with her clothes on the girl is very beautiful，but when naked[11]she is far more beautiful.

Owing to lack of space，[12] I can here show you only Herrick’s poem. It is interesting to note that Herrick never married because he loved all women instead of only one woman. The poem read：

Whenas[13] in silks my Julia[14] goes

Then，then （methinks）[15] how sweetly flows

That liquefaction of her clothes.[16]

Next，when I cast mine eyes and see

That brave vibration each way free；[17]

O how that glittering taketh me！[18]

[1]nudism：裸体主义

[2]nudist movement：裸体运动

[3]very little，if any，talk：虽有亦甚少之谈论

[4]nudists：裸体主义者

[5]nip the “evil” in the bud：除此害于未萌之际

[6]for a long time to come：在未来之久时中

[7]unqualified curse：完全之祸患

[8]bound：必；一定

[9]new under the sun：天下所稀有的

[10]Robert Herrick：罗伯特·赫里克，英国诗人，生于1591年，卒于1674年

[11]naked：裸的

[12]Owing to lack of space：因缺少篇幅

[13]Whenas = When

[14]Julia：茱莉亚，女子名

[15]methinks：我以为

[16]That liquefaction of her clothes：伊之衣服之那种液化 （指绸衣之飘扬）

[17]That brave vibration each way free：那毫无牵挂之美丽之波动 （指裸体之状态）

[18]taketh （= takes） me：引动我心

TO PROUD GIRLS

In the last stanza of his “Counsel[1] to Girls” Robert Herrick said：

Then be not coy，[2] but use your time；

And while ye may，[3] go marry：[4]

For having lost but once your prime，

You may for ever tarry.[5]

But do all marriageable[6]girls who remain single[7] do so[8] because they are coy？ Perhaps many of them are really very eager to marry，and delay and delay[9]simply because they are proud. They are so much above themselves[10] that they feel they should marry none but perfect men. But such men they do not find. They wait and wait； in the mean time[11]they reject all men who make love to them.[12] At last，perhaps before they are aware of it，[13] they become too old to marry.

The above-quoted lines from Herrick give advice to girls who continue single because they are coy. As to advice to those who continue single because they are proud，I do not know of any poem better than one by Christina Georgina Rossetti，[14]entitled “Helen Grey[15]”. It consists of three stanzas of eight lines each. Owing to limitation of space I here give only the last stanza. It is interesting to note that the poetess herself never married. She lived a retired life[16] in London.

Now let us read the said stanza：

Stoop from your cold height，[17] Helen Grey，

Come down，and take a lowlier[18] place，

Come down，to fill it now with grace；[19]

Come down you must perforce some day.[20]

For years cannot be kept at bay，[21]

And fading years[22] will make you old；

Then in their turn will men seem cold，[23]

When you yourself are nipped and grey.[24]

[1]Counsel：劝告

[2]be not coy：勿羞怯

[3]ye may = you may marry

[4]go marry = go to marry：去结婚

[5]For having lost but once your prime，you may for ever tarry：盖一旦失去青春，尔或将永远迟延矣 （谓永不能嫁矣）

[6]marriageable：已到结婚年龄的

[7]remain single：继续独身：不嫁

[8]do so = remain single

[9]delay and delay：迟延复迟延

[10]are so much above themselves：如此之骄傲

[11]in the mean time：同时

[12]reject all men who make love to them：拒绝一切向伊等求爱之人

[13]before they are aware of it：在伊等知之之前；若辈自己犹不之知

[14]Christina Georgina Rossetti：克里斯蒂娜·吉奥尔吉娜·罗塞蒂，英国女诗人，生于1830年，卒于1894年

[15]Helen Grey：海伦·格蕾，女子名

[16]lived a retired life：隐居

[17]Stoop from your cold height：自冷淡之高处下俯 （即放下高傲的姿态）

[18]lowlier：较低的

[19]grace：美态

[20]Come down you must perforce some day = you must come down perforce some day：尔必有不得不下之一日 （谓不能长此倨傲也）

[21]years cannot be kept at bay：年华过去，不能止也

[22]fading years：衰退之年华

[23]in their turn will men （= men will） seem cold：男子亦将冷淡视尔矣

[24]are nipped and grey：年老而色衰

“WHOM THE GODS LOVE DIE YOUNG”[1]

This is a common saying when a young man of great promise[2] dies. What，after all，is the true idea of this proverb？ I cannot give a definite answer. Nor have I ever seen it interpreted anywhere except in George Gordon Byron’s “Don Juan”.[3] I do not at all agree with the poet’s philosophy of life[4] as expressed in those lines. But I like them all the same； that is，I love them because of their beautiful diction[5] and musical quality. They are as follows：

“Whom the gods love die young”，was said of yore，[6]

And many deaths do they escape by this；[7]

The death of friends，and that which slays even more[8]—

The death of friendship，[9] love，youth，all that is，[10]

Except mere breath；[11] and since the silent shore[12]

Awaits at last even those who longest miss

The old archer’s shafts，[13] perhaps the early grave

Which men weep over may be meant to save.[14]

These lines are rather difficult to read. So，besides the notes in Chinese，a little explanation is necessary. Imagine a man who lives to be a hundred[15] but who is without a friend，without anyone who loves him，without youth and health. He is by no means happy. He may wish he had never been born or had died young. Hence Byron holds that an early death is a blessing.

As I have said，I do not at all agree with the poet. I should like，instead，[16] to sing with Henry Wadsworth Longfellow：[17]

Life is real！ Life is earnest！

And the grave is not its goal.

However，let’s read and appreciate Byron’s lines — not for their philosophy，but for their poetry.

“Don Juan” is a very long but incomplete poem with its hero[18] of the same name. It is a satire[19] on modern society，and its story is formed by the hero’s adventures in the Isles of Greece，[20] at the Russian Court，[21] in England，etc.

[1]Whom the Gods Love Die Young：神爱者早夭

[2]young man of great promise：前程远大之青年

[3]“Don Juan”：《唐璜》系诗名，亦即诗中主人公名

[4]philosophy of life：人生哲学

[5]diction：文字

[6]of yore：在古时

[7]many deaths do they escape by this = they do escape many deaths by this：彼等因此而免却许多种死亡

[8]that which slays even more：彼杀害更甚之事 （意即有甚于友朋之死之事）

[9]death of friendship：友谊之死 （友死固足伤心，友未死而友谊灭，更足伤心。）

[10]all that is：世界所有之一切

[11]Except mere breath：除了苛延残喘 （谓唯有生命尚存也）

[12]silent shore：静岸 （指死者所居之地）

[13]who longest miss the old archer’s shafts：最久幸免于老弓手之箭者 （意即年高而未死者；“old archer”指死神。）

[14]perhaps the early grave which men weep over may be meant to save：也许我们所痛哭之早夭，乃上天所借以救人者也

[15]a hundred：百岁

[16]instead = instead of agreeing with Byron

[17]Henry Wadsworth Longfellow：亨利·沃兹沃斯·朗费罗，美国诗人，生于1807年，卒于1882 年

[18]hero：主人翁

[19]satire：讽刺

[20]Isles of Greece：希腊群岛

[21]Court：朝廷

WHAT DO YOU WANT？

Below is the last stanza of Edmund Waller’s “On a Girdle”：[1]

A narrow compass！[2] and yet there

Dwelt all that’s good，and all that’s fair：[3]

Give me but what this ribbon bound，[4]

Take all the rest the Sun goes round.[5]

Here the poet means to say that he wants nothing in the world but[6]his dear girl. He is deeply in love. Perhaps any young man who is deeply in love wants nothing in the world but his dear girl.

Those who are not in love，however，may want other things. I have heard several students of English declare that they want，among other things，a perfect knowledge of English. And I am sorry to find that there are not a few young men who want only comforts，[7] pleasures，and luxuries.[8]

What do you want，reader？ I hope that you want to live a useful life，whether as a typist[9]or as a teacher or as a member of some other honest calling.[10] For my part，I want to do something helpful to all Chinese students of English. Of course，I have other wants； for example，I want a typewriter and a copy of The Great Oxford Dictionary. But these are not my chief wants.

Many years ago，Samuel Rogers，[11]an English poet，wrote a little poem called “A Wish” to state what he wanted. It was to live quietly with his wife in a cottage beside the hill. We young men，I should say，cannot possibly agree with him，nor ought we to.[12] But the poem is a very sweet one，and I hope you will enjoy reading it. Here it is：

Mine be a cot beside the hill；[13]

A bee-hive’s hum[14] shall soothe my ear；

A willowy brook[15] that turns a mill，

With many a fall shall linger near.[16]

The swallow，oft，[17] beneath my thatch[18]

Shall twitter from her clay-built[19] nest；

Oft shall the pilgrim[20] lift the latch，[21]

And share my meal，[22] a welcome guest.

Around my ivied porch shall spring

Each fragrant flower that drinks the dew；[23]

And Lucy，[24] at her wheel，[25] shall sing

In russet[26] gown and apron blue.[27]

The village church among the trees，

Where first our marriage vows were given，[28]

With merry peals shall swell the breeze[29]

And point with taper spire to Heaven.[30]

[1]Edmund Waller’s “On a Girdle”：埃德蒙·沃勒所著之《咏腰带》（按沃勒系英国诗人；生于1606年，卒于1687年）

[2]compass：环

[3]yet there dwelt all that’s （= that is） good，and all that’s fair：但一切善性及美质，俱在其中 （指彼佩此腰带之女子）

[4]Give me but what this ribbon bound：只须给我此带所曾束之物 （指彼女子）

[5]Take all the rest the Sun goes round：尽可取去世界上其余之一切

[6]but …：除……外

[7]comforts：使生活安适之物

[8]luxuries：奢侈品

[9]typist：打字员

[10]calling：职业

[11]Samuel Rogers：塞缪尔·罗杰斯，英国诗人，生于1763年，卒于1855年

[12]nor ought we to = nor ought we to agree with him

[13]Mine be a cot beside the hill：但愿我有一小舍在山旁

[14]bee-hive’s hum：蜂房中之营营声

[15]willowy brook：旁有柳树之小溪

[16]With many a fall shall linger near：瀑布潺潺，逗留于近处

[17]oft：时常

[18]thatch：葺草

[19]clay-built：用土筑成的

[20]pilgrim：游客

[21]lift the latch：拔起门闩 （而入）

[22]share my meal：与我共餐

[23]Around my ivied porch shall spring each fragrant flower that drinks the dew = Each fragrant flower that drinks the dew shall spring around my ivied porch：在我之满布常青藤之门廊四周，生出吸收露水之种种香花

[24]Lucy：露西，女子名 （指妻）

[25]at her wheel：在其机轮上 （指纺织之事）

[26]russet：赤褐色的

[27]apron blue = blue apron：蓝色之围裙

[28]Where first our marriage vows were given：我们结婚之誓语初发于此 （意即结婚于此）

[29]With merry peals shall swell the breeze：钟声当当，使风声增大

[30]point with taper spire to Heaven：以尖顶塔高耸天际

ON WINTER NIGHTS

Do you ever lie awake on a winter night，listening to the wind？ What does it suggest to you？ Does it suggest the coldness of the weather and by contrast[1] the warmth of your bed？ Does it cause you to feel for the poor，[2] who are suffering from the hard[3] winter？ Does it remind you of [4] these popular lines from William Shakespeare？

Blow，blow，thou winter wind，

Thou art not so unkind

As man’s ingratitude；[5]

Thy tooth is not so keen[6]

Because thou are not seen.

Although thy breath be rude.

A long time ago，there was a talented[7] young woman in England who used to weep on winter nights. But she wept not because she was unhappy，but because she was very happy. She thought of the delights she had had in the past and of the delights she would have in the future. Such happy thoughts made her weep hot tears. This young woman was one of the famous three literary Brontë sisters[8] of the first half of the nineteenth century； I mean Emily，[9]the middle one. She wrote a now well-known novel[10] and a number of poems. She wrote her poems with an apparently heedless pen for her own relief.[11]

Her poem entitled “That Wind” describes what the wind suggested to her on winter nights. I do not know at what age she wrote it，nor what part of her life she had in mind[12] at the time of writing it. She died at the early age of thirty，and so far as I know，she did not live very happily. The poem is as follows：

That wind，I used to hear it[13] swelling，[14]

With joy divinely deep；[15]

You might have seen my hot tears welling，[16]

But rapture made me weep.[17]

I used to love on winter nights

To lie and dream alone

Of all the rare[18] and real delights

My lonely years had known.[19]

And oh！ —above the best —of those[20]

That coming time[21] should bear，

Like heaven’s own glorious stars they rose，[22]

Still[23] beaming bright and fair.[24]

[1]contrast：对比；相反

[2]feel for the poor：哀怜贫人

[3]hard：难受的

[4]remind you of：令君忆及

[5]man’s ingratitude：人类之忘恩负义

[6]keen：厉害的

[7]talented：有才的

[8]three literary Bronte sisters：有文才之勃朗特三姊妹

[9]Emily：艾米莉，女子名 （按其姊名Charlotte，妹名Anne）

[10]now well-known novel：现今著名之小说，即《呼啸山庄》

[11]relief：安慰

[12]had in mind：忆及

[13]it：此字即指上文“wind”

[14]swelling：（风声） 涨

[15]With joy divinely deep：至深欣喜

[16]You might have seen my hot tears welling：君或能见我热泪涌起

[17]But rapture make me weep：但狂喜使我泣 （谓我非因悲哀而泣，乃因狂喜而泣也。）

[18]rare：罕有的；可贵的

[19]My lonely years had known：在我寂寞之年华中所曾享有者

[20]of those = dream of those delights

[21]coming time：未来；将来

[22]Like heaven’s own glorious stars they rose：未来之快乐，现于目前，有如天上之明星

[23]Still：常

[24]fair：美丽的

勤勉求真、诲人不倦的“Mr. Right”

——葛传椝先生侧影

葛公传椝，清光绪三十一年七月十七出生在今上海嘉定区马陆镇。他既非声名藉甚的留洋海归，亦非德高望重的名士夙儒，但《英语惯用法词典》[1]足以奠定他在学界的地位。

葛先生出身寒门[2]，除幼时其母家中传授《弟子规》等古代启蒙读物之外，接受学校教育仅八年半[3]（相当于现在的八年级），故戏称自己的学历“Brevity is the soul of wit[4]”。1922 年，先生考入北洋政府上海电报传习所当报务生，工作之余，在商务印书馆函授学社学习英文，也是在那里，他第一次在同学手中看到了英国著名辞典编纂家 H. W. Fowler 与其兄长 F. G. Fowler 合编的The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English[5]，后来，他将该辞典中不少常用词逐一通读，此成其英吉利文字精进的“秘方”。1926年底，他通过自荐进入当时人才济济的商务印书馆英文部，初为人师，须不厌其烦地解答学员提出的各式问题，除了勤查《牛津英语大词典》，周越然[6]对其工作亦助益良多。后胡哲谋接任部长，安排他用汉语注解Charles Cowden-Clarke 与 Mary Cowden-Clarke 兄妹合著的Tales from Chaucer[7]，这是葛出版的第一册详注本。在商务做编辑期间，他注释过的作品很多，从托马斯·卡莱尔、简·奥斯丁到奥利弗·哥德史密斯、埃德加·爱伦·坡，皆因“一·二八”[8]而付之一炬，不免遗憾，国难后，他转入世界书局工作。在商务的五年，他答疑解惑、广泛阅读，在编辑原清华大学 Frank A. Lombard 所注《皆大欢喜》（As you like it）的过程中积累了丰富的素材，尤其是详细阅读了 H. W. Fowler 之A Dictionary of Modern English Usage[9]，这为他日后从事英语语法、惯用法研究奠定了基础[10]。

民国时期的英汉辞典，大多由上海商务印书馆出版，包括当时盛行的《（求解作文两用）英汉模范字典》（1929）和收词达到16万的《综合英汉大辞典》（1928）[11]。直到1936年，上海世界书局出版的《英汉求解作文文法辨义四用辞典》（A Daily Use English-Chinese Dictionary）才打破了商务“一家独大”的局面，蔡元培于扉页题字“择精语详”。据主编詹文浒前言，该书主要以《简明牛津辞典》为蓝本，历时五载，因释义精当，例证丰富而享誉海内外，印数甚众，葛是五位编者之一，其双语辞书编纂即始于《文法作文两用》[12]和《四用》[13]，自民国十八年以来，由葛注释、校订、出版的卷帙超过二十五种[14]，其中《怎样读通英文》（1935）与著名语言学家吕叔湘的《中国人学英文》（开明书店，1947）是当时最主要的两本英语入门读物。1941年秋，葛于上海大同大学[15]执教，继续在浩瀚的语言中遨游，细致入微地观察常用词的确义和用法的变化，享受蝇头小字所带来的乐趣。

1958年[16]，《英语惯用法词典》出版，这是葛先生在《英文用法大字典》之后潜心十六年，专为中国人学习英语而编写的词典，也是半个多世纪以来，国人解决各种“疑难杂症”的金针，甚至一度被奉为“圣经”。[17]十年文革，百废待兴，而葛主持的《新英汉词典》（A New English-Chinese Dictionary，1975，初版词目八万余） 却在“红色浪潮”中横空出世，编者中沪上英语名家齐聚一堂，而这本收录了大量英语新词新义的“私活儿”也取代之前流行的两本英汉词典[18]，成为新中国成立后，“洛阳纸贵”的中型英汉词典，惠泽几代学人和莘莘学子，当时《纽约时报》还报道了此事。其实早在六十年代初，他就决意编纂一部《英汉大词典》，且是独立研编而非以往编译自某部国外词典的做法[19]，终因教务冗繁，人手稀缺而止。多年后，葛见到陆谷孙先生之《英汉大词典》（上海译文出版社，1989），不禁提笔感慨。时代的局限使得《新英汉》有很多地方不尽人意，如序言所说“在《新英汉词典》编写中，我们注意收入反映我国社会主义革命和社会主义建设，特别是反映无产阶级文化大革命以来新生事物的词语、例句……”，编者之一吴莹亦撰文称“……词典编写组内当时所参考的词典也都比较旧，参考书刊则主要是国内出版的《北京周报》和《北京建设》等。”[20]，但《新英汉》的经验得失也为日后英汉词典的编纂提供了重要依据。

也许是对字句的痴迷，1963年始，先生在《英语学习》[21]上专辟“问答栏”，到《英语世界》[22]上的“识途篇”，再到1978年由复旦大学外文系主办的《现代英语研究》，他提携后学，时常点石成金，幽默又不失严谨 （虽有时吹毛求疵），他曾以 I can only plead meticulous accuracy[23]为题指出英国前首相丘吉尔之《各尽所能》（Every Man to His Post）一文中的语法错误：

原文：‘… I thought it improbable that the enemy’s air attack in September be more than three times as great as it was in August，…’

葛评：‘Grammatically the “it” after “as great as” refers to “the enemy’s air attack in September”，but could “the enemy’s attack in September” ever have been in August”？ …’

而咬文嚼字、指谬析疑则更是葛的老本行，笔者从其《漫谈英语的准确表达》[24]中摘录一段可见一斑：

All the books are not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 （有的是我的，有的不是我的）。

Both （the） books are not mine.

这两本书并不都是我的 （一本是我的，一本不是我的）。

Every one of the books is not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 （有的是我的，有的不是我的）。

这三句都很浅易，英语民族的人们一般决不会误解。可是我们汉语民族的人，很可能会有人用了汉语的逻辑，想当然地把上面三句分别理解为“这些书都不是我的”，“这两本书都不是我的”和“这些书每本都不是我的”。

葛先生随时记录，随时比较，数十年如一日，他晚年寂寞，心里却不忘增订自己的《惯用法词典》，可惜《英语惯用法词典增编》直到1986年《现代英语研究》停刊为止，也只写到 Catch条[25]。

葛早年对Fowler兄弟的两本书[26]质疑指谬而名声大噪，后来“连美国人编惯用法词典都要写信过来向他请教”，此误传邓大任先生已补正[27]，但葛先生曾复信指出《简明牛津英语辞典》（COD）和《袖珍牛津英语辞典》（POD）的疏漏乃事实确凿，手中的《文集》即为佐证之一，另外，《葛传椝英文通讯集》（上海竞文，1939）中的一段文字也很清楚[28]：

Below are some omissions in COD； I should like you to see if the same omissions do not occur in ODME.[29]

Block. The sense of a building，as in “a block of flats”； this sense seems to be English rather than American …

Per capila（or “per caput”），POD has it.[30]

又见1938年8月28日信笺：

college. This word unlike “university”，is often used in the abstract sense，as in “he did not like college：he preferred to stay at home”. I wonder if this use is not more American than English.

谈到英文写作，葛觉得“affected simplicity”（刻意简洁）不好，“simplicity”还是好的，要“与其繁也宁简”，还说以前有位年长他二十来岁、英译《老残游记》的朋友，动笔就写“in the course of the month of February”这样的长句，为什么不写“in February”呢？[31]葛先生“从简”，在《文集》以及《英语写作》中也是这么身体力行的。他在《英文刍言》（1939）里指出，中国的英语学习者有两个误区：

One is that of trusting to so-called Chinese equivalents as given in English-Chinese dictionaries，the other is that of studying explanations in articles on synonymous but neglecting the illustrative examples.

葛建议大家多读“用英文写”的书，少读“研究英文”的书：

I would advise all learners of English to devote more time to reading books in and less time to reading books on English … This is due to their ignorance of the fact that without wide and careful reading the mastery of English is impossible.

1991年7月29日，与词典打了一辈子交道的葛先生于上海华东医院病逝。[32]

《葛传椝英文文集》原分三集，1937年由上海中华书局出版，其中大部分文章曾在当时商务印书馆主办的《中华英文周报》、《英文周刊》上登过，第一集除了两篇专文，余皆为信札（有八篇是写给 A. J. Fowler 的，可见其治学之勤），第二集为随笔，第三集是英语杂谈和阅读体会。葛氏生前好友苏兆龙[33]序言：‘……君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊……’，此次上海译文出版社分别以《学习法》《随笔》《书信序言选编》重刊，读者幸甚。驹光如驶，鱼雁绝影，唯葛氏文风犹存，辄深神往。重执旧卷如遇故人，不胜今昔之感云。

郭奕

乙未年立秋于播州飘飞阁

[1]原名《英文用法大字典》，开始连载于《竞文英文杂志》（1937年创刊，1939年停刊），1942 年由上海竞文书局集结初版，1948年增订再版，1958年重排再修订由时代出版社 （后并入商务印书馆） 出版，亦有台湾大东书局和香港商务印书馆 （1973） 版本，上海译文出版社后来又两次重印“简体字重排本”。

[2]据李荫华《永不知倦的酿蜜者——记英汉辞典编纂家葛传椝先生》（《辞书研究》，1983）。

[3]见葛传椝《我学习英语的点滴回忆（一）》（《外语界》，1986）。

[4]意为“言以简为贵”，语出莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》。

[5]一般略作COD，是最大、最权威的英语辞典——《牛津英语大词典》（Oxford English Dictionary，即OED）的重要补充，1911年初版，2011年8月出百年纪念第12版。

[6]当时的英文科科长。

[7]即《乔氏坎城旅谈本事》，1929年由上海商务印书馆出版。

[8]即1932 年1月28日爆发的上海淞沪抗战，商务印书馆编译所毁于一旦。

[9]即《现代英语惯用法辞典》，1926年初版，2015年第4版。据《老生偶谈》（二）（《山东外语教学》，1984），葛第一次接触到这本英语用法鸿著是在1927年。

[10]葛第一本专论英文法的著作《英文文法精义》（1931）在开明书店出版。

[11]更早的如《英华合解辞汇》（1915，有增订本）以及《英汉双解韦氏大学字典》（Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary with Chinese Translation，1923），亦由上海商务印书馆出版。

[12]詹文浒、葛传椝、苏兆龙、朱生豪四人所著《英文文法作文两用辞典》（A Dictionary of English grammar and Composition，世界书局，1934） 早于《英汉四用》。

[13]以香港世界书局《四用》增订版（1966）cut 条为例，共收短语33条，例证多达65条。

[14]除《英文致友人书》（中华书局，1934） 外，《英文报读法入门》（1935），《英文学生日记》（1936），《英文改作详解》（1936），《全句注音英文会话》（1937），《中国故事英译详解》（1939），《现代英文选注》（第一、二集，1939），《英文尺牍全书》（1940），《日用英文习语》（1941），《短篇英文百篇》（与桂绍盱合著，1946），初中、高中、大学英文选三辑九册（1947-1948），《英文作文模范》（1947），《英文新字辞典》（1947），《（作文应用）正则英文简明字典》（1947），《中学英文名著选》（1948）等相继在上海竞文书局出版。

[15]当时有“北南开，南大同”的说法，1952 年全国院系调整后，其文学院并入华东师范大学。

[16]一年后，新修订本出版，凡720页，笔者抽查了p.15-p.35共20页的词条数，取平均数后估算出《惯用法词典》的词目约3480个。

[17]见严锋“回忆《英语学习》”。1960年，北京大学西语系英语专业的《英语常用词用法词典》（商务印书馆）出版，但影响远不如葛。

[18]即张其春、蔡文萦的《简明英汉词典》（1963）和郑易理、曹成修的《英华大词典》（1950）。至1979年，《新英汉》的发行量已达六、七十万册。

[19]见《英汉大词典》编辑细则（草案）（《外语教学与翻译》1960年第1期）。

[20]见吴莹的“试评《新英汉词典》”（《辞书研究》，1979）。

[21]1958年在北京外国语学院创刊，是新中国成立后的第一本英语杂志。

[22]1981年创刊，中英对照本。

[23]原载《英语世界》（1987年第2 期）。

[24]原载《现代外语》（1984年第4期）。

[25]上海译文1993年出版了葛《简明英语惯用法》（原名《正则英文用法字典》），但与《英语惯用法词典》不是一本书。

[26]即 A Dictionary of Modern English Usage和The King’s English。

[27]见《万象》，2005年11月号。

[28]葛于1937年4月24日给A. J. Fowler 回信，A. J .Fowler 是H. W. Fowler 的二弟，详见拙文《H.勒梅热勒阁下致葛传椝的信》（《英语世界》，2013年8月号）。实际上，与葛书信往来的远不止一位英语界人士，包括英国著名语言学家、辞典编纂家、The Universal English Dictionary 的编者Henry Cecil Wyld 教授，葛在《英语写作》（原名《英文作文教本》）（1941）中特别提到过这本辞典。

[29]即A. J. Fowler 当时正在编写的《牛津现代英语辞典》，因编者去世而未出版。

[30]《袖珍牛津英语辞典》有这个词，但《简明牛津英语辞典》却失收。

[31]见《改文杂谈》，原载《外国语》（1982）。

[32]《英汉袖珍词典》（江西教育出版社，1986）是目前能见到的最后一本主编署名葛传椝的英汉小词典。

[33]曾任上海商务印书馆英文编辑，著有《英汉汉英翻译举例》、《活用英文翻译法》等多种。

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标题：葛传椝英文书信序言选编

作者：葛传椝

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序

余幼时诵方望溪姚姬传刘大櫆诸先生所为古文辞，窃喜其意在言外，淡而弥永，至于循玩不忍释手。长习英吉利文字，仍嗜读其隽逸有神味者。求诸国内殆鲜其人；有之自嘉定葛君传椝始。葛君夙赋天禀，又能力学不倦。骤聆其言论，似尚诡辩，多偏见；然静焉思之，确有至理存乎其间。譬食谏果，初甚涩口，终则齿颊间津津有余味也。其为文善取不伦不类者以为比，轻描淡写，寓讽深刻。余尝拟为英文之桐城派，英文学者中之东方生。虽人事百忙，读之便觉大快。君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊；论文往往多独到处。生平著述极富，所作《致友人书》及《英文学生日记》，尤风行海内。兹更汇其生平所作，付梓问世；以余相知较深，驰书索言，因泚笔而乐为之序。

苏兆龙

PREFACE

Except for the fact that it is issued in three volumes, this book may be properly called an omnibus. It contains special articles, letters, prefaces, little essays, poems interpreted, and essays concerning the study of English. Most of the things included have been first published in The Chung Hwa English Weekly, under the headings “Talks on Things”, “This and That”, “Thoughts and Impressions”, “The Open Classroom”, “Chats on Writing English”, and “Helps to the Study of English”. The “Thoughts and Impressions” series and three other essays originally appeared under a pseudonym.

It is a matter of regret that I did not make a duplicate of my first letter to Mr H. W. Fowler, and therefore cannot include it in this book. The one printed herein, as is mentioned in “To the Memory of Mr H. W. Fowler”, was written a fortnight after his death.

The essays concerning the study of English must not be regarded as a systematic treatment of the subject. Many of the points touched upon are more fully dealt with in my How to Master English Without a Teacher.

The following publishers have kindly permitted the inclusion of the pieces the titles of which follow their names in brackets: The China Journal (“On the Europeanization of the Chinese Language” and “Some Fragments of Pai Chü-i’s Poetry concerning Women”); The English Weekly (“Letter to Mr H. W. Fowler” and “Letter to Mr A. J. Fowler” [dated March 23, 1934]); The Ching Wen Book Company (“Preface to ‘The Diary of a Student’”, “Preface to ‘The Peacock Flies South-East’”, and “Preface to ‘A Chinese Schoolboy Visits England’”).

Hertz C. K. Kê

December, 1936

说明

《葛传椝英文书信序言选编》所收文章均出自《葛传椝英文集》(Man and Student)的第一集，原书中的前四篇“On the Europeanization of the Chinese Language”，“Some Fragments of Pai Chü-I’s Poetry Concerning Women”，“Some Longer English Lyrics”和“How to Study English”收入《葛传椝英文学习法》中，《葛传椝英文集》第二集和第三集的文章分别收入《葛传椝英文随笔》和《葛传椝英文学习法》中。

TO THE MEMORY OF MR H. W. FOWLER

SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE LATE H. W. FOWLER, “A LEXICOGRAPHER OF GENIUS”

LETTER TO MR H. W. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

LETTER TO DR LIN YUTANG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

LETTER TO MR C.S. CHOSEN TSOU

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA

PREFACE TO “LETTERS TO A FRIEND”

PREFACE TO “A MODEL DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH PHRASES”

PREFACE TO “THE DIARY OF A STUDENT”

PREFACE TO “THE PEACOCK FLIES SOUTH-EAST”

PREFACE TO “A CHINESE SCHOOLBOY VISITS ENGLAND”

TO THE MEMORY OF[1] MR H. W. FOWLER

Readers of this Weekly[2] must remember reading in No 620 Mr H. W. Fowler’s letter to me, dated November 24, 1933.Now I have to announce that I have just got word[3] from his brother, Mr A. J. Fowler[4], of the death of the famous grammarian and lexicographer[5], which occurred red on December 26, 1933, about a fortnight before I received the above-mentioned letter and replied to it To quote Mr A. J. Fowler’s letter:

I regret to tell you that my brother, H. W. Fowler, died on December 26th, 1933, after a short illness. His answer to your first letter must have been among the last things that he wrote; and I well remember the admiration with which he spoke of your command of the English language. And his correspondence with foreign students of English was so wide as to qualify him very completely for a judgement on this point.

My brother belonged, and frequently contributed, to the Society for Pure English[6] — generally called the S. P. E. — which has issued a great many pamphlets on special subjects.[7]

My brother was engaged on a new dictionary[8] when he died; when it is now likely to be published, I cannot say.

I do not know much about Mr H. W. Fowler’s life. But I believe that the little that I know will no doubt be of interest to all serious students of English.

Mr H. W. Fowler was born in 1858.It was in 1903 that his literary collaboration with his twelve-year-younger brother, F. G. Fowler, began with the translation of Lucian[9], a celebrated[10] Greek author, the result being published in four volumes[11] in 1905.Thenceforward the two brothers produced three joint works[12]: The King’s English[13] (1906), The Concise Oxford Dictionary (1911), and The Pocket Oxford Dictionary (1924). A Dictionary of Modern English Usage[14] (1926) is the work of H. W. Fowler, though he designed it with F. G. Fowler, who died in 1918, aged 47, and did not live to see[15] the publication of The Pocket Oxford Dictionary and A Dictionary of Modern English Usage. H. W. Fowler brought out a revised edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary in 1929[16] and one of The King’s English in 1930.He was one of the editors of The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary,[17] published in 1933.

As most readers of this Weekly must know very well. I am a great admirer of Mr H. W. Fowler. I do not think I could have studied English with such results as I have got, if I had not used his books these eight or ten years[18]; and I am happy to think that I had the honour of corresponding with him within a very short time of his regretted death, on which, by the way, I have now composed the following Chinese couplet:

硕学冠群儒，有弟能传千载业

遗书成绝笔，思翁不禁九回肠

[1]To the Memory of: 纪念

[2]this Weekly: 指 The Chung Hwa English Weekly (《中华英文周报》)

[3]word: 消息

[4]A. J. Fowler: H. W. Fowler 之弟，生于1868 年，卒于1939 年

[5]famous grammarian and lexicographer: 著名之文法家兼字典家 (即指 H. W. Fowler)

[6]Society for Pure English: 按此会在英国，创于1913年

[7]which has issued a great many pamphlets on special subject: 按此会自1919 年来曾刊行专论数十册，讨论文法，读音，语源等题

[8]was engaged on a new dictionary: 正在从事编一新字典 (按此字典原定名为 Quarto Oxford Dictionary，今已更名为 The Oxford Dictionary of Modern English，由 H. W. Fowler 之弟 A. J. Fowler 及其友 H. G. Le Mesurier 继续编著。)

[9]Lucian: 琉善，希腊著作家，约生于公元125 年，约卒于公元180 年

[10]celebrated: 著名的

[11]published in four volumes: 按此书及下文所述各书均系英国牛津大学出版社出版

[12]joint works: 合著之书

[13]The King’s English: 此书论述写作英文之种种问题

[14]A Dictionary of Modern English Usage: 此书论述英文中种种难点，涉及文法、句构、读音、拼法等项

[15]did not live to see: 不及见……而已死

[16]brought out a revised edition of The Concise Oxford Dictionary in 1929: 于1929 年出版 The Concise Oxford Dictionary 之改订本(按此书于1934 年出第三版，加一附录。)

[17]The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary: 此书共两厚册，由C. T. Onions 主编

[18]these eight or ten years: 最近过去之八年或十年

SOME INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE LATE[1] H. W. FOWLER, “A LEXICOGRAPHER OF GENIUS”

Ever since the death of Mr H. W. Fowler, which occurred on December 26, 1933, I have been on the look-out for[2] anything written about him. I found an article in The Times[3] (London), which called Fowler “a lexicographer of genius” and said: “His name has long been an oracle, and every year his dictionaries instruct and delight thousands of new readers”; an item in The Periodical (published by the Oxford University Press) containing the sentence “Though Mr Fowler’s work consisted largely of compilation, it exhibited not only great learning and sound judgement, but also a rare originality”; and a short poem in memory of [4] him in Punch[5] (London), the first eight lines of which read:

Learned, yet master of a style that lit

His erudition with unfailing wit,

He strove, from fame and fortune self-exiled,

To keep the well of English undefiled

By jargon and base coinage, yet was loth

To set pedantic limits to its growth,

Holding it wiser (as John Dryden said)

To traffic with the living and the dead.[6]

All these things, however, deal with[7] the grammarian and lexicographer rather than with the man; but it was chiefly about the man that I began to feel curious after my correspondence with him. This curiosity was not satisfied till I received a copy of Dr G. G. Coulton’s Memoir[8] of H. W. Fowler from his brother A. J. Fowler. This Memoir is published as Tract No ⅩLⅢ of the Society for Pure English; in the first paragraph the author says: “I must do my best to emphasize the personal side of this impersonal writer[9]”. Having read the book carefully through, I fancy that the readers of this Weekly might be glad to read about some interesting facts relating to a man whose very name perhaps suggests to them nothing but words and words and words.[10] Hence the following few paragraphs, which I of course do not intend to form anything like a connected biographical sketch:

Besides being a grammarian, a lexicographer, and classical scholar[11], H. W. Fowler was a first-rate swimmer, skater, and climber[12], a marvellous first-line forward[13] at football, a good shot[14], a humorist, and a devoted lover.

Once, when he was a teacher at Sedburgh[15], he was bathing with some smaller boys in a shallow pool, when a man came galloping to warn them of a cloud-burst[16] that was bringing a heavy spate[17]; Fowler had only just time to get the boys up the steep bank before the flood came down like a wall. On another occasion, several years later, when there was a fog, he had been swimming at haphazard[18] far too long in the icy water before the boatman heard him and picked him up in a state of exhaustion.

Fowler married on his fiftieth birthday (1908), only ten days after he had proposed to his wife, who was then forty-six years old. He wrote the following postcard to Dr G. G. Coulton on the day preceding his wedding day:

I didn’t write before lest[19] you should send me a present, and I write now lest you should learn it first from the papers[20], that tomorrow, on my 50th birthday, I marry Miss Jessie Marian Wills, aged 46.

(I am glad to find that this sentence reads very much like many sentences in my Letters to a Friend [21].)

Some years after his marriage, the Great War broke out,[22] and Fowler, now fifty-seven, enlisted with his brother F. G. Fowler. They went to France in December 1915, and did not get their discharge[23] till half a year later. When he was in France, he wrote to his wife almost every day. The whole of this correspondence is now deposited among the manuscripts in St John’s College Library at Cambridge[24]. Below are two interesting passages:

Jan. 16.I have to inform you that there was nothing at all to justify your dream. I have never either fainted or felt like[25] fainting since we have been out here; so mind you[26] enter this in your memory as a proof that no importance should be attached to dreams and presentiments[27] …

(By the way, “since we have been out here” is not grammatically perfect, though quite idiomatic; I think Fowler would have written “since we came here” if he had had enough time to take care of his grammar.)

Mar. 6.Have a look now and then at the stars between six and seven in the evening; they and the sun and moon are the only things we have a chance of looking at, at the same time… When I was talking to the sister in charge of Frank[28] [i. e. F. G.[29]], she explained that though he was better he was not yet fit to go back to camp. — “He has not got cheeks like yours[30]”, quoth[31] she. Don’t be jealous, dear; I will try to abide in the paths of virtue.[32]

(I like this harmless humour; this, again, reminds me of some humorous expressions in my Letters to a Friend.)

After his discharge, Fowler returned at once to his literary work. He was always on the best terms with[33] his wife. Their afternoon walks were often in the park; and the lodge-keeper once said to a friend: “There go the lovers!” That he loved her whole-heartedly may be seen from the following lines from a poem he wrote for the Westminster Gazette[34]:

She says the world to her’s one man,

　To me it is one woman.[35]

Also from his Epilogue[36] (written after his wife’s death in October 1930) to a little volume of verse entitled Rhymes of Darby to Joan[37]:

And Joan is dead! — and buried, near

The bells she loved and does not hear.[38]

　Four years have recordless remained

Of fears that waxed and hopes that waned[39] …

　She played her brave game to the last:[40]

No parting word between them passed.[41]

He’s lonely left at board and bed,[42]

No Darby now — for Joan is dead.[43]

(I do not think Fowler can be called a true poet, but his verse is perfect.)

Fowler used to do household work himself instead of keeping a servant. In 1926, the secretary of the Clarendon Press[44] wrote to offer him a servant’s wages in order to give him greater leisure for his literary work. Fowler replied as follows:

My half-hour from 7:00 to 7:30 this morning was spent in (1) a two-mile run along the road, (2) a swim in my next-door neighbour’s pond — exactly as some 48 years ago I used to run round the Parks and cool myself in (is there such a place now?) Parson’s Pleasure[45]. That I am still in condition for such freaks I attribute to having had for nearly 30 years no servants to reduce me to a sedentary and all-literary existence.[46] And now you seem to say: Let us give you a servant, and the means of slow suicide and quick lexicography.[47] Not if I know it; I must go my slow way.[48]

(Again, so far as style is concerned,[49] the last two sentences read as if they were mine.)

Fowler is said never to have left unanswered any letter from any of his readers. In a letter to a friend dated July 22, 1926, he said:

I am one of those fools who are too much flattered by questions from strangers to treat them summarily,[50] and must always give them more answer than they are expecting, instead of saying “Thanks very much, I will think about it”.

And I am sure that when Fowler wrote the following, he had a smile on his face:

A convict in a Californian[51] prison wrote asking me for a copy of Modern English Usage to complete him for a literary career when he should have served his time.[52]

Lest some of my readers should think I am crazy about Fowler and his books, I have to conclude this article by telling about a crazy man who wrote to Fowler now and then.[53] That man is a Mr Jones[54]; he has collected all the various doings ascribed to “Jones” in the illustrative examples in The Pocket Oxford Dictionary and bases upon them a claim to be descended from William the Conqueror.[55] Well, even if my surname were Jones instead of Kê, I could not possibly be so crazy as to make any effort to hunt for expressions containing the word “Jones” in any Fowler book,[56] still less[57] to base on them any claim to be descended from William the Conqueror. No, I am not crazy enough, after all.

[1]The Late: 已故的

[2]on the look-out for: 注意以求

[3]The Times:《泰晤士报》伦敦日报名，于1785 年创刊，原名 The Daily Universal Register，1788 年改为今名

[4]in memory of: 纪念

[5]Punch: 伦敦幽默周刊名，于1841年创刊

[6]Learned, yet master of a style that lit his erudition with unfailing wit, he strove, from fame and fortune self-exiled (= self-exiled from fame and fortune), to keep the well of English undefiled by jargon and base coinage, yet was loth to set pedantic limits to its growth, holding it wiser (as John Dryden said) to traffic with the living and the dead: 其为人也博学，然其为文，又恒能以诙谐之笔，使其学得跃然纸上，自远于名利而惟保存英文之纯粹是求，然亦不如腐儒辈之力阻英文之自然滋长，乃守 John Dryden 之言而于生死两不偏废者。(“Learned”指 H. W. Fowler 之博学；“unfailing wit”指其文体之诙谐，盖 Fowler 之论著，恒多谐语；“keep the well of English undefiled by jargon and base coinage”谓保存英文之纯粹，使不为不正当之字句所沾污，“well”作“泉水”解，“well of English undefiled”原系英国诗人Edmund Spenser 尊称英国诗祖 Geoffrey Chaucer 之语，此处系借用；“pedantic limits”指一般英国老学究之泥古不化而言；“traffic with the living and the dead”谓既求保存英文固有之纯粹，亦求任其自然发展也。)

[7]deal with: 论述

[8]Memoir: 传记

[9]impersonal writer: 无个人气味之著作家 (文法家与字典家当然无个人气味，他若诗人与小品文家即为有个人气味之著作家。)

[10]whose very name perhaps suggests to them nothing but words and words and words: 读者一闻其名，恐想及者惟有文字而已 (盖H. W. Fowler乃文法家兼字典家也)

[11]classical scholar: 经典学者 (按 H. W. Fowler 通希腊与拉丁文)

[12]climber: 爬山者

[13]first-line forward: 首线中锋

[14]shot: 射手；枪手

[15]Sedburgh: 英国 Yorkshire 郡中之市镇

[16]cloud-burst: 大暴雨

[17]spate: 河水之泛滥

[18]at haphazard: 偶然

[19]lest: 唯恐……；以免……

[20]learn it from the papers: 从报纸得悉此事

[21]Letters to a Friend:《致友人书》

[22]the Great War break out: 世界大战发生(“Great War”指1914 年至 1918 年之欧战)

[23]discharge: 退伍

[24]Cambridge: 剑桥 (英国地名)

[25]felt like: 意欲

[26]mind you: 君需注意

[27]no importance should be attached to dreams and presentiments: 不应重视梦与征兆

[28]the sister in charge of Frank: 看护 Frank 之看护妇长

[29]i. e. F. G.: 即指 F. G.(“i. e.”系拉丁文“id est”之缩写，作“即是”解；此语系余所加，故用方括弧。)

[30]He has not got cheeks like yours: 彼之双颊，不及君之双颊之红润

[31]quoth: 说

[32]don’t be jealous, dear; I will try to abide in the paths of virtue: 我爱乎，其弗妒；我必勉守道德也。(谐语，谓弗疑，我或钟情于看护妇长也。)

[33]on the best terms with: 与……极和睦

[34]Westminster Gazette: 伦敦报纸名

[35]She says the world to her’s (= her is) one man, to me it is one woman: 伊谓伊之世界乃一个男子，而我之世界乃一个女子，(谓我俩相爱至深也；此二行系 H. W. Fowler 所著“Harmonious Discord”一诗之末二行。)

[36]Epilogue: 跋诗

[37]Rhymes of Darby to Joan: H. W. Fowler 所著恋爱诗集，英国J. M. Dent ＆ Sons Limited 出版；以 Darby 与 Joan 二名指互爱之老夫妇由来已久

[38]near the bells she loved and does not hear: 近伊素所爱好而今不复得闻之钟 (按 H. W. Fowler 夫人葬于 Hinton St George 镇教堂之左近)

[39]Four years have recordless remained of fears that waxed and hopes that waned = Four years of fears that waxed and hopes that waned have remained recordless: 四年间或则恐惧生长，或则希望消逝，今已杳无踪迹矣 (写其夫人之病状也)

[40]played her brave game to the last: 至死不屈

[41]No parting word between them passed (= passed between them): 二人间未曾有惜别之语

[42]He’s lonely left at board and bed: 彼今乃独食独寝矣

[43]No Darby now — for Joan is dead: Joan 既死，即无所谓Darby 矣

[44]Clarendon Press: 即 Oxford University Press

[45]Parson’s Pleasure: 地名

[46]That I am still in condition for such freaks I attribute to having had for nearly 30 years no servants to reduce me to a sedentary and all-literary existence: 我之所以尚能为此奇事者(指远跑与游泳而言)，我以为由于不需仆人几三十年，若有仆人则将使我过一种坐定而纯属著述之生活矣。

[47]And now you seem to say: Let us give you a servant, and the means of slow suicide and quick lexicography: 今则君若曰：我为君雇一仆人，供君以迟缓之自杀与迅速之编著字典之方法 (“the means of slow suicide and quick lexicography”谓若有仆人则一切操作由仆人代劳，于编著字典固可迅速，但不事操作而专事著述，将有害于身体，无异于渐渐自杀也)

[48]Not if I know it; I must go my slow way: 我却不以为然；我必迟迟而行

[49]so far as style is concerned: 就文体而论

[50]summarily: 简捷

[51]Californian: 加利福尼亚 (California，美国之一州) 的

[52]when he should have served his time: 在其徒刑期满之后

[53]now and then: 时时

[54]a Mr Jones: 姓 Jones 之某君

[55]William the Conqueror: 即 William I，英国国王，约生于1027 或1028 年，卒于1087 年，于1066 年即王位；原系 Normandy 之君，于1066 年战克英国，故名“the Conqueror”

[56]Fowler book: Fowler 所著之书

[57]still less: 更不

LETTER TO MR H. W. FOWLER[1]

Shanghai, January 9, 1934

Dear Sir,

January 6 was a red-letter day[2] with me; for it was on that day that I received your letter. Whenever I hear my English praised, I feel a sort of pride. I cannot tell you how I prize an encouraging autograph letter[3] from a man of your authority and reputation.

As I said in my previous letter, I have for years past devoted myself to the study of English. I am fool enough often to say to myself [4] that I am born to study English and to help my compatriots[5] to study it. I work in an office simply because I have to work to live and to support my family. I wish I could[6] have enough time every day to write books on and in English[7] for Chinese students of the language.

I am writing chiefly to ask you to recommend some books of the Modern English Usage or the King’s English kind. I have read the works of Dr Otto Jespersen[8] and Mr Henry Sweet[9] and many grammars[10] and books on rhetoric[11] by American authors. (By the way, I do not know of any rhetoric book written by an Englishman, and wonder whether there is any such.) But I am sorry to find that most of the so-called “advanced”[12] grammars by American authors are not advanced enough for me.

I am very sorry that neither are you likely ever to come over to China nor can I visit England, I simply do not know whether I can ever find a man who can advise me in my studies. Professors of English are as plentiful as blackberries[13] here in China, both Chinese and foreigners. But I doubt whether many of them care so much as[14] to open books like The Modern English Usage and The King’s English.

You mentioned “pressure of work”[15] in your letter. You are busy writing a new book? Will you please let me know what it is and when it may be out[16]? I should also be interested to know where Dr Jespersen is, and whether Mr J. C. Nesfield[17] is still living.

Need I apologize for the trouble I am giving you? I flatter myself[18] that it will give you much pleasure to hear from[19] one of the few Chinese, if not[20] the only Chinese, who do read your books with the care they deserve.

Yours very truly,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Letter to Mr H. W. Fowler: 按余于 1933 年秋间致书 H. W. Fowler，1934 年 1 月 6 日接其复函，9 日复寄此信，盖不知是翁已于 1933 年 12 月 26 日逝世矣

[2]red-letter day: 足以纪念之日

[3]autograph letter: 亲笔信

[4]say to myself: 自思

[5]compatriots: 同国之人

[6]I wish I could: 我恨不能

[7]books on and in English: 书之论述英文并以英文撰著者

[8]Otto Jespersen: 丹麦语言学家，生于 1860 年，卒于 1943 年

[9]Henry Sweet: 英国名儒，生于 1845 年，卒于 1912 年

[10]grammars: 文法书

[11]rhetoric: 修辞学

[12]“advanced”: 高等的

[13]as plentiful as blackberries: 甚多的

[14]so much as = even

[15]“pressure of work”: 事忙(来信中语)

[16]out: 出版

[17]J. C. Nesfield: 英国文法家，生年不详

[18]I flatter myself: 我自以为

[19]hear from: 接……之函

[20]if not …: 即不言……

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

March 23, 1934

Dear Sir:

I cannot thank you enough[1] for the patience and frankness with which you answered my letter to your late brother. What a shock it gives me to learn that he who had been hale enough to work and write letters as late as the latter part of last November should have passed away[2] before the end of the year! I received his letter on January 6 and replied to it on January 9, little dreaming[3] that its writer was no more.[4] I do not know what to say to condole with you upon this irreparable loss except that your brother must have considered himself fortunate in being survived by a brother of your qualifications, to whom the lot now falls to[5] complete the dictionary that he left in the forming[6] when he died. As you probably know, I have for a long time been such a whole-hearted admirer of your brother’s works as to take a personal interest in him; and now that[7] he is dead, I very sincerely hope that you are going to succeed[8] him in writing books on advanced studies in English. To tell the truth[9], I did not know he had another brother than the famous F. G. Fowler[10] till I got your letter, and I take pleasure in the thought that after all he had another.

I have now contributed an article entitled “To the Memory of Mr H. W. Fowler”[11] to one of the most popular English magazines in China, and am enclosing a copy of it, which I trust you will read with great interest. If you find anything wrong in the biographical information contained therein, please let me know. The Chinese couplet at the end of the article may be roughly paraphrased as:

The greatest of all scholars is no more, but it is highly gratifying to think that he has left behind a worthy brother to carry on a work that is of permanent value.

That his letter to me should have been among the last things he wrote is a fact on which I cannot but reflect with a heavy[12] heart.

I cannot claim much literary skill in Chinese, but I flatter myself that this couplet may pass muster[13], hope that you can find men in England, such as Professor Herbert A. Giles[14], who know enough Chinese to read and explain it to you. By the way, if it seems to you to be foolish of me to write a Chinese couplet on the death of an English scholar, please attribute my foolishness to the high esteem in which I hold your brother and his works.

I wonder what is the nature of the new dictionary on which you were working with your brother previous to his death, and how far it has got.

In the Acknowledgements of the revised edition of C. O. D.[15], your brother mentioned a man, “known to me only by correspondence, who for years sent me fortnightly packets of foolscap[16] devoted to perfecting a still contingent[17] second edition”. If I could find time to do the same for all the Fowler books![18] As a matter of fact, I hardly ever go through the day without consulting one or more of them several times, and it is merely owing to[19] pressure of office and private affairs that I cannot now send you a large number of comments and notes. The two sheets of such that I enclose herewith I hope will meet with your careful consideration.

Finally, though I am well aware that it would be very impolite to inquire of an Englishman about such purely personal things as name and age, yet I cannot help[20] being curious about your full name and age, as I begin to feel personally interested in you as I used to do in your brother. And I should also like to know if you think you could ever come over to China.

Yours very truly,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]cannot thank you enough: 谢君不尽

[2]passed away: 死去

[3]little dreaming: 未尝梦想

[4]was no more: 已故

[5]the lot now falls to …: 今有……之责任

[6]left in the forming: 未完；未竟

[7]now that: 既

[8]succeed: 继

[9]to tell the truth: 实言之

[10]F. G. Fowler: 按此人卒于1918年

[11]“To the Memory of Mr H. W. Fowler”: 此文见本集中

[12]heavy: 忧伤的

[13]pass muster: 尚过得去

[14]Professor Herbert A. Giles: 英国人，通中文，生于1845 年，卒于1935 年

[15]C. O. D. = The Concise Oxford Dictionary

[16]foolscap: 一种纸之大小之称

[17]contingent: 未定的

[18]If I could …: 我恨不能……

[19]owing to: 因

[20]cannot help: 不能免；不禁

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

June 22, 1934

Dear Mr Fowler,

I write chiefly to thank you for the four volumes of Tennyson[1] that you sent me in memory of your brother. It is certainly a source of pride as well as pleasure to think that I now have for my own[2] some books that have long been kept and valued by a great scholar. If they bear some signs of what Charles Lamb[3] called “ragged veterans”[4] (Lamb’s “Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading”[5]), this only serves to[6] enhance their charm.

Seeing that[7] you are rather old and that you must be very busy compiling the new dictionary, I think I should not trouble you with a long letter. But I am too much interested in your brothers’ books to conclude this letter without making a few remarks about them. And I hope that you will have the patience to consider what might be dull enough for one not a lexicographer.[8]

You do not seem to have got my ideas about [ow] and [ir]. That ow itself may have either the sound of “boat” or that of “foul” does not affect[9] my question. I am doubtful about [ow] because I believe that the sound in “foul”, “fowl”, “howl”, “jowl”, etc. does not begin with [ˇo], but with [ah], and that to use [ow] to represent this sound might lead those who cannot pronounce the sound properly to think that it actually begins with [ˇo].

The question about [ir] is a similar one. I do not mean any word that contains ir, such as “first”. I mean those words that contain ere, such as “here”, “mere”, “sphere”, or ear, such as “hear”, “clear”, “beard”. My point is that the correct sound in these words does not have the full value of [¯e]; that is, the e is so much influenced by the r as to become [ˇı]. So I think that [¯er] does not serve so well as [ir] would, in representing the sound.

I have recently received a letter from a friend (who is a serious student of English) asking me whether I can enlighten him on the use and omission of the articles in P. O. D.[10] and C. O. D. I have spent an hour or so[11] considering this point, and have now to tell you that the use and omission of the articles in the two dictionaries seem to me to be quite irregular. Please look up “come” in C. O. D. Here we find the three phrases “come into world”, “come to an end”, and “come to hand”. Surely in “come to an end”, the “an” is indispensable, and in “come to hand” we should never insert “the” or “a”. But I am at a loss to account for[12] the omission of “the” in “come into world”. Such notable omissions must be intentional. Perhaps your brothers thought that an intelligent consulter would easily supply the article in such phrases. But I am of opinion that a dictionary-maker should treat every phrase as being entirely unknown to the users of the dictionary. I wonder whether the articles are frequently omitted in your new dictionary, and if you have not yet gone very far, I hope that you will stop to consider[13] whether it would not be desirable never to omit an article where it is necessary.

Yours very sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Tennyson: 丁尼生，即 Alfred Tennyson，英国诗人，生于 1809 年，卒于 1892 年

[2]have for my own: 拥有

[3]Charles Lamb: 英国文豪，生于 1775 年，卒于 1834 年

[4]“ragged veterans”: 衣衫褴褛之老兵 (喻旧书)

[5]“Detached Thoughts on Books and Reading”: 小品文篇名

[6]only serves to …: 适足以……

[7]seeing that …: 鉴于……

[8]lexicographer: 编字典者

[9]affect: 影响

[10]P. O. D. = The Pocket Oxford Dictionary

[11]an hour or so: 约一小时

[12]at a loss to account for: 不知如何解释

[13]stop to consider: 止而思；静思

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

March 3, 1935

Dear Mr Fowler,

Replying to your letter of January 18, for the shortness of which you apologized, I sit down to write one for the length of which I flatter myself that I do not need to apologize; for, as you must be aware, I am now as much interested in you and your work as I have always been in your brother and his work. And this also accounts for the rather personal, if not altogether presumptuous, tone in which I write.

I am very glad to learn that you have found my Letters to a Friend very interesting and that you will often re-read it. I am perhaps the only Chinese young man who has ever published his private correspondence in English, and no doubt mine[1] cannot be said to have been published in vain[2], if only it has been read and found “very interesting”[3] by a scholar of your qualifications.

Many thanks for sending a copy of Dr Coulton’s memoir of your brother, which I have read with a great deal of gusto. I feel compelled, however, to raise the following few questions:

1.How is it that page 2 is marked “100”, page 3 marked “101”, etc.?[4]

2.How is it that while your birthday is mentioned (on page 126), your brother’s is not mentioned?

3.How is it that while the wording of a memorial tablet to your brother’s wife and that of your brother’s friend Tower’s epitaph[5] are given, your brother’s own epitaph is not given?

4.How is it that nothing is said about your brother’s work on The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary?

5.What does “A. O. D.[6]” in the facsimile[7] of your brother’s letter to Dr Chapman stand for[8]? I have never heard of an Oxford dictionary the name of which begins with the letter A.

Because I am interested in your brother as a man as well as as an author, I wonder whether you could manage[9] to let me have a copy of each of these books:

More Popular Fallacies[10]

Si Mihi[11]

Between Boy and Man

If Wishes Were Horses[12]

Rhymes of Darby to Joan

All these books are mentioned in Dr Coulton’s book, but I am sure that they are not to be had[13] here in China. In return for your kindness, I would gladly help you in regard to any word of Chinese origin about which you might desire information in compiling The Quarto Oxford Dictionary.

I am very anxious to know how far you have gone on your work on this dictionary. (I asked you the same question in my last[14]; your silence[15] on it in your letter suggests that you did not have my letter before you when you wrote, and this suggestion may perhaps be regarded as being borne out[16] by the fact that you wrote on the envelope “Hertz C. Kê” instead of “Hertz C. K. Kê”.) Constant use of C. O. D. and P. O. D. enables me to make the following observations,[17] which, whatever you may think of them, I hope you will find pertinent enough for a lexicographer’s consideration.

Both C. O. D. and P. O. D. have glaring omissions, if omissions can ever be glaring, of senses and uses that the average student of English knows or is supposed to know. Examples: agreed as used in “All are agreed”, can as used in “He cannot be over fifty”, have as used in “I am glad to have you write to me in English”, earn as in “His work earned him a good reputation”. This is perhaps due to the fact that both dictionaries are two-man compilations[18]. If you are working on The Quarto Oxford Dictionary single-handed[19], I think that you will have all the more reason to guard against such notable omissions.

Both C. O. D. and P. O. D. omit some very common idioms, such as “join up”, meaning enlist, especially those which you Englishmen like to call Americanism. It is my opinion that while it is very desirable to label Americanisms as Americanisms, it is far from[20] good to omit an idiom on no other ground than that[21] it is not usually used in England, though common enough in America. Your brothers say in their preface to the first edition of C. O. D.: “… we admit colloquial, facetious,[22] slang,[23] and vulgar expressions with freedom merely attaching a cautionary label[24], when a well-established usage of this kind is omitted, it is not because we consider it beneath the dignity of lexicography to record it, but because, not being recorded in the dictionaries from which our word-list is necessarily compiled, it has escaped our notice[25]…”. Well, please pardon me for saying, but I have to say, that a lexicographer does not seem to be justified in confining his words and idioms to a few dictionaries. Read through an ordinary newspaper, an ordinary magazine, or an ordinary 1934 or 1935 novel, and you will find a number of idioms that you of course know and perhaps the “general reader” of current literature knows, but which are not recorded in C. O. D. or P. O. D. May I suggest that you treat the reading of newspapers, magazines, and even third-rate[26] novels, as part of the work of a lexicographer?

I trust that you will by no means accuse me of disparaging[27] either of the two dictionaries, which, as I have told you before, I hold in very high esteem.

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]mine = my private correspondence

[2]in vain: 无益

[3]“very interesting”: 此系来信中语

[4]How is it that …?: 何以……？

[5]epitaph: 墓铭

[6]A. O. D.: 据 A. J. Fowler 来函云，即指 The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary，盖此书原拟名 Abridged Oxford Dictionary 也

[7]facsimile: 真迹

[8]stand for: 代表

[9]manage: 设法

[10]Popular Fallacies:《普通之谬说》

[11]Si Mihi:《我若有》(拉丁文)

[12]If Wishes Were Horses:《若愿望为马》(成语“If horses were horses, beggars would ride”之前半语)

[13]are not to be had: 买不到

[14]my last: 我之前信

[15]silence: 未提及

[16]borne out: 证明

[17]observations: 评语

[18]two-man compilations: 二人合编之书

[19]single-handed: 独自

[20]far from: 极不

[21]on no other ground than that …: 仅因……

[22]facetious: 诙谐的

[23]slang: 俚语

[24]cautionary label: 警告之标识 (示读者以不可随处应用也)

[25]escaped our notice: 未被我侪注意

[26]third-rate: 劣等的

[27]disparaging: 轻视

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

August 16, 1935

Dear Mr Fowler,

It is nearly four months since I received your letter of March 22, in which you promised to send me copies of some of your brother’s books. For some time past I have been wondering whether the books have miscarried[1] or you have somehow forgotten to send them. I feel inclined to claim your promise, and hope that it is not beyond the bounds of propriety[2] to claim the promise of a gift.

Under separate cover[3] I am sending you a copy of The Peacock Flies South-east [4], which please accept with my compliments as well as the publisher’s. The translator is an earnest student of English, and I have revised the translation thoroughly. I should be glad to hear what you have to say about the book, if you care to write.

Lest you should finish the book without understanding the title, I have to give a little explanation here. As you will see from my “Editor’s Note”, the play[5] is based upon an old Chinese anonymous[6] poem. This poem has no title at all, and is generally spoken of by its first line (or rather verse, for Chinese poetry is not divided into lines), which, translated into English, is “The peacock flies south-east”. Nor has this first verse anything to do with the story of the poem. This you can easily understand, for you must have read many old English ballads[7] in which the first line or even the first stanza is quite foreign to the subject-matter.[8]

As you are well aware, I am a constant user of your brother’s dictionaries. I shall soon publish a little pamphlet entitled How to Use the Concise Oxford Dictionary[9], which I hope will help to popularize the book in China. I shall not, however, send you a copy, for the pamphlet is written entirely in Chinese.

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]miscarried: 遗失

[2]beyond the bounds of propriety: 不合礼

[3]Under separate cover: 在另一包内

[4]The Peacock Flies South-east: 剧本《孔雀东南飞》

[5]play: 剧本

[6]anonymous: 不知谁人所作的

[7]ballads: 歌谣

[8]quite foreign to the subject-matter: 与本题无关的

[9]How to Use the Concise Oxford Dictionary:《牛津简明字典的查法》

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

November 13, 1935

Dear Mr Fowler,

Thank you very much for sending your brother’s Rhymes of Darby to Joan and If Wishes Were Horses. It is very interesting to note that your brother, who is known among all the English-speaking peoples in the world as an impersonal writer, was capable of things so personal as love poems and what for want of a better name[1] we call informal essays. I wish I could do something to popularize your brother’s essays in China, but I am afraid they are too much for[2] the average Chinese student of English; however, I may try to condense one of them for a book of present-day English prose that I am planning. As to the poems, I hope you will not accuse me of cheap humour if I say that while love as a topic of conversation and composition is by no means tabooed[3] in China, there do not seem to be many Chinese who care to read English love poetry.

Mr W. R. Lemarchand, who says he is your wife’s brother, called on[4] me several weeks ago. When I looked him up[5] yesterday, he said he had written to you about me on the day after his call. By the way, when he called, he said you had, in a letter to him, spoken of me, wondering whether I am a big noise[6] of sixty or a clerk of twenty-five. You might easily find from my Letters to a Friend that I am neither a big noise nor a clerk and neither sixty nor twenty-five, but a young man of thirty (Chinese reckoning[7]) who studies English with a carefulness bordering upon[8] craziness and writes articles and books on English for Chinese students.

I am interested to see from your notepaper that Lt-Colonel[9] H. G. Le Mesurier is working with you on The Oxford Dictionary of Modern English. I saw his name for the first time in the 1934 edition of C. O. D. and P. O. D. Be good enough to call his attention to the three following small points, which I discovered in C. O. D. recently:

1.Page ix, at the end of the first paragraph on Pronunciation, mention should be made, in square brackets[10], of the fact that the note on accent and pronunciation is now on the page facing the list of abbreviations instead of on that facing the letter A.

2.Page 128, under commute, “one obligation” should be enclosed in parentheses.

3.Page 597, under interleave, “book” should be enclosed in parentheses.

Well, I have to mention another point before bringing this letter to a close.[11] You wrote “Ch’ung Ch’ing” instead of “Ch‘ung Ch‘ing”.[12] So far as I know, [‘], not [’], is the proper mark for the aspirate[13] in the Romanizations of Chinese characters[14]. While many Chinese and foreigners use [’] (which seems to be easier to write than [‘]), Professor Herbert A. Giles, the late famous sinologue[15], always used [‘].

Thanking you again for the books, I am

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]for want of a better name: 因无较佳之名称

[2]are too much for …: 为……所不能了解

[3]tabooed: 禁止

[4]called on: 访

[5]looked him up: 访彼

[6]big noise: 重要人物 (俚语)

[7]Chinese reckoning: 中国计算法

[8]bordering upon: 近乎

[9]Lt-Colonel = Lieutenant-Colonel: 陆军中校

[10]square brackets: 方括弧

[11]bringing this letter to a close: 结束此信

[12]Ch‘ung Ch‘ing: 仲卿(《孔雀东南飞》剧本中人名)

[13]aspirate: 气音

[14]Romanizations of Chinese characters: 中国字之罗马化式 (即中国字之西拼式)

[15]Sinologue: 汉学家

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

January 31, 1936

Dear Mr Fowler,

Your letter of December 15, 1935 reached me a fortnight ago. I did not write then because I was waiting for the publication of my The Diary of a Student,[1] a copy of which I am sending under separate cover, with a copy of my How to Use the Concise Oxford Dictionary.

Before talking about these two books, I have to inquire whether you have received a clipping from The Chung Hwa English Weekly bearing my picture and a few first-person-singular paragraphs. This Weekly is devoted to the interests[2] of Chinese students of English; its editor is an intimate friend of mine, and I am one of its regular contributors.

As you can easily see, The Diary of a Student is a purely fictitious one — not quite unlike The Diary of a Nobody by George and Weedon Grossmith[3], which appeared in Punch late in the nineteenth century. I am very glad to say that it is perhaps the only book of its kind ever published in China, though there is now no telling[4] what fortunes it is likely to meet with. I am afraid some readers may call me a pseudo-humorist.[5] By the way, a reviewer of my Letters to a Friend accused the letters of “discussion divorced from reality[6]” after calling them “an interesting study of a ‘literary friendship’ between two self-educated young men” and saying, “The earnest spirit in which so many of the letters are written does not prevent occasional humour from creeping in”.

You must be curious to know what the ten Chinese characters I wrote on the fly-leaf [7] of the Diary mean. I wrote them because it occurred to me[8] that you might like them. The first four characters of the right line mean “Mr Fowler” and the four characters of the second line mean “presented by Hertz C. K. Kê”. There are no rules for translating English proper names into Chinese, and in view of [9] the disparity[10] between Chinese and English pronunciations, exact translation is impossible. In translating your surname I have used two characters that mean “blessing” and “come”[11] respectively and “the coming of blessings” as a phrase. So far as I know, we always avoid unlucky words in translating foreign proper names, and lucky words occur in some accepted[12] translations. For instance, the three characters of the accepted translation of Kipling[13], the famous English author who died not long ago, mean “lucky for one hundred years”[14].

In the preceding paragraph I have purposely omitted to mention the last two characters of the right line. Literally they mean “cover the sauce pot”[15], and the six characters of the right line may be freely translated as “Mr Fowler, please cover your sauce pot with this book”. This contains a literary allusion: for hundreds of years Chinese authors have modestly spoken, in writing but not in talk, of their own works as being of so little worth as to be fit only to cover sauce pots with.

How to Use the Concise Oxford Dictionary is written entirely in Chinese. Of course, you cannot read it. But I hope you will be glad to see and keep it, and that you will find great satisfaction in the thought that there is such a booklet under the sun[16]. I am sorry that I wrote it too late to offer it, except in memory, to your brother.

I wonder what my efforts to popularize C. O. D. in China have really done. The other day[17] I saw at a book-shop here in Shanghai some copies of C. O. D. with the words “For Sale in China” on the jacket[18] and sold at the price of $3.50.Can you tell me what has determined the Oxford University Press to publish this China edition?

Being a constant user of C. O. D., I mention a few points below for you and Col. Le Mesurier to consider:

1.Under mandarin, I suggest adding the sense “standard spoken Chinese”. (The P. O. D. definition “the Chinese of officials and the educated” does not seem to me to be good. Mandarin is a spoken thing, and this should be mentioned.)

2.Under more, the first sense is “Existing in greater quantity, amount, or degree”. I suggest adding “or in additional quantity or amount”, or simply “additional” or “further”. As the wording stands,[19] the illustrative expression “bring some more water” might be taken as meaning “bring a slightly greater quantity of water than the quantity already had” — which is evidently wrong. Likewise, I think “(abs.[20]) greater quantity” should read “(abs.) greater or additional quantity.” (See P. O. D.)

3.Under write, in explaining “write up”, I suggest inserting “write” before “elaborate account of”. In view of the explanation “praise in writing” going before, I do not think the omission of “write” here justifiable.

With best regards to you and to Col. Le Mesurier, I am

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]The Diary of a Student:《英文学生日记》

[2]interests: 利益

[3]George and Weedon Grossmith: 英国戏剧家兼著作家，系兄弟二人，均已故

[4]there is now no telling: 不能预言

[5]pseudo-humorist: 假幽默家

[6]discussion divorced from reality: 离开实际之讨论

[7]fly-leaf: 扉页；衬页

[8]occurred to me: 被我想及

[9]in view of: 因

[10]disparity: 不同

[11]“blessing” and “come”: 按系“福来”二字

[12]accepted: 公认的

[13]Kipling: 即 Rudyard Kipling，英国文学家，生于1865 年，卒于1936 年 1 月

[14]“lucky for one hundred years”: 按 Kipling 译名通作“吉百龄”

[15]“cover the sauce pot”: 按系“覆瓿”二字

[16]under the sun: 在天下

[17]The other day: 数日前

[18]jacket: 封皮

[19]As the wording stands: 依原文之措辞而言

[20]abs. = absolute

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

April 29, 1936

Dear Mr Fowler,

As you can see by the above-given address, I am now working at home. I hope that I shall be able to do something of real service to the thousands of young Chinese who wish to master the English language but who can neither read imported books nor profit by the hundred and one[1] cheap[2] books professing to teach English but written by authors to whom English as it is used by Englishmen is little more than the proverbial Greek.[3]

It is very kind of you to say that you ought to send a photograph of yourself, though you have not actually sent one. Do send one, Mr Fowler, if you can do it conveniently. As perhaps I have told you before, I am now as much personally interested in you as I have always been in your brother; and, as I said in the cutting I sent you, I think that where personal contact is impossible, a photograph is the best substitute. I am sure I should receive your portrait with as much pleasure as William Cowper received his mother’s in his fifty-ninth year.[4] (I am not quite sure whether it is not contrary to English propriety for me to say so, as Cowper’s mother had long been dead when the poet received her picture. If so, please pardon me and rest assured that no offence is intended.)

Many thanks for enlightening me on three points in my Diary. If I have to substitute a single word for the word “fouled” in “each sheet fouled with a few words”, I think “covered” is the right word. Don’t you think so?

I am very glad to learn that you will show my little book on C. O. D. to the Oxford people. However, I feel bound to[5] tell you that you will have little cause to feel surprised[6] if you can get no-one to interpret it satisfactorily; for it is written in pai-hua[7], which means plain speech or colloquial language but is in fact a sort of written or neo-literary[8] language rather than Chinese as it is actually spoken, and which is quite different from the Chinese that sinologues study. (As a matter of fact, what we call pai-hua is nowhere spoken, and scholars of the old school cannot read it very understandingly. For my part,[9] I write it only when necessary.)

You must have gathered[10] that I am a very keenly interested student of English grammar. To tell the truth, I have not yet found a single book on this subject that is perfect. Professor Jespersen’s famous work in four volumes[11] is no doubt a very good one, but I think it is too “revolutionary” in treatment to have general appeal.[12] It is much to be regretted that your brother did not write a complete grammar. I am now planning one, which, when completed, shall be at once complete and[13] advanced. The materials I shall gather from wide reading as well as from such authoritative books as The Oxford English Dictionary. And it is my ambition to have it published in England. Do you think there is any possibility of realizing my ambition, Mr Fowler? I am afraid that the average English publisher would reject my book simply because it is written by a Chinese.

Would you mind answering two questions that have been puzzling me for a long time?

1.Your brother says a great deal about “as if” and “as though” in M. E. U.[14] But in all the illustrative sentences the verb in the principal clause is in the present tense. It is certain that we should say “He acts as if (or though) he were (or was) mad” instead of “He acts as if (or though) he is mad”. It seems but natural that if the “acts” is changed to “acted”, the “were” or “was” should be changed to “had been”; but I have never found this statement in any grammar nor do I think I have ever seen “had been” actually used in this construction. Professor Jespersen says in his Essentials of English Grammar[15] that “sometimes the unreality may refer to some time in the past, and then was is preferred to were” and quotes Macaulay[16], “Frederic would, he said, stand by[17] her … as if he was not already bound to stand by her”. Would Macaulay have been right if he had written “had been” instead of “was”?

2.The use of the past tense in such a sentence as “It is time we went to bed” is curious[18] but idiomatic. Professor Jespersen calls it an “interesting use”. I have seen sentences like “It is you that went, not I” and “Is this the way we did it?”, but Professor Jespersen does not give any example of the “interesting use” that is not preceded by “it is time”. Could you tell me anything on this point?

As has always been the case,[19] I must devote the concluding part of my letter to a few points in C. O. D.

1.Col. Le Mesurier says in his preface to the third edition that it is “distinguished partly by changes in the text”. I have searched for such changes, but in vain; I have discovered only the correction of a single misprint. I wonder whether this edition can really be called a revised edition.

2.In the preface to the first edition, the first sentence under ETYMOLOGY [20] is “Etymology is given in square brackets at the end of each article”. A few paragraphs later, there is a passage explaining the use of “hence” etc. in introducing derivatives[21], this would lead the readers to think that the derivatives are given in square brackets together with the etymology of the main word, which is not the fact.[22] I suggest that the said passage be removed to some other part of the preface.

3.“business”. “Everybody’s business is nobody’s business[23]” should be inserted. (Please see the cross reference[24] under “no”.)

4.“certify”. I think the intransitive use of this word should be mentioned; it is very common, as you must know.

5.“help”. I think that it is desirable to mention that the infinitive after this verb may or may not have “to”. If Matthew Arnold[25] omitted it, the omission cannot be called U. S.

6.“immediately”. Though condemned by grammarians, the conjunctive use of this word is quite common and therefore worthy of record.

7.“this”. “This … that …” in the sense of “the former … the latter …” and “the latter … the former …” seems to call for comment.[26]

8.“write”. The explanation of “writes a good, niggling[27], etc., hand[28]” is “produces good etc. writing”. This seems to me to be ambiguous; for “writing” may mean literary work as well as handwriting. You might contend[29] that the word “hand” can mislead no-one; but I should be ready to say “For those who know what ‘hand’ here means, the explanation may as well be omitted altogether”.

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

P. S.[30] I am well aware that C. O. D. is not likely to be reset for some time to come[31]; but I hope that the points I have raised will prove helpful to you in writing your new dictionary.

[1]hundred and one: 许多

[2]cheap: 无价值的

[3]is little more than the proverbial Greek: 不甚胜于成语中之希腊文；不甚明白 (“proverbial Greek”指“Greek to me”一语而言)

[4]William Cowper received his mother’s in his fifty-ninth year: 参阅《葛传椝英文学习法》中“Some Longer English Lyrics”述及 Cowper 之处

[5]feel bound to …: 觉必须……

[6]have little cause to feel surprised: 不甚有感觉奇怪之理由；不应引为奇怪

[7]pai-hua: 白话

[8]neo-literary: 新的文学的

[9]For my part: 就我而言

[10]gathered: 推测

[11]Professor Jespersen’s famous work in four volumes: 指Jespersen 所著 A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles

[12]is too “revolutionary” in treatment to have general appeal: 编法太与众不同，故不能被一般人所爱好

[13]at once … and …: 即……而又……

[14]M. E. U. = A Dictionary of Modern English Usage

[15]Essentials of English Grammar: 此书系英国 George Allen ＆ Unwin Ltd 出版

[16]Macaulay: 即Thomas Babington Macaulay，英国文学家兼政治家，生于 1800 年，卒于 1859 年

[17]stand by: 拥护

[18]curious: 奇怪的

[19]As has always been the case: 以前常如此

[20]Etymology: 语源

[21]derivatives: 由他字转来之字

[22]which is not the fact: 事实并不如是

[23]Everybody’s business is nobody’s business: 人人所应共为之事，必至人人不为

[24]cross reference: 参阅

[25]Matthew Arnold: 英国文学家，生于 1822 年，卒于 1888 年

[26]call for comment: 应加评述

[27]niggling: 小而密的

[28]hand: 书法

[29]contend: 力言

[30]P. S. = Postscript: 附启

[31]is not likely to be reset for some time to come: 暂不重排

LETTER TO MR A. J. FOWLER

August 24, 1936

Dear Mr Fowler,

It is several weeks since your letter of June the third came. I waited for my Present-day English Prose[1] to appear before writing to you again. The book was out[2] this morning, and I hasten to send you a copy.

Of course you cannot follow[3] my Chinese notes, nor do I think you would care to[4], if you could, as they are intended to help Chinese students rather than Englishmen or Americans. Still I wish you could find time to read the long introduction, and I am sure that you will be interested to read what I say about your brother.

You called the English language “wildly illogical”. I think the chief difficulty in teaching English to the Chinese lies in the fact that they have too logical a mind to learn illogical things. The other day I received a letter from a man who, having found me condemning somewhere the sentence “Allow me to introduce you Mr …” as wrong, gave “He wrote me a letter” to justify the sentence. He must think that because “write” can take a double object “introduce” cannot be possibly wrong if it takes a double object. Usage cannot be over-emphasized[5], and yet most Chinese students of English do not care about it at all. I am preparing a little dictionary of English usage, which I hope will prove of great help to them. I hope you will not think me crazy if I say that this is the kind of book that no Englishman or American can be expected to write, and that it will be far more useful than your brother’s famous book on usage; for it is only persons who often have occasion[6] to read essays and letters written by Chinese that can find out where the shoe pinches.[7] As a specimen of “Chinese English”, I am enclosing a short essay, which you will surely find amusingly ill-written, but which is not very poor work for the average Chinese college student.

You did not speak of my request for your portrait. I still hope you can send me one.

As to my second question, you do not seem to have got my idea. What I wanted to know was whether sentences like “It is you that went, not I” and “Is this the way we did it?” are quite common or not.

Here are another two questions that I hope you will kindly answer:

1.A Chinese professor of English told me some time ago that an English friend of his had corrected his “practice in correct English” into “practice to correct English”. I simply cannot understand this correction, and wonder whether the Englishman was not somehow preoccupied[8] when making it.

2.As you know, the final s in “boys”, “girls”, “days”, “letters”, and many other words should be sounded as [z], not [s]. Can you tell me whether there are Englishmen who sound the s as [s] instead of as [z].

With warm regards, I am

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Present-day English Prose:《现代英文选注》

[2]out: 出版

[3]follow: 了解

[4]to = to follow my Chinese notes

[5]cannot be over-emphasized: 极应注意

[6]have occasion: 须

[7]where the shoe pinches: 困难之所在

[8]somehow preoccupied: 心中另有所思；心神不定

LETTER TO DR LIN YUTANG[1]

June 28, 1935

Dear Dr Lin,

Please accept the accompanying copy of my How to Master English Without a Teacher [2], which is just off the press[3].

While I am well aware how much occupied you are with such hitherto too much neglected authors as 袁中郎[4] and 金圣叹[5], I hope that you will manage to spare half an hour to read my book through. I flatter myself that this is the only book of its kind ever published, though it is very likely to be regarded as a book of the 百日通 type by those who are in the habit of condemning, or praising, a book without having so much as[6] looked into it.

I am sure that you are a man of perfect honesty, and I should be the last man in the world to think of[7] soliciting any unjustified eulogy from you. But if you are favourably impressed with my book, I should feel very much obliged if you would let me have one or two “favourable” remarks[8], for I believe a word from a man of your reputation is bound to carry great weight.[9]

Yours sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Lin Yutang: 林语堂(中国人)

[2]How to Master English Without a Teacher:《怎样读通英文》

[3]off the press: 出版

[4]袁中郎：即袁宏道，明末文学家

[5]金圣叹：明末文学家

[6]without so much as …: 竟未……

[7]I should be the last man in the world to think of …: 我乃天下之最不欲……者

[8]remarks: 评语

[9]is bound to carry great weight: 必甚有力

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG[1]

February 17, 1936

Dear Mr Su,

Both you and I being interested in grammar and grammatical tricks, let me venture a piece of jugglery[2] before I go further. You wrote “You may well imagine how much I am missing[3] you”. I am also missing you very much, but I feel inclined to say “You cannot imagine …” instead of “You may well imagine …”. No-one at all sane would say[4] that “cannot” and “may well” have the same meaning, but I defy you to[5] point out any difference between your way of expression and mine.

The scientist follows the grammarian. Despite Professor Einstein’s revolutionary theory of the nature of space and time,[6] it does not seem to be possible that a letter can be posted before it is written. But the impossible[7] has happened in the case of [8] your letter: it is dated February 15, but the envelope is postmarked February 14.I wonder why I did not receive it on February 13.

You are now teaching school, as the Americans say.[9] As you teach students from all parts of the country, you may be said to 得天下英才而教育之[10], especially because the subject you teach is English. You once jestingly applied the same quotation to me in connexion with[11] my composition correction department and question department in The Chung Hwa English Weekly; hence the tit for tat.[12]

I envy you your position, and that[13] not only because you enjoy a higher salary than I do, but also because of the fact that while you deal with persons in the flesh[14], I deal with persons on the paper. Some, if not most, of your pupils will understand you and love you. But I don’t think any of my readers can form a good idea of [15] what kind of a man I am. The composition correction department and the question department may be likened to a curtain behind which a god or a gramophone[16] speaks. If none of your pupils ever see a halo[17] round your head, you are never in danger of [18] being regarded as any sort of automatic instrument[19].

I am as busy as ever. My evenings are not longer than yours, but I have lots of things[20] to do. Besides acting as a god or a gramophone in the Weekly, I am engaged upon[21] three books, all of which I am required to complete as soon as possible. First, I am preparing an edition of my shorter English works[22], mostly essays, for the Chung Hwa Book Company. Second, I am compiling a book of corrected English compositions[23] for the Ching Wen Book Company. Third, I am writing, for the World Book Company, a series of letters supposed to be exchanged between two students of the English language and its literature.

I am old-fashioned enough to be glad to hear that you have bought A Complete Dictionary of Chinese Rhymes[24]. This book used to be my constant companion before I began to live on my English[25]. If I ever write an essay on “Dictionaries That I Have Loved”, I shall have to give it a place prior to that of any English dictionary. As you know only too[26] well, I learnt Chinese verse-writing long before I read any English poem. You are one of a very few men with whom I can talk freely about 五言八韵 as well as the sonnet[27] and the Spenserian stanza[28]. You must well remember the various slight occasions when I improvised[29] a doggerel 绝 or 律. By the way, whenever you write a Chinese poem, please send me a copy. Yangchow[30] is surely a far better place for a Chinese poet than Shanghai, though you could never write such a verse as 电影空教听有声 in Yangchow — but then this verse is not good poetry, though technically perfect.

Thanks for asking me to visit Yangchow. But you might as well[31] ask the house in which I live. (This idea is not mine, but Cowper’s.) Mr Tsou[32] has asked me to visit Kunshan[33], and Mr Chen[34] (I mean the man in postal service who writes good English) has asked me to visit Hangchow[35]. But, for the time being[36] at least, pressure of work does not allow me to do anything of the kind.[37]

My Diary[38] is selling like wildfire[39], and a second edition is being prepared. Have you read the book through yet? Did you notice an error in my “To the Reader”? I wrote “I had to add …” where I should have written “I have to add …”.

With best regards to you and to Mr Lee[40], who I hope knows enough of me not to[41] feel surprised at the many apparently crazy entries in my diary, I am

Yours ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Su Chao Lung: 苏兆龙 (中国人)

[2]jugglery: 魔术 (此处指戏弄文字而言)

[3]missing: 思念

[4]No-one at all sane would say: 凡头脑清醒者，决不言……

[5]defy you to …: 挑君者……之事 (意谓君必不能也)

[6]Despite Professor Einstein’s revolutionary theory of the nature of space and time: 虽有 Einstein 教授之对于空间与时间之异常之理论。(按 Einstein 即 Albert Einstein，德国科学家，生于 1879 年，卒于 1955 年，即发明相对论者)

[7]the impossible: 不可能之事

[8]in the case of: 关于；对于

[9]You are now teaching school, as the Americans say: 按“teach school”系美国习语，作“在学校执教”解

[10]得天下英才而教育之，此语见《孟子》

[11]in connexion with: 关于

[12]hence the tit for tat: 故作此报复

[13]that = I envy you your position

[14]in the flesh: 肉体上的

[15]form a good idea of: 深知

[16]gramophone: 留声机

[17]halo: 光轮

[18]are never in danger of …: 永无……之危险

[19]automatic instrument: 自动机器 (例如留声机)

[20]lots of things: 许多事

[21]am engaged upon: 从事于；著作

[22]an edition of my shorter English works: 我之短篇英文著作集 (即《葛传椝英文集》)

[23]a book of corrected English compositions: 批改之英文作文集 (即《英文改作详解》)

[24]A complete Dictionary of Chinese Rhymes:《诗韵全璧》

[25]live on my English: 借我之英文而生活

[26]only too: 甚

[27]sonnet: 十四行诗 (一种英文诗体)

[28]Spenserian stanza: 英国诗人 Edmund Spenser (已见前注) 所创之一种诗格，每节共九行

[29]improvised: 无预备而作

[30]Yangchow: 扬州

[31]you might as well …: (若君能招我至扬州则) 君亦能……矣

[32]Tsou: 邹

[33]Kunshan: 昆山

[34]Chen: 陈

[35]Hangchow: 杭州

[36]for the time being: 暂时

[37]pressure of work does not allow me to do anything of the kind: 我因事忙而不克作此种事

[38]Diary: 即The Diary of a Student

[39]is selling like wildfire: 销售甚速

[40]Lee: 厉

[41]knows enough of me not to …: 知我颇深，故不……

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

March 13, 1936

Dear Mr Su,

You must have said to yourself “I’ll out-kê Kê[1]” when you sat down to write your letter, which reached me on Monday. I appreciate both its humour and the spirit in which you tried to outdo me in humorousness.

Please don’t laugh at my adaptation of the Shakespearian phrase “out-herod Herod”[2], which, as you must know, has come into current use and given rise to[3] adaptations like “out-milton Milton” and “out-zola Zola[4]”. My name of course does not pass universally as typifying something, as that of Milton or Zola does, but I am sure you will not think me impertinent even if I call myself the greatest humorist in the world when I write to you.

Having read your letter, Mr Kwei[5] suggested that we might publish our correspondence in book form at the end of the year. I am very much pleased with this idea, which I hope will interest you too. I have already two books of letters to my credit[6] (Letters to a Friend and A New English Letter-Writer[7]), and hope to bring out a third in the autumn (I mean the one I am writing for the World Book Company), and now there is the possibility of a fourth. If I do not deserve the name “man of letters[8]” in the true sense of the term, I am at least a man of letters in the sense of one who writes letters and publishes them.

The possibility of publishing our correspondence, however, should not be allowed to affect its matter or manner. One who writes a friendly letter with an eye to[9] publication or even to the popularity of the contingent book is neither a good friend nor a good letter-writer.

On reading this preceding paragraph, I recall two items of interest, which I do not think it quite out of place[10] to mention here. You perhaps remember the little poem “The Blind Boy”, which you translated for a would-be[11] Chinese poet about two years ago. The author of that little poem is Colley Cibber[12], who is now chiefly remembered by his delightful autobiography (I have a copy of the Everyman’s Library[13] edition of the book). The other day I read in an essay of Augustine Birrell[14] that Cibber was thought by many to have lived the strange life he did simply in order to be able to write it.[15]

The other item is a joke that I found in a newspaper. A father reproaches his son for sowing his wild oats[16]. “I wish to write a book of Confessions[17] some day”, says the young man.

The second edition of my Diary is out. It is a cheap edition, price 50 cts[18]. A Mr Pai[19], known to me only by correspondence, who writes correct English and has a grammatical mind, has undertaken to review the book[20]. Mr Tsou made a similar promise weeks ago, but has not yet fulfilled it, and I am afraid that he is one of those who are always going to do something but never do it.

You correct students’ papers from morning till night, so that your letters are necessarily midnight productions. I am also a composition corrector now; that is, I am working on my book of corrected English compositions. You may not believe me, but it is a fact that I spend from five to ten hours on a piece of from 300 to 400 words; for in correcting one page of composition I often write four or five pages of comments. This task is not an attractive one, but I shall feel fully repaid if my book ever proves of real use to students of English composition.

I am glad that you and Mr Lee often talk of me. Now that[21] you mention that he spoke to you of catching me receiving my fiancée at the Commercial Press[22], I think of several little incidents that happened when we three and some others worked together. For instance, when once Mr Sze[23] was conjugating the verb “forget” loudly in allusion to Mr Hu[24]’s having apparently forgotten about some manuscript, the latter entered and we all had a smile. Another interesting incident was occasioned by the fact that a young man with the same personal name as you called on you to borrow money. On seeing his card, I versified. One poem followed another, till Mr Lee wrote two Chinese lines ridiculing Mr Yih[25]’s certain experiences with his bride.

Yours ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]out-kê Kê: 胜过葛氏 (确解观下文自明)

[2]the Shakespearian phrase “out-herod Herod”: 按 William Shakespeare (莎士比亚，英国戏剧家兼诗人，生于 1564 年，卒于 1616 年)所著 Hamlet 一剧之第三出第二幕中有“it out-herods Herod”一语，作“如是则较 Herod 王更为强暴”解；Herod 为古时犹太人之王也

[3]given rise to: 引起

[4]Zola: 左拉，即 Emille Zola，法国小说家，生于 1840 年，卒于 1902 年

[5]Kwei: 桂

[6]have … to my credit: 有……为我之所著

[7]A New English Letter-Writer:《新撰英文尺牍》

[8]man of letters: 著作家

[9]with an eye to …: 以……为目的

[10]out of place: 不适当的

[11]would-be: 自称的

[12]Colley Cibber: 英国文学家兼伶人，生于 1671 年，卒于 1757 年

[13]Everyman’s Library: 英国 J. M. Dent ＆ Sons Ltd 出版之丛书名

[14]Augustine Birrell: 英国政治家兼评论家，生于 1850 年，卒于 1933 年

[15]lived the strange life he did simply in order to be able to write it: 度其奇异之生活，其目的仅在为之作传耳

[16]sowing his wild oats: 作少年时代之放浪之事

[17]Confessions: 自白；忏悔

[18]cts = cents

[19]Pai: 白

[20]review the book: 为此书作评

[21]Now that: 既

[22]Commercial Press: 商务印书馆

[23]Sze: 施

[24]Hu: 胡

[25]Yih: 叶

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

April 30, 1936

Dear Chao Lung,

I sit down to my typewriter to write to you, and am not likely to do anything else this evening; I hope that wit and humour can be typed as well as handwritten. Before I go on to the letter proper[1], I think I must explain that I say “I sit down to my typewriter” simply because “a typewriter” would not be quite idiomatic here. The machine is no more mine than it is yours[2]; it is borrowed from a friend, who has kindly lent it me in view of [3] the fact that I shall very soon begin the life of a sort of free authorship such as I have wished for for a long, long time.

Nothing is farther from the truth than that I am now so well off [4] as to be able to afford idleness. The fact is that I shall work, and work very hard, at home every day, and even every evening. By “free authorship” I mean writing books of my own designing[5] as distinguished from writing and editing books designed by a boss[6]. However, I may at any time find it necessary again to look for employment; for there is no telling whether my home productions will always find a publisher, and manuscripts are by no means legal tender.[7]

For some time past I have been considering the feasibility of doing something that you cannot have ever thought will occur to me. In plain English,[8] I am planning a series of public lectures on the various aspects of the study of English to be delivered at Shanghai a few months hence. There will be about ten lectures, each to be delivered on a Sunday afternoon. And I hope that after each lecture there will be an hour or so set apart for a sort of face-to-face Open Classroom[9], which I think will prove especially serviceable for the discussion of points of pronunciation. The only difficulty to be expected is in choosing a proper place; as the lectures are to be open to the public, free of charge, I shall have to choose as cheap a place as possible; may some school offer me an auditorium free of charge!

My work on the book of corrected English compositions is slow — but not steady. Out of the seven evenings of a week I have to devote two to the Weekly, and the remaining five I have to spend in writing letters and correcting papers as well as in working on the said book. I really wish I could get someone to help me in the more mechanical part of my work, and as a matter of fact I have recently had two applications[10], one for typing as a labour of love[11] and the other for work as stenographer[12] at a small salary. But I can neither pay a salary, however small, nor tolerate the idea of having someone work for me without doing anything for him in return.

The man who applied for work as stenographer says he can write 80-90 words in shorthand[13] a minute. In my reply I have said that I don’t think there is much likelihood of his ever obtaining work in Chinese circles[14], as there cannot be[15] many Chinese who can attain that speed in oral composition. Am I right?

I visited Kunshan with my wife about a fortnight ago, and we had a very good time there.

I mentioned wit and humour at the beginning of this letter, but it is neither witty nor humorous. Is it because wit and humour are really incapable of being typed?

Yours ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]letter proper: 信之本部；信之正文

[2]is no more mine than it is yours: 其为我所有，并不甚于为君所有；并非为我所有

[3]in view of: 鉴于

[4]well off: 富裕的

[5]of my own designing: 我自己计划的

[6]boss: 主人 (俚语)

[7]legal tender: 法币

[8]In plain English: 明言之

[9]face-to-face Open Classroom: 面对面之公开教室

[10]applications: 自荐书

[11]labour of love: 为爱好 (非为酬报) 而作之工作

[12]stenographer: 速记员

[13]shorthand: 速记术

[14]circles: 社会

[15]there cannot be: 决无

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

May 26, 1936

Dear Chao Lung,

Your letter found me in bed and a fever. (No slip of the pen[1] here, mind[2], but only a piece of what H. W. Fowler called the well-worn “flood-of-tears-and-sedan-chair” pleasantry[3]; in plain English, an instance of syllepsis.) The fever is nearly completely gone, and I think that if I am not strong enough for heavier work I am at least in a position to[4] write a letter.

Thanks a lot[5] for promising to contribute a foreword to my Man and Student.

I shall remove on the 31st inst.; the new address is 29 Hart Terrace, Hart Road[6], near the north end of the said road.

Mr Yu[7] called yesterday afternoon and showed me your letter to him. I was very much interested to read about the details of your son’s engagement. You told me not to congratulate you. Well, to become a father, either in-law or out-of-law[8], is a matter of congratulation. I am sure that you feel very happy though you are well aware that you are in danger of becoming the proverbial deaf madman[9].

I have read your 七律 entitled 步臧退庵先生六十述怀原韵 with much pleasure and shown it to Mr Sze Ying[10]. Neither he nor I know what you allude to in the phrase 潘舆[11]；we think that you allude to a certain Mr 潘 who used to sit in his sedan-chair enjoying his well-earned retirement[12]. Please enlighten me in your next. Of course I do not think I can criticize your poem, but I hope I am not likely to offend you if I say that as it contains an allusion in each verse except the sixth, it will prove to some readers to be such that one cannot see the wood for the trees[13].

Between the writing of the word “trees” and my re-sitting down to go on with this letter, three things happened in my life: a call from Mr Yu, my supper, and writing a short letter to acquaint a friend with my new address.

I have taken much thought on the nature of the lectures to be delivered on the study of English. Perhaps I shall devote the first one or two lectures to a more or less systematic treatment of pronunciation. The lectures will be in Chinese, but I shall read aloud some selected passages, with as nearly south-England an accent as I can. I hope I shall succeed at least in teaching a pronunciation that is not quite unEnglish.

My wife joins me in congratulating you and your wife on your son’s engagement.

Ever yours,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]No slip of the pen: 并无笔误

[2]mind: 请留意

[3]well-worn “flood-of-tears-and-sedan-chair” pleasantry: 陈腐之“flood-of-tears-and-sedan-chairs”式之诙谐 (按“in a flood of tears and a sedan-chair”一语中之“in”对于“flood of tears”与“sedan-chair”之意义不同，此种句法，谓之syllepsis)

[4]am at least in a position to …: 至少能……

[5]Thanks a lot: 多谢

[6]Hart Terrace, Hart Road: 赫德路赫德邨

[7]Yu: 余

[8]either in-law or out-of-law: 此系谐语，实非正式之英文也

[9]proverbial deaf madman: 指“不痴不聋，不为家翁”一语而言

[10]Sze Ying: 施瑛 (中国人)

[11]潘舆：此典余初不知，旋据苏君来函云：“昔潘安仁以板舆迎养其母，后世之仕而迎养者，皆用潘舆之典。”

[12]well-earned retirement: 应得之退休

[13]cannot see the wood for the trees: 因树多而不见林；因细节而不见大体 (成语)

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

June 25, 1936

Dear Chao Lung.

Our letters have crossed;[1] you must have got mine this morning. I am sorry to hear that you did not listen in to my lecture on the radio, and wonder why in a big city like Yangchow no electricity can be had in the daytime. There is none to be had till towards evening at Kiating[2], but then Kiating is a small place.

I spoke about three quarters of an hour, clearly, rather fluently, and not without humour. Mr Kwei told me afterwards that if he had not known that it was I that was speaking, he might not have been able to identify me, and Mr Yu said that he could catch every word I said. I spoke rather discursively — much more so than the lecture will read when it is published in the Weekly.

Mr Hu lives only a few minutes’ walk from me. I called on him the day before yesterday and had a pleasant chat with him. He mentioned having heard from you regarding your excessive pressure of work. I am not quite clear as to the extent to which you feel yourself overworked[3]. I am always pressed for time,[4] and recently I have often been troubled with correspondence with people I don’t know. I am too small a man to bring myself to “unanswer[5]” letters from persons who think so much of me as to write to me[6].

Thank you very much for telling me what a certain teacher of rhetoric said. I fully agree with him. I am perfectly certain that if I were a middle school student I could hardly pass a joint examination[7]. No, humour can never pass any sort of examination and of course an “anti-rhetorician” would be a dangerous teacher. May my readers enjoy my books in their bedrooms as some of us do cheap and pornographic[8] literature and forget as much of what I say as they can when they are writing compositions or doing exercises in rhetoric!

Well, I remember the interesting letter that Bernard Shaw[9] wrote to the German Ambassador to England[10] on the occasion of the former’s seventieth birthday. It will appear in my book of present-day English prose.

I am expecting a letter from you every minute, I mean a letter in reply to mine of the other day. The chances are[11] that our letters will cross once more.

I am thinking of closing this, but I think you must expect a little humour and I should manufacture some here. “Keep the windows open” is perhaps a very common rule of health; but I am placed in circumstances that render it necessary for me to shut my windows from time to time, two chimneys opposite my room sending up smoke and soot continually. The family to which the chimneys belong is clearly a rich one. Well, the poet rises in me,[12] and I write impromptu[13]:

There lives a rich man whose fine foods

Are made by many clever cooks;

The smoke throws into nameless moods[14]

A man engaged upon his books.

Yours ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Our letters have crossed: 尔我之函在途相遇 (意即君寄信时尚未接我之信，我寄信时亦尚未接君之信)

[2]Kiating: 嘉定

[3]not quite clear as to the extent to which you feel yourself overworked: 不甚明了君自觉工作过度至何种程度

[4]am always pressed for time: 常无暇晷

[5]unanswer: 不回复

[6]think so much of me as to write to me: 因重视我而致函与我

[7]joint examination: 会考

[8]pornographic: 淫秽的

[9]Bernard Shaw: 萧伯纳，爱尔兰文学家，生于 1856 年，卒于 1950 年

[10]German Ambassador to England: 德国驻英大使

[11]The chances are …: 恐……

[12]the poet rises in me: 我欲作诗

[13]impromptu: 即兴而作

[14]throw into nameless moods: 使陷于不可名状之情绪

LETTER TO MR SU CHAO LUNG

July 3, 1936

Dear Chao Lung,

I am enclosing two press cuttings as requested. Please return them as soon as you can, since I have no other copies.

I consider it a pleasure to read the manuscript for your book on translation before it is set up[1]. As the title is How to Translate, I fancy that you will devote a large part of the book to explaining the how[2], won’t you?

Unless you have a very short memory[3], you must remember my quatrain[4] about the two chimneys opposite my room. The appetite of the family seems to improve with the warmth of the weather; for the cooking continues throughout the day-time, sometimes till as late as 10 p.m.[5] My wife and I often talk of removing, but removing, like many other little things in this life, is more easy to talk of than to do. And it is quite possible that we may find a house where there is no chimney trouble, but where there will appear soon after we move in[6] some kind of trouble the nature of which we cannot possibly dream of at present.[7]

Some time ago I did something that you have never done before. I mean that I visited a dancing hall with a friend. What I think about dancing you will soon learn from my essay on the subject, which will appear in the Weekly in a few weeks.

It is nearly nine, at which time my “office” hours start. Tata.[8]

Yours ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]set up: 排 (字)

[2]how: 方法

[3]short memory: 只能忆及近时之事之记忆力

[4]quatrain: 四行之诗节

[5]10 p.m. (= post meridiem): 下午十时

[6]move in: 迁入

[7]cannot possibly dream of at present: 决非现在所能梦想得到

[8]Tata: 再会 (儿童用语，此处系借用)

LETTER TO MR C.S. CHOSEN TSOU[1]

April 21, 1936

Dear Chosen,

In spite of the necessity I am under of [2] thanking you for the hospitality you showed us when I visited Kunshan with my wife the day before yesterday, this is not a mere bread-and-butter letter[3]. If I succeed in making it as entertaining as you can reasonably expect an English letter from a Chinese to be, I think I shall have fully repaid you for the time, money, and energy you spent to make our visit comfortable and pleasant. You are subject to sleeplessness[4]. Well, commit this letter to memory and read it — I mean mentally only — when you find yourself wooing sleep; for I venture to think that a friendly letter may prove a more effectual means of getting asleep than the dull 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., the counting of which you perhaps have practised often enough.

You kept saying[5] “Kunshan is not well worth visiting” as if you were the master or even the creator of the place. In my opinion, a place is worth visiting not so much on its own account[6] as for the person or persons whom one goes there to see. And in saying this I hope I say much.

How did you sleep on Sunday night? If we did leave something at Kunshan when we returned to Shanghai, it was a tired young man who was very likely to have a bad night[7] as a result of the walking and climbing during the day. We slept like a log[8]. If you did sleep ill that night, I think we ought to consider ourselves indebted to you for the sound sleep that we had, and this debt we cannot discharge otherwise than by sitting up far into the night[9] once or twice.

You said you could not help speaking English to me. I took great pleasure in speaking English too. But I am afraid that those who overheard us were not quite favourably impressed. Perhaps some of them took us for[10] clerks in foreign firms or men who somehow feel ashamed of speaking pure Chinese where there is company[11]. And the waiter at the eating-house must think we were commenting upon the dishes, the room, or even himself, though we really were doing nothing of the sort.

As you are well aware, I often make unexpected comparisons. Here I will make another, namely, between this letter and the sugar-cane that you bought for my wife to use as a support in climbing the hill. Having served as a stick, the sugar-cane was eaten — or, if I am allowed to do a little trifling with words here, I will say “The sugar-cane served first as a cane and then as sugar.” Now this letter will, like the sugar-cane, serve a double purpose: it will be both sent to you and printed in The Chung Hwa English Weekly, in which I wish this letter to appear because I cannot find much time to write it nowadays and yet I am sure that many of its readers always want to read something from my pen. As I am too busy to make a copy of this letter for the Weekly, I hope you will kindly send it to its editor as soon as you can.

Your ever,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]C. S. Chosen Tsou: 邹朝濬 (中国人)

[2]In spite of the necessity I am under of …: 我虽不得不……

[3]bread-and-butter letter: 宾客向主人道谢之信

[4]are subject to sleeplessness: 易于失眠

[5]kept saying: 继续言

[6]on its own account: 因其本身

[7]have a bad night: 夜间不能安睡

[8]sleep like a log: 熟睡

[9]sitting up far into the night: 至深夜始睡

[10]took us for …: 以为我侪系……

[11]company: (他) 人

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA[1]

July 12, 1936

Dear Sir,

It is perhaps no new thing for you to receive letters from strangers, but I hope this is among the first few, if not the very first, that you will have received concerning your newest “child” — College Composition[2].I am not one of your fellow teachers of English, but a young man who takes a “crazy” interest in the study of English such as is perhaps very rare among the Chinese.

To tell the truth, I have had enough of [3] books on composition and rhetoric and am always ready to say to anyone who asks me to recommend any such book, “The most foolish way of learning English composition is by reading books on English composition”. For what can unity[4], coherence[5], balanced construction[6], metaphor[7], synecdoche[8], etc., do for those who do not keep the idiomatic eye open when reading but indulge in forms of expression that would never occur to Englishmen and Americans? It was not without reluctance that I opened your College Composition when a friend of mine asked me to read it to see if it would be useful to him. Having finished it, I thought I would write to you about it.

Allow me to congratulate you on writing the book, which I consider the best book of its kind for Chinese students. But honestly I find only a few pages in it especially helpful to Chinese students, that is, those devoted to explaining unidiomatic uses of words. For example, you mention “I should like” on page 133; I fancy that there are ten Chinese students who know some rehetorical principles by heart for one who writes or says “I should like” when he ought to use this common expression instead of the simple “I like”,[9] I wish you had touched upon more of such points in your book; for I believe these are of much more value to Chinese students than any talk of rhetoric. You must be well aware that writers of books on rhetoric take delight in finding fault with[10] eminent authors. They may accuse some Lamb or Stevenson[11] sentences of lacking unity or coherence and tell the students to improve them. Now in doing the improving, the average Chinese student will more often than not[12] transform a purely idiomatic — though imperfect from a narrowly rhetorical point of view[13] — sentence into one that no-one born to the language would ever think of writing.

Under separate cover I am sending you a little book entitled A Book of Corrected English Compositions, which, at the risk of being presumptuous, I hope will prove more helpful to most Chinese students of English than the common run[14] of books on composition and rhetoric. Of course, you do not read Chinese, but I trust you can easily get someone to read the book and report on it.

Finally, I hope you will not consider me impertinent if I mention a few points in your book that do not seem to me to be quite the King’s English[15]:

* * * *

I should be glad to hear from you.

May your new book be received with as much warmth as the air is charged with these days.[16]

Yours very truly,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]Henry Huizinga: 美国人

[2]College Composition:《大学英文作文》

[3]have had enough of …: 已厌于……

[4]unity: 单纯

[5]coherence: 连贯

[6]balanced construction: 对偶句法

[7]metaphor: 隐喻

[8]synecdoche: 提喻 (例如以“sail”代“ship”)

[9]there are ten Chinese students who know some rhetorical principles by heart for one who writes or says “I should like” when he ought to use this common expression instead of the simple “I like”: 中国学生之牢记若干修辞学原理者，十倍于在当用“I should like”而不当用“I like”时书或言“I should like”者

[10]finding fault with …: 向……吹毛求疵

[11]Stevenson: 史蒂文生，即 Robert Louis Stevenson，苏格兰文学家，生于 1850 年，卒于 1894 年

[12]more often than not: 往往

[13]narrowly rhetorical point of view: 偏狭之修辞学观点

[14]common run: 一般

[15]the King’s English: 纯正之英语

[16]May your new book be received with as much warmth as the air is charged with these days: 但愿君之新书之受人欢迎，其热烈一如日来空中之热度。

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA

July 22, 1936

Dear Dr Huizinga,

I am very glad to hear of your desire to see me after you get back to Shanghai and fully appreciate the patience with which you answered my criticisms of points in your composition book. I know you by sight,[1] though I do not think you can possibly remember ever having seen me. To give you a “foretaste” of my appearance, I am very tall for a Chinese,[2] just as you are rather tall for an American. You have no doubt gathered from my former letter that I am keenly interested in the study of English. And when I say “English”, I mean English English rather than American English. This accounts for my writing “unfavourable” instead of “unfavorable” in my previous letter and for my suggesting changing your “older brother” into “elder brother”. (Please look up “elder” in H. W. Fowler’s Modern English Usage.) I do not in the least[3] belittle American usage, but the fact is that I somehow prefer British usage, in pronunciation as well as in diction (I wonder how many Chinese pronounce the sch in “schedule” as [sh]).

You called me “quite wrong” in saying that the second “for” in “… I am the man for the salesman’s position you advertised for in today’s …” may very well be omitted. May I offer a little explanation of my suggestion? “The salesman’s position you advertised” is English; therefore “the man for the salesman’s position you advertised in today’s …” is English, too. I may perhaps explain further that in view of the “the salesman’s position” the second “for” had better be omitted, and that if “a salesman’s position” were used, then the second “for” would be necessary. What do you think?

It sounds ridiculous for a young Chinese to criticize the wording in a book written by a well-experienced American professor of English. Please put whatever seeming impertinence you may discover in my letters down to[4] the genuine interest that I take in the study of English and in books on this subject.

Yours very sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]know you by sight: 见君则认识君；认识君之面貌

[2]am very tall for a Chinese: 在中国人中可算甚高

[3]not in the least: 绝不

[4]put … down to …: 将……归因于……

LETTER TO DR HENRY HUIZINGA

October 11, 1936

Dear Dr Huizinga,

I had been daily expecting a letter from you since I received Mrs Huizinga’s postcard saying that she would forward my letter and book to you in due time. A letter from you did come the day before yesterday, and I was very much impressed with what you said about my Present-day English Prose and the trouble you had taken to point out the misprints.

Concerning what you regard as misprints, I am inclined to mention two interesting points.

1.“12 a.m.[1]” is not a misprint, if what I find in the book from which the selection is taken is not a misprint. The book is A Century of Humour[2]. The expression seems to be illogical, but I suppose Englishmen do use it, don’t they?

2.I was greatly surprised to see the word “Zender”, which you call an unpardonable error. Well the error is neither the author’s nor the printer’s (or, to be exact, I should perhaps say the compositor’s), but purely mine. This is indeed an unpardonable error, and I am very much ashamed of it. But I think I can well account for it. The proper spelling is “Zenda[3]”, but in typing it I wrote “Zender”; for I must have been pronouncing the word mentally. In standard British pronunciation, as you well know, “Zenda” and “Zender” are pronounced alike, though you Americans pronounce them differently.

I am proud of having made your acquaintance and deeply appreciate your kind letters. I should like to know when you will come back to Shanghai.

Before closing, I have to ask you a question that has been in my mind for a long time. It is whether your surname is accented on the first syllable or on the second. It looks like a German name, doesn’t it?

Well, I have to mention another point here. You wrote “Dr Fowler”. In fact, he was a mere Mr.

Yours very sincerely,

Hertz C. K. Kê

[1]12 a.m. (= ante meridiem): 上午 12 时 (即正午)

[2]A Century of Humour: 书名，英国 Hutchinson ＆ Co. Ltd 出版

[3]Zenda: 指英国人 Anthony Hope Hawkins 所著小说 The Prisoner of Zenda 中之“Zenda”一字

PREFACE TO “LETTERS TO A FRIEND”

This little volume contains all my letters[1] to my friend Mr C. S. Chosen Tsou (formerly named C. S. Charles Tsou) from October 6, 1927 to January 9, 1930.They are here printed as I wrote them, except that all the slips of the pen have been corrected, and that here and there a proper name, a phrase, or a whole passage has for some reason or other been omitted.

Mr Tsou first wrote to me on October 4, 1927, and I replied to his letter two days later (see letter Ⅰ). A frequent correspondence thenceforth followed. I was then on the English editorial staff of the Commercial Press.

As can be seen from letter ⅩⅩⅥ, the idea of publishing my letters occured to me as early as August 1928, though “when I talked of the publication … I was not serious” (see letter ⅩⅩⅦ). However, as I wrote more and more letters to my friend, I considered the idea more and more in earnest[2], till on May 15, 1929 I wrote to request him “to send me, preferably by registered mail,[3] all my letters to you, including this, ever since the beginning of our correspondence” (see letter ⅩLⅤ). Somehow[4] he did not comply with my request then. Things happened to him and to me.[5] Our correspondence was suspended for a long time. It was not until November 2, 1933 that my friend carried to me the letters here published. We have so far met only twice.

It is but a few years since I wrote these letters, and I am not now twenty-eight.[6] But many passages seem to me as if they had been written ten or fifteen years ago. Perhaps many of the thoughts were merely passing thoughts, and I do not think I can now think them any longer.[7]

I am by no means proud of my epistolary[8] style. But I hope that my readers will find in these letters the naturalness and sincerity with which one cannot be expected to write so long as one writes purposely for publication,[9] but in which lies the chief charm of all friendly and familiar letters.

[1]all my letters: 按原书共有信五十七通

[2]in earnest: 认真

[3]preferably by registered mail: 以挂号信为最佳

[4]Somehow: 因某种缘故

[5]Things happened to him and to me: 彼与我均有事变发生

[6]am not now twenty-eight: 今尚不满 28 岁(按此序文系 1934 年 1 月所作)

[7]I do not think I can now think them any longer: 我恐现在决不会再有此种思想

[8]epistolary: 书信的

[9]the naturalness and sincerity with which one cannot be expected to write so long as one writes purposely for publication: 在有意著作时所不能得之一种自然与诚恳

PREFACE TO “A MODEL DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH PHRASES[1]”

I have read nearly a hundred pages of A Model Dictionary of English Phrases and take great pleasure in recommending it to those for whom it is intended. It is notorious[2] that many Chinese students of English regard correct English as merely a matter of grammar and vocabulary, and that they attach much more importance to[3] long and unfamiliar words than to everyday idiomatic phrases. This is partly due to the fact that while they do not know enough English to use dictionaries written entirely in English, most of what we call English-Chinese dictionaries devote too much space to the common and uncommon senses of words to[4] explain and illustrate idioms. It is hoped that this dictionary will meet a real need and prove a great help, and that[5] not only in reading but also in writing; for nearly all the idioms included are clearly and aptly illustrated as well as explained in simple English and simple Chinese.

That this dictionary is not exhaustive[6] is evident. But exhaustiveness is not always a virtue. Men talk of “sins of omission[7]”; I hope I may here risk a little play of words[8] and credit this dictionary with[9] a virtue of omission. I mean that it is free from obsolete[10] idioms, which are not to be found in current[11] literature, and of which beginners in English composition ought to see as little as possible.

[1]A Model Dictionary of English Phrases:《模范英文成语辞典》

[2]notorious: 人所共知的

[3]attach much more importance to: 较为重视得多

[4]devote too much space to the common and uncommon senses of words to …: 将许多篇幅，用于单字之寻常与非寻常之意义，因而不……

[5]that = will meet a real need and prove a great help

[6]exhaustive: 包罗万有的

[7]sins of omission: 应作而不作之罪

[8]play of words: 戏弄文字

[9]credit this dictionary with: 谓此字典有

[10]obsolete: 已废的

[11]current: 现代的

PREFACE TO “THE DIARY OF A STUDENT”

To begin with,[1] this diary is a purely fictitious one. It is supposed to be written by a middle school boy named Peter Chang. But he is not a real boy but a child of my fancy.[2] And his parents, his brothers and sisters, his aunt, his cousins, his friends, his teachers and school-mates — all these are children of my fancy too.

However, I hope you will feel as much interested in these non-existent[3] persons in the reading as I felt in them in the writing. If the diary is not real, it is nevertheless realistic.[4] I am well aware of the fact that its English and some of the thoughts expressed are too “Kêian” to conceal the identity of the fond parent of these children.[5] But mind,[6] if you regard it as a “work[7]” written for publication you will find the book less delightful than if you regard it as the daily record of what a real schoolboy does, sees, hears, thinks, and feels.

That many of the entries in this diary are humorous is evident. Often I simply cannot help being humorous. If you happen to have read anything I wrote nearly ten years ago — long before the term “humour”(幽默)attained, in this country, the popularity it now enjoys — you can easily see that by writing humorously I do not aim at being fashionable. If I am not mistaken,[8] English literature is essentially humorous, so that it is not quite possible for one who is deeply interested in the study of English literature to write with regular humourlessness. And in my opinion, nothing should be held sacred to one’s humour,[9] though it is well worth bearing in mind[10] that those who live in glass houses should not throw stones.[11] I have to add, however, that none of the shafts[12] of fun I have shot in the pages that follow are intended to wound anybody I know or simply know of.[13]

Nor must you think that I have included anything autobiographical in this diary. Peter Chang and all who are connected with him are creatures,[14] and the whole thing[15] is a creation,[16] of the brain of a man who only wishes he could live over his past fifteen or more years again and be an incarnation[17] of all that his favourite child, Peter Chang, is.

[1]To begin with: 第一；开首先说

[2]child of my fancy: 我之想象之儿；我之想象之产物

[3]non-existent: 并非真有的

[4]If the diary is not real, it is nevertheless realistic: 此日记 (中所记)，虽非真有其事，但亦合乎事实。

[5]its English and some of the thoughts expressed are too “Kêian” to conceal the identity of the fond parent of these children: 其英文及若干思想，颇有葛氏 (指余自己)之风，故不能掩去诸儿之爱父 (指余自己) 之本来面目。

[6]mind: 请注意

[7]work: 著作

[8]If I am not mistaken: 倘我所见不谬

[9]nothing should be held sacred to one’s humour: 对于幽默，不应视任何事物为神圣 (意即一切事物皆可作幽默之材料也)。

[10]bearing in mind: 识于心

[11]those who live in glass houses should not throw stones: 居于玻璃屋中之人不应投石。(英谚，谓讥讽他人者，须防自己之被人讥讽也。)

[12]shafts: 箭

[13]know of : 知而并不认识

[14]creatures: 被造出之人

[15]whole thing: 全物 (指日记)

[16]creation: 被造出之物

[17]incarnation: 化身

PREFACE TO “THE PEACOCK FLIES SOUTH-EAST”

Having revised the translation of The Peacock Flies South-east, I feel bound to make a prefatory gesture[1], though I am sure that I am not such a serious Chinese scholar as to be able to say anything new about the well-known anonymous poem upon which the play is based[2]. Fortunately, as regards[3] the approximate time of the composition of the poem and details of textual interest[4], it is the work of scholars to dig and to quarrel, not of one who edits an English translation of a play the subject of which the poem supplies.

The Chinese mother-in-law is a proverbially difficult person[5]; and it is but natural that one cannot help feeling for Lan Chi[6] and her husband Ch‘ung Ch‘ing[7] in the play. It would be interesting to inquire into the cause of the alleged eternal conflict between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law. To say that both are always to blame[8] is idle[9]. A certain Chinese literary woman says somewhere that the mother-in-law is apt to regard her daughter-in-law with disgust because she is apprehensive of being displaced by the latter in the love of her son[10], who has become less of a son simply because of the young woman he has happened to marry. There seems to me to be reason enough,[11] however, to believe that a daughter-in-law tries to kill the son in her husband[12] as often as a mother-in-law tries to kill the husband in her son[13]. But anything like a critical examination of the question is not here practicable, and I am no authority[14] on social and family problems.

In revising the translation I have aimed at faithfulness to the original[15], the authorship of which, however, I regret my inability to find out, though I have inquired of several men who are interested in such matters. The translator, the publishers, and I would fain[16] offer our thanks to whoever the author may be.

[1]feel bound to make a prefatory gesture: 觉有作一序文之必要

[2]the well-known anonymous poem upon which the play is based: 按“孔雀东南飞”系古诗十九首之一，不知谁人所作

[3]as regards: 关于

[4]details of textual interest: 文字上之详情

[5]proverbially difficult person: 人所共知为难于应付之人

[6]Lan Chi: 兰芝 (人名)

[7]Ch‘ung Ch‘ing: 仲卿 (人名)

[8]both are always to blame: 二人常有不是之处

[9]idle: 无意识的

[10]is apprehensive of being displaced by the latter in the love of her son: 恐自己之被后者 (指媳) 夺其子之爱

[11]There seems to me to be reason enough: 我觉颇有理由

[12]kill the son in her husband: 使伊之夫有失子职

[13]kill the husband in her son: 使伊之子不受其妻

[14]authority: 专家

[15]original: 原文

[16]would fain: 愿；欲

PREFACE TO “A CHINESE SCHOOLBOY VISITS ENGLAND”[1]

This little book contains a series of letters supposed to be written by a Chinese boy on a visit to England to his father at Shanghai, each followed by a short conversation concerning what is said in the letter. Its subject-matter is both interesting and instructive, but not half so childish as the title might lead some readers to think.[2] The style is simplicity itself.[3] And it is certainly worth mentioning that while the point of view is Chinese, the language is purely idiomatic.

I have read the entire manuscript along with the notes prepared by Mr Ching Tonlin[4], and am glad to be able to say that this book should prove popular with students whose limited knowledge of English does not allow them to read any modern English novel or short story[5] but who are too old to be interested in stories in which nothing but birds and beasts talks.[6]

[1]A Chinese Schoolboy Visits England:《华童游英记》

[2]not half so childish as the title might lead some readers to think: 观其书名，恐读者中有以为其题材乃有孩子气者，实则不然

[3]is simplicity itself: 极其浅显

[4]Ching Tonlin: 陈东林 (中国人)

[5]short story: 短篇小说

[6]nothing but birds and beasts talks: 唯有鸟兽谈话

勤勉求真、诲人不倦的“Mr. Right”

——葛传椝先生侧影

葛公传椝，清光绪三十一年七月十七出生在今上海嘉定区马陆镇。他既非声名藉甚的留洋海归，亦非德高望重的名士夙儒，但《英语惯用法词典》[1]足以奠定他在学界的地位。

葛先生出身寒门[2]，除幼时其母家中传授《弟子规》等古代启蒙读物之外，接受学校教育仅八年半[3](相当于现在的八年级)，故戏称自己的学历“Brevity is the soul of wit[4]”。1922年，先生考入北洋政府上海电报传习所当报务生，工作之余，在商务印书馆函授学社学习英文，也是在那里，他第一次在同学手中看到了英国著名辞典编纂家 H. W. Fowler 与其兄长 F. G. Fowler 合编的 The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English[5]，后来，他将该辞典中不少常用词逐一通读，此成其英吉利文字精进的“秘方”。1926年底，他通过自荐进入当时人才济济的商务印书馆英文部，初为人师，须不厌其烦地解答学员提出的各式问题，除了勤查《牛津英语大词典》，周越然[6]对其工作亦助益良多。后胡哲谋接任部长，安排他用汉语注解 Charles Cowden-Clarke 与 Mary Cowden-Clarke 兄妹合著的 Tales from Chaucer[7]，这是葛出版的第一册详注本。在商务做编辑期间，他注释过的作品很多，从托马斯·卡莱尔、简·奥斯丁到奥利弗·哥德史密斯、埃德加·爱伦·坡，皆因“一·二八”[8]而付之一炬，不免遗憾，国难后，他转入世界书局工作。在商务的五年，他答疑解惑、广泛阅读，在编辑原清华大学 Frank A. Lombard 所注《皆大欢喜》( As you like it)的过程中积累了丰富的素材，尤其是详细阅读了 H. W. Fowler 之 A Dictionary of Modern English Usage[9]，这为他日后从事英语语法、惯用法研究奠定了基础[10]。

民国时期的英汉辞典，大多由上海商务印书馆出版，包括当时盛行的《(求解作文两用)英汉模范字典》(1929)和收词达到 16 万的《综合英汉大辞典》(1928)[11]。直到 1936年，上海世界书局出版的《英汉求解作文文法辨义四用辞典》( A Daily Use English-Chinese Dictionary)才打破了商务“一家独大”的局面，蔡元培于扉页题字“择精语详”。据主编詹文浒前言，该书主要以《简明牛津辞典》为蓝本，历时五载，因释义精当，例证丰富而享誉海内外，印数甚众，葛是五位编者之一，其双语辞书编纂即始于《文法作文两用》[12]和《四用》[13]，自民国十八年以来，由葛注释、校订、出版的卷帙超过二十五种[14]，其中《怎样读通英文》(1935)与著名语言学家吕叔湘的《中国人学英文》(开明书店，1947)是当时最主要的两本英语入门读物。1941年秋，葛于上海大同大学[15]执教，继续在浩瀚的语言中遨游，细致入微地观察常用词的确义和用法的变化，享受蝇头小字所带来的乐趣。

1958年[16]，《英语惯用法词典》出版，这是葛先生在《英文用法大字典》之后潜心十六年，专为中国人学习英语而编写的词典，也是半个多世纪以来，国人解决各种“疑难杂症”的金针，甚至一度被奉为“圣经”。[17]十年文革，百废待兴，而葛主持的《新英汉词典》( A New English-Chinese Dictionary，1975，初版词目八万余) 却在“红色浪潮”中横空出世，编者中沪上英语名家齐聚一堂，而这本收录了大量英语新词新义的“私活儿”也取代之前流行的两本英汉词典[18]，成为新中国成立后，“洛阳纸贵”的中型英汉词典，惠泽几代学人和莘莘学子，当时《纽约时报》还报道了此事。其实早在六十年代初，他就决意编纂一部《英汉大词典》，且是独立研编而非以往编译自某部国外词典的做法[19]，终因教务冗繁，人手稀缺而止。多年后，葛见到陆谷孙先生之《英汉大词典》(上海译文出版社，1989)，不禁提笔感慨。时代的局限使得《新英汉》有很多地方不尽人意，如序言所说“在《新英汉词典》编写中，我们注意收入反映我国社会主义革命和社会主义建设，特别是反映无产阶级文化大革命以来新生事物的词语、例句……”，编者之一吴莹亦撰文称“……词典编写组内当时所参考的词典也都比较旧，参考书刊则主要是国内出版的《北京周报》和《北京建设》等。”[20]，但《新英汉》的经验得失也为日后英汉词典的编纂提供了重要依据。

也许是对字句的痴迷，1963年始，先生在《英语学习》[21]上专辟“问答栏”，到《英语世界》[22]上的“识途篇”，再到1978年由复旦大学外文系主办的《现代英语研究》，他提携后学，时常点石成金，幽默又不失严谨 (虽有时吹毛求疵)，他曾以 I can only plead meticulous accuracy[23]为题指出英国前首相丘吉尔之《各尽所能》(Every Man to His Post)一文中的语法错误：

原文：‘… I thought it improbable that the enemy’s air attack in September be more than three times as great as it was in August, …’

葛评：‘Grammatically the “it” after “as great as” refers to “the enemy’s air attack in September”, but could “the enemy’s attack in September” ever have been in August”? …’

而咬文嚼字、指谬析疑则更是葛的老本当，笔者从其《漫谈英语的准确表达》[24]中摘录一段可见一斑：

All the books are not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 (有的是我的，有的不是我的)。

Both (the) books are not mine.

这两本书并不都是我的 (一本是我的，一本不是我的)。

Every one of the books is not mine.

这些书并不是都是我的 (有的是我的，有的不是我的)。

这三句都很浅易，英语民族的人们一般决不会误解。可是我们汉语民族的人，很可能会有人用了汉语的逻辑，想当然地把上面三句分别理解为“这些书都不是我的”，“这两本书都不是我的”和“这些书每本都不是我的”。

葛先生随时记录，随时比较，数十年如一日，他晚年寂寞，心里却不忘增订自己的《惯用法词典》，可惜《英语惯用法词典增编》直到 1986年《现代英语研究》停刊为止，也只写到 Catch 条[25]。

葛早年对Fowler兄弟的两本书[26]质疑指谬而名声大噪，后来“连美国人编惯用法词典都要写信过来向他请教”，此误传邓大任先生已补正[27]，但葛先生曾复信指出《简明牛津英语辞典》(COD)和《袖珍牛津英语辞典》(POD)的疏漏乃事实确凿，手中的《文集》即为佐证之一，另外，《葛传椝英文通讯集》(上海竞文，1939)中的一段文字也很清楚[28]：

Below are some omissions in COD; I should like you to see if the same omissions do not occur in ODME.[29]

Block. The sense of a building, as in “a block of flats”; this sense seems to be English rather than American …

Per capila (or “per caput”), POD has it.[30]

又见 1938年8月28日信笺：

college. This word unlike “university”, is often used in the abstract sense, as in “he did not like college: he preferred to stay at home”. I wonder if this use is not more American than English.

谈到英文写作，葛觉得“affected simplicity”(刻意简洁)不好，“simplicity”还是好的，要“与其繁也宁简”，还说以前有位年长他二十来岁、英译《老残游记》的朋友，动笔就写“in the course of the month of February”这样的长句，为什么不写“in February”呢？[31]葛先生“从简”，在《文集》以及《英语写作》中也是这么身体力行的。他在《英文刍言》(1939)里指出，中国的英语学习者有两个误区：

One is that of trusting to so-called Chinese equivalents as given in English-Chinese dictionaries, the other is that of studying explanations in articles on synonymous but neglecting the illustrative examples.

葛建议大家多读“用英文写”的书，少读“研究英文”的书：

I would advise all learners of English to devote more time to reading books in and less time to reading books on English … This is due to their ignorance of the fact that without wide and careful reading the mastery of English is impossible.

1992年7月29日，与词典打了一辈子交道的葛先生于上海华东医院病逝。[32]

《葛传椝英文文集》原分三集，1937年由上海中华书局出版，其中大部分文章曾在当时商务印书馆主办的《中华英文周报》、《英文周刊》上登过，第一集除了两篇专文，余皆为信札(有八篇是写给 A. J. Fowler 的，可见其治学之勤)，第二集为随笔，第三集是英语杂谈和阅读体会。葛氏生前好友苏兆龙[33]序言：‘……君邃于英文规范，故为文清新纯正，不落恒蹊……’，此次上海译文出版社分别以《学习法》《随笔》《书信序言选编》重刊，读者幸甚。驹光如驶，鱼雁绝影，唯葛氏文风犹存，辄深神往。重执旧卷如遇故人，不胜今昔之感云。

郭奕

乙未年立秋于播州飘飞阁

[1]原名《英文用法大字典》，开始连载于《竞文英文杂志》(1937 年创刊，1939 年停刊)，1942 年由上海竞文书局集结初版，1948 年增订再版，1958 年重排再修订由时代出版社 (后并入商务印书馆) 出版，亦有台湾大东书局和香港商务印书馆 (1973) 版本，上海译文出版社后来又两次重印“简体字重排本”。

[2]据李荫华《永不知倦的酿蜜者——记英汉辞典编纂家葛传椝先生》(《辞书研究》，1983)。

[3]见葛传椝《我学习英语的点滴回忆(一)》(《外语界》，1986)。

[4]意为“言以简为贵”，语出莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》。

[5]一般略作COD，是最大、最权威的英语辞典——《牛津英语大词典》(Oxford English Dictionary ，即 OED) 的重要补充，1911 年初版，2011 年 8 月出百年纪念第 12 版。

[6]当时的英文科科长。

[7]即《乔氏坎城旅谈本事》，1929 年由上海商务印书馆出版。

[8]即 1932 年 1 月 28 日爆发的上海淞沪抗战，商务印书馆编译所毁于一旦。

[9]即《现代英语惯用法辞典》，1926 年初版，2015 年第 4 版。据《老生偶谈》(二)(《山东外语教学》，1984)，葛第一次接触到这本英语用法鸿著是在 1927 年。

[10]葛第一本专论英文法的著作《英文文法精义》(1931)在开明书店出版。

[11]更早的如《英华合解辞汇》(1915，有增订本)以及《英汉双解韦氏大学字典》(Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary with Chinese Translation, 1923)，亦由上海商务印书馆出版。

[12]詹文浒、葛传椝、苏兆龙、朱生豪四人所著《英文文法作文两用辞典》(A Dictionary of English grammar and Composition，世界书局，1934) 早于《英汉四用》。

[13]以香港世界书局《四用》增订版(1966)cut 条为例，共收短语 33 条，例证多达 65 条。

[14]除《英文致友人书》(中华书局，1934) 外，《英文报读法入门》(1935)，《英文学生日记》(1936)，《英文改作详解》(1936)，《全句注音英文会话》(1937)，《中国故事英译详解》(1939)，《现代英文选注》(第一、二集，1939)，《英文尺牍全书》(1940)，《日用英文习语》(1941)，《短篇英文百篇》(与桂绍盱合著，1946)，初中、高中、大学英文选三辑九册(1947–1948)，《英文作文模范》(1947)，《英文新字辞典》(1947)，《(作文应用)正则英文简明字典》(1947)，《中学英文名著选》(1948)等相继在上海竞文书局出版。

[15]当时有“北南开，南大同”的说法，1952 年全国院系调整后，其文学院并入华东师范大学。

[16]一年后，新修订本出版，凡 720 页，笔者抽查了 p.15–p.35 共 20 页的词条数，取平均数后估算出《惯用法词典》的词目约 3480 个。

[17]见严锋“回忆《英语学习》”。1960 年，北京大学西语系英语专业的《英语常用词用法词典》(商务印书馆)出版，但影响远不如葛。

[18]即张其春、蔡文萦的《简明英汉词典》(1963)和郑易理、曹成修的《英华大词典》(1950)。至 1979 年，《新英汉》的发行量已达六、七十万册。

[19]见《英汉大词典》编辑细则(草案)(《外语教学与翻译》1960 年第 1 期)。

[20]见吴莹的“试评《新英汉词典》”(《辞书研究》，1979)。

[21]1958 年在北京外国语学院创刊，是新中国成立后的第一本英语杂志。

[22]1981 年创刊，中英对照本。

[23]原载《英语世界》(1987 年第 2 期)。

[24]原载《现代外语》(1984 年第 4 期)。

[25]上海译文 1993 年出版了葛《简明英语惯用法》(原名《正则英文用法字典》)，但与《英语惯用法词典》不是一本书。

[26]即 A Dictionary of Modern English Usage 和 The King’s English。

[27]见《万象》，2005 年 11 月号。

[28]葛于 1937 年 4 月 24 日给 A. J. Fowler 回信，A. J .Fowler 是 H. W. Fowler 的二弟，详见拙文《H.勒梅热勒阁下致葛传椝的信》(《英语世界》，2013 年 8 月号)。实际上，与葛书信往来的远不止一位英语界人士，包括英国著名语言学家、辞典编纂家、The Universal English Dictionary 的编者 Henry Cecil Wyld 教授，葛在《英语写作》(原名《英文作文教本》)(1941)中特别提到过这本辞典。

[29]即 A. J. Fowler 当时正在编写的《牛津现代英语辞典》，因编者去世而未出版。

[30]《袖珍牛津英语辞典》有这个词，但《简明牛津英语辞典》却失收。

[31]见《改文杂谈》，原载《外国语》(1982)。

[32]《英汉袖珍词典》(江西教育出版社，1986)是目前能见到的最后一本主编署名葛传椝的英汉小词典。

[33]曾任上海商务印书馆英文编辑，著有《英汉汉英翻译举例》、《活用英文翻译法》等多种。